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Course Description: MATHEMATICS in The MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 - 2022

1. The document discusses the nature of mathematics as the study of patterns found in nature, daily life, and other disciplines. 2. Mathematics reveals hidden patterns that help explain phenomena in the world and simplify complex things by organizing regularities and irregularities. 3. Mathematics is used to describe natural order, make predictions, organize patterns, and provide tools for calculation and problem solving. It is done through curiosity, seeking patterns, and trial and error.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

116 views70 pages

Course Description: MATHEMATICS in The MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 - 2022

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Kyla Celebre

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__________________________________________________________________________ 1

_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course deals with nature of mathematics, appreciation of its practical, intellectual, and
aesthetic dimensions, and application of mathematical tools in daily life.

The course begins with an introduction to the nature of mathematics as an exploration of

patterns (in nature and the environment) and as an application of inductive and deductive
reasoning. By exploring these topics, students are encouraged to go beyond the typical
understanding of mathematics as merely a brunch of formulas but as source of aesthetics
in

patterns of nature, for example and a rich language in itself (and of science) governed by
logic and reasoning.

The course then proceeds to survey ways in which mathematics provides a tool for
understanding and dealing with various aspects of present day living, such as managing
personal finances, making social choices, appreciating geometric designs, understanding
codes used in data transmission and security, and dividing limited resources fairly. These
aspects will provide opportunities for actually doing mathematics in a broad range of
exercises that bring out the various dimensions of mathematics as a way of knowing, and
test
students’ understanding and capacity.

LESSON 1 The Nature of Mathematics PRELIM

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

INTRODUCTION
T oday’s lesson focuses on the
beauty of mathematics and how So how do these patterns develop? What sorts of
rules and guidelines, shape the patterns in the world
it shapes the world around us. around us?
To start with, watch Cristobal The topic that will be discussed for this week provides
Vila’s an overview of the growing body of evidence that
video clip, “Nature in Numbers”, mathematics is embedded in nature and in our
environment. The following shall be the flow of the
at http://vimeo.com/9953368. In discussion:
this video clip, basic patterns and
regular features of nature are What is Mathematics?
Where is Mathematics?
highlighted and illustrated in What is Mathematics for?
mathematical terms. It can also What is Mathematics all about?
be an effective way of How is Mathematics done?
introducing Who uses Mathematics??
patterns and numbers in Why is Mathematics important to know / learn?
nature.

One of the things about

Mathematics that we love the
What is Mathematics?
most as shown in the video clip Mathematics, developed by human mind and culture,
is its ability to reveal hidden is a formal system of thought for recognizing,
beautiful patterns in our classifying, and exploiting patterns. (Ian Stewart)
everyday life, the nature around
Mathematics is perceived as a study of numbers,
us. These patterns can be symbols, and equations, an art of geometric shapes
sequential, spatial, temporal, and patterns, a universal language, a tool in decision-
and even making and problem solving, and a way of life to be
linguistic. There are connections exact and

between things that don’t seem

connected, but can be observed
with the intellect of math. We can

therefore say that mathematics is

the science of patterns. precise.
Where is Mathematics?

LESSON 1 The Nature of Mathematics PRELIM

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

Mathematics is in every people’s daily task or activity. It is in nature, arts, music,

medicine, and in other disciplines. It is in our communities. Mathematics is everywhere.
Moreover, there is always a substantial interconnection and relationship between
mathematics, the world, and the universe.

Mathematics reveals hidden patterns that help us understand the world around us. Now
much more than arithmetic and geometry, mathematics today is a diverse discipline that
deals with data, measurements, and observations from science; with inference,
deduction, and proof; and with mathematical models of natural phenomena, of human
behavior, and of social systems.

Here are examples of some of these patterns and you may be able to spot a few the
next time you go for a walk.

LESSON 1 The Nature of Mathematics PRELIM

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

There is an organized pattern to explain

such phenomena and this is through
mathematics. It explains not only the
regularities but also the irregularities and
complexities in our world. It simplifies
complex things by organizing patterns. It
shows that there is a line that connects
everyone to one another and to nature.

Indeed, mathematics is a study of patterns,

an art, a language, a set of problem -solving
tools, and a process of thinking. (Nocon and
Nocon).

What is Mathematics for?

Mathematics is extremely useful in making What is Mathematics all
conclusions and/or prediction of the events
of the world. It is used to describe the
natural about
order and occurrences of the universe. ?
In addition, it is used to organize patterns
and regularities as well as irregularities, to
Mathematics is about numbers, symbols,
help us control weather and epidemics, to
equations, operations, functions,
provide tools for calculations, and to provide
calculations, abstractions, and devising
new questions to think about.
proofs.

LESSON 1 The Nature of Mathematics PRELIM

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

How is Mathematics
The Fibonacci Sequence
done?
Named for the famous mathematician, Mathematics is done with curiosity, with a
Leonardo Fibonacci, also known as penchant for seeking patterns and
Leonardo of Pisa or Leonardo Pisano., generalities, with a desire to know the truth,
this number sequence is a simple, yet with trial and error, and without fear of
facing more questions and problems to
profound pattern. Based on Fibonacci’s solve.
‘rabbit problem,’ this sequence begins with (Vistru-Yu).
the numbers 1 and 1, and then each
subsequent number is found by adding the
two previous numbers. Therefore, after 1
and 1, the next number is 2 (1+1). The next
number is 3
(1+2) and then 5 (2+3) and so on.

What’s remarkable is that the numbers in

the sequence are often seen in nature.

The Golden Ratio

The golden ratio, often represented by the
Greek letter phi (φ), is directly linked to a

numerical pattern known as the Fibonacci

sequence, which is a list composed of
numbers that are the sum of the previous

two numbers in the sequence.

When a Fibonacci number is divided by

the Fibonacci number that came before it, it
approaches the golden ratio, which is an
irrational number that starts out as
1.6180339887... and, once again, goes on
forever. Who uses Mathematics?
Mathematicians (pure and applied),
The golden ratio 1.618034 is also called scientists (natural and social), and
practically, everyone uses different
the golden section or the golden mean or
mathematics at different times, for different
just called the golden number. It is often purposes, using different tools,
represented by a Greek letter phi. with different attitudes. (Vistru-Yu)

LESSON 1 The Nature of Mathematics PRELIM

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

Why is Mathematics important to know or learn?

Mathematics puts order in

disorder. It helps us become

better persons and helps make
the world a better place

to live in. (Vistru-Yu).

If you are looking for more

information about
the mathematics behind
patterns, here’s a list of
patterns you see in nature
around you.

Nest built by bees

It is made by beeswax and is

composed of cells in the

shape of hexagon, sometimes
pentagon or

heptagon. The mathematician, Thomas Hales proved the honeycomb conjecture in 1999.
Mathematicians tried to prove this conjecture for
centuries.

LESSON 1 The Nature of Mathematics PRELIM

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

Flower’s petals Hyena’s spots

The number of petals of The spots on hyenas are
Tiger stripes a flower is observed to shaped and distributed in a
The stripes on a tiger are, in follow the following pattern that helps also with
general, evenly spaced and pattern: camouflage.
3, 5, 8, 13, …
perpendicular to the spine. which are numbers found in Snail’s shell
The stripes help in camouflage. They Fibonacci sequence. The snail’s shell has the
allow the shape of spiral. The radius
Human populations of the shell increases in
tiger to blend with its The demographic length as the mollusk grows
environment. distribution of people inside the shell.
in human
populations is Snowflakes
Weather patterns observed to follow a A feathery snow crystal
Weather is observed to repeat a pattern pattern. Poor nations which nucleated from dust
display a particles suspended in
for days, weeks, or months after which a
pyramid shaped the atmosphere.
new weather sets in. This sequence of
demography with the young Molecules in ice crystals
weather patterns produces a cycle, such occupying a join to form
as, dry monsoon seasons, summer– prominently large hexagonal structure which is
autumn– section of then repeated as the crystal
winter-spring seasons, the population. But accumulates more crystals
habagat-amihan wind as a nation progresses and grow in size.
economically, the base
patterns etc. thins out in favor of the
Sunflower older segments of
the population.
A sunflower displays many patterns. The
most prominent among them are intersecting families of spirals.

LESSON 1 The Nature of Mathematics PRELIM

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

INTRODUCTION

Language facilitates communication by understanding and conveying information and

intended meaning.

In Mathematics, the language for communication makes use of symbols and words which
should be understood and spoken by every learning individual. It is primarily designed to
facilitate the process of deduction by utilizing its elements (symbols) and making use of
rules and syntax to arrange the symbols into meaningful statements.
(Quintos, R. T. et. Al., 2019).

In understanding the mathematical symbols, CONTEXT (specific topic being studied or

considered) and CONVENTION (where the particular symbols will make sense or have
particular meaning) will have to be taken into account. (Quintos, R. T. et. Al., 2019)

Characteristics of Mathematical Language

It is non – temporal.
It has no emotional content.

LESSON 1 The Nature of Mathematics PRELIM

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

It is concise and precise.

It is non – temporal.
It has no past, present and future. There is no conjugation of words in Mathematics in the
manner that English has a conjugation of verbs.
It has no emotional content.
Math language carries no emotional content. It has no equivalent words for joy, happiness,
despair, or sadness. It also does not speak about values in the manner that people speak
about human values in society.

It is precise and concise.

Math language is precise and concise. It is exact and accurate in its statements and as a
consequence, it has no need for unnecessary words. This is not always helpful to students,
because being novice in Math they need a little more elaboration, more exploration and
more explanation from their teachers.

Mathematical Expression & Mathematical Equation

A mathematical expression is a number, a
variable, or a combination of numbers and variables
and operation symbols while a mathematical
equation is made up of two expressions connected
by an equal sign.

A verbal expression is a mathematical expression

that is expressed in words.

Table: Words and Phrases that Imply Mathematical Operations

Plus Minus
The sum of The difference of
Times Divided by
Increased by Decreased by
The product of The quotient of
Total Fewer than
Multiplied by Per
More than Less than
Added to Subtracted from

LESSON 1 The Nature of Mathematics PRELIM

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

EXAMPLE 1

Translate the following verbal phrases to Mathematical expressions:

Let n be the number
Verbal Phrase Mathematical Expression
The sum of a number and ten n + 10
The difference of a number and twenty n – 20
The product of fifteen and a number 15n
The quotient of thirty and a number 30 ÷ n
One – tenth of a number
n
The square of a number subtracted from ten 10 – n2
Thrice a number less than ten 10 – 3n
Ten more than the reciprocal of a number 1
10 + n
The square root of the difference of a number and six
Fifteen less than a number n – 15
Twice the sum of a number and fifteen
The square of the sum of five and a number
The sum of the squares of two consecutive numbers n2 + (n+1)2 n be the first
number n + 1 be the second
number
The cube of a number added to its reciprocal 1
n +
3

n
One – half of a number decreased by twice its 1 1
reciprocal n−2()
2 n

EXAMPLE 2
Translate key words and phrases into mathematical expressions.
Let n be the number
KEY WORD
OPERATION EXAMPLE TRANSLATION
PHRASE
plus A number plus fifteen n+15
more than Fifteen more than a number 15+n
the sum of The sum of a number and fifteen n+15
Addition ( + )
the total of The total of ten and some number 10+n
increased by A number increased by ten n+10
added to Ten added to a number 10+n

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

minus A number minus forty n−40

less than Forty less than a number n−40
the difference
of The difference of a number and forty n−40
Subtraction ( − )
less Forty less a number 40−n
decreased by A number decreased by forty n−40
subtracted Forty subtracted from a number n−40
from
times Five times a number 5n
the product of The product of five and a number 5n
Multiplication twice; double Thrice a number; triple a number 3n
(x) multiplied by A number multiplied by negative five −5n

of Three tenths of a number

n
n
the quotient
The quotient of a number and ten
of
10
10
divided by Ten divided by a number
n
n
the ratio of The ratio of a number to ten
Division ( ÷ ) 10
the square of; The square of a number; a number
squared squared n2

the cube of;

cubed The cube of a number; a number cubed n3
Powers ( x ) n

equals Five less than a number equals eight. n−5=8

is Five times a number is negative eight. 5n=−8
Equals ( = ) is the same as Five is the same as twice a number. 5=2n
yields Fifteen added to a number yields six. 15+n=6
amounts to Six less a number amounts to fifteen. 6−n=15

EXAMPLE 3
Translate the following verbal phrases into mathematical expressions:

LESSON 1 The Nature of Mathematics PRELIM

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_________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

Verbal Phrase Mathematical Expression

1. Three – fifths of four hundred
(400)
2. The sum of two numbers less fifteen Let x and y be the two
numbers
(x + y) − 15
3. Twenty percent of the total cost Let n be the total cost
20% (n)
4. Triple the quantity of sales less taxes Let x be the
sales y be
the taxes
3(x − y)
5. The difference of gross sales and total Let x be the gross sales y
expenditures be the total expenditures
(x − y)

EXAMPLE 4
Translate the following verbal sentences into mathematical sentences:

1. Fifteen percent of the total expenditures is P15,000.

Solution
Let x be the total expenditures
0.15x = 15,000

2. Gross income less taxes is P35,000.

Solution
Let x be the gross income
y be the taxes
x – y = 35,000

3. Marianne’s monthly salary is twice what Michelle receives in a month. Their

combined monthly salary is P50,000.
Solution
Let x be the Marianne’s monthly allowance
y be the Michelle’s monthly allowance
x = 2y

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x + y = 50,000

4. Jakob’s average of two learning tasks is 90. The first learning task is 10
points higher than the second learning task.
Solution
Let x be Jakob’s first exam
y be Jakob’s second exam

= 90
x = 10 + y

INTRODUCTION

In the late nineteenth century, A set is a collection into a Suppose an object x is an

whole M of definite and element of set A. This can
Georg Cantor was
separate objects of our be written in symbol as x
the first to realize the
intuition and thought. These ∈A which can be read as
potential usefulness of objects are called the “x belongs to a” or “x is an
investigating properties of elements of M. (Cantor, 1918). element of A”.
sets in general as distinct The words set and element
from properties of the are undefined terms of set In mathematics, it is
elements that comprise theory just as sentence, true customary to put a slash (/)
them. Many mathematicians and false are undefined terms through a symbol to
of his time resisted of logic. indicate the negative
accepting the validity of meaning of the symbol.
Cantor’s work. Now, Note So, if x is not an element
however, abstract set theory Cantor used the letter M of set B, then it can be
is regarded as the foundation because it is the first letter of written in
of mathematical thought. All the German word for set, symbol as x ∉ B.
mathematical objects can be MENGE.
defined in terms of sets, and
Following the spirit of Cantor’s
the language of set theory is
notation, let S denote a set
used in every mathematical
and a, an element of S. The
subject. object in a set can be
anything: numbers, letters,
For this week, we shall symbols, names, things, etc.
discuss the basic definitions These objects in a set are
and notations of set theory called elements or members
and show how to establish of a set.
properties of sets through Sets are usually denoted by
the use of proofs and capital letters, A, B, C, …, X, Y,
counterexamples, which, Z. The elements on the other
together1 The
LESSON withNature
functions form
of Mathematics
hand are usually represented PRELIM
the
No partbasic building blocks
of this E-module/LMS Content canofbe reproduced, byor lower case
transported letters,
or shared a, b,without
to others c, permission from the University. Unauthorized use of
…, x, y, z. Suppose an object
the materials, other than personal learning use, will be penalized.
all mathematical theories.
We start by introducing the x is an element of set A. This
notions of subset, can be written in symbol as
Set, Elements and Set Notation
Example 1
The set of all days in a week. SET NOTATION
A = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Sets will usually be denoted by capital
Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday} letters.

Example 2 Example
The set of all letters in the word A, B, X, Y,…..
MATHEMATICS
B = { M, A, T, H, E, I, C, S} The elements in a set will usually be
represented by lower case letters: a, b, x,
y,…..
Example 3
The set of positive integers
If we define a particular set by actually
Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …..}
listing its members, for example, let A
consists of the numbers 1, 3, 7 and 10 then we
Example 4 write
The set of integers more than 6 A= {1,3,7,10}
C = {7, 8, 9, 10,… } that is, the elements are separated by
commas and enclosed in brackets, {}. We
call this the tabular form of a set.
ELEMENTS
These are objects listed in a set separated But if we define a particular set by stating
by a comma. properties which its elements must satisfy, for
example, let B be the set of all even numbers,
Example 1 then we use a letter, usually x, to represent an
The set of all letters in the word arbitrary element and we write B = {x | x is
MATHEMATICS even }
B = {M, A, T, H, E, I, C. S}
The elements are M, A, T, H, E, I, C and S. which reads “B is the set of numbers x such
that x is even”. We call this the set-builder
form of a set. Notice that the vertical line “|”
Example 2
is read “such that”.
The set of all days in a week.
A = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,
The ellipsis (“…”) – is used to continue the
Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday}
pattern or sequence started definitely or
The elements are Monday, Tuesday,
indefinitely.
Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday and
Sunday.
The Three Set Notations
Descriptive or Rule
Tabular or Listing form Set-builder form
Notation
A is the set of five female A= {Michelle, Mara, Marielle, A= { x / x set of five female
names starting with letter M Mica, Meryl} names starting with M}
B is the set of values in the
B= {x | x set of values in the
equation 𝑥2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 B= {3 , 2}
equation 𝑥2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0

C is the set of prime C= {x | x set of prime

C= {2, 3, 5, 7,11…}
numbers numbers}

Empty Set, Finite Set and Infinite Set

EMPTY SET or NULL SET

A set with no elements.
A = { } or Ø

FINITE SET AND INFINITE SET

A set is finite if the number of elements in the set is a whole number. Otherwise, it is
infinite.
The cardinal number of a finite set A is the number of elements of set A and is denoted by
n(A).

Equal and Equivalent Sets

EQUAL SETS
Two sets A and B are equal (A=B) if and only if A and B have exactly the same elements.

Example 1
A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3}
Sets A and B are equal sets because they contain the same elements which are 1,2,3.

Example 2

C = {M, A, L, E}
D = set of all letters in the word LAME Sets C and D are equal sets, because they
have the same elements namely M, A, L and E.

EQUIVALENT SETS
Two sets A and B are equivalent (A~ B) if and only if A and B have the same number of
eleme
nts.

Example 1

V = The set of all letters in the word FEMALE.

F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 7}
Sets V and F are equivalent sets, because they contain the same number of elements
i.e. n(V) = n(F) = 5.

Example 2
G = A set containing the real roots of the equation 𝑥2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0.
B = { a, b, a, b}
Subset and Proper Subset

SUBSETS
Consider the following sets

U= { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 }

S = { 0, 1, 2 }
T = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }
From the sets above, it can be noticed that all the elements of S and T, respectively, are
elements of the Universal Set U. Hence, S and T are subsets of U, (S ⊆ U and T ⊆
U). Also, since all the elements of S are elements of T, then S ⊆ T. From these
relationships, we can construct a venn diagram for better understanding of the concept.
U
5 8 T
9 3
S
6 10 4 0 1
7 2

Notice that the smaller circle is enclosed in the bigger one. This implies that all the elements
enclosed on the smaller circle, in this case Set S, are also elements of the bigger circle, in
this case Set T. Hence, S ⊆ T. In the same manner, both circles are enclosed in a rectangle,
in this

case Universal Set U. Thus, both sets S and T are subsets of U. It must be noted that the
elements of U include all the elements in the two circles.

Definition
If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, if and only if , every
element of A is also an element of B.
Symbolically:
𝐴⊆𝐵 means that for all elements x, if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
The phrases A is contained in B and B contains A are alternative ways of saying that A is a
subset of B.
It follows from the definition of subset that for a set A not to be a subset of a set B means
that there is at least one element of A that is not an element of B.
Symbolically:
A⊈B means that there is at least one element x such that x ∈ A and x ∉ B.

Example 1
A = {2, 3, 4, 5}

B = {1, 2, 3 ,4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A⊆ B because all elements contained in A are also found in set B.

PROPER SUBSET OF A SET

Set A is a proper subset of set B, denoted by A ⊂ B, if and only if all elements in A are also
elements of B, but A ≠ B.

Example 1
A = {2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {1, 2, 3 ,4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A ⊂ B because all elements contained in A are also found in set B and A ≠ B.

Example 2
C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 3 ,4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

C ⊄ B because 10 is not an element of B.

Example 3

List down all subsets of set A = {2, 4, 6}.

Solution
Subsets of A
{2}, {4}, {6}, {2, 4}, {2,6}, {4, 6}, {2, 4, 6}, { }

NOTES
A set is a subset of itself.
An empty set is a subset of any set.

Example 5

Decide whether ⊆, ⊂ or both could be placed in each blank to make a true

statement.
a.
{a, b, c} ___ {a, b, c, d}
b.
{1, 2, 3, 4} ___ {1, 2, 3, 4}

Solution
5.a.
Subset (⊆) and Proper Subset (⊂). By the definition of a subset that all elements in A are
also found in B. And by the definition of a Proper Subset that all elements in A are also in B,
but A ≠ B.

5.b.
Subset (⊆). By the definition of a subset that all elements in A are also found in B. it does

not satisfy the condition of a Proper Subset.

NUMBER OF SUBSETS OF A SET

If A has n elements, then the number of subsets A has is 2n.

Example 1
A sports utility vehicle (SUV) manufacturing company in Japan offers 6
upgrade options to their standard SUV. How many different versions of the SUV can the
company produce?

UPGRADE OPTIONS
1. Heads-up display
2. Rear discs brakes
3. Air in, air out
4. Suspension lift
5. Rear camera and parking sensors
6. Underbody protection

Solution
Let A be the set containing all possible upgrades. Since there are 6 upgrades, a client can
choose any combinations of those upgrades or not get an upgrade at all.
The total number of different versions of SUV is the total number of subsets of A.
Applying the formula 2n, then
A = 2n
A = 26
𝐀 = 𝟔𝟒

Example 2
A sports utility vehicle (SUV) manufacturing company in Japan offers 6 upgrade options to
their standard SUV. If the company aims to produce 256 versions of the SUV, how many
upgrade options must it offer to its clients?

Solution
If there are 256 versions of the SUV, then the total number of upgrades is n, such that
A = 2n
256 = 2n
28 = 2n
n = 8 upgrades

Let U = {x|x is a Korean drama series}

Set A below contains the five nominees for best

drama series in the 56th Baeksang Arts Awards.
A = {Hot Stove League, When the Camellia Blooms,
Crash Landing on You, Kingdom 2, Hyena}

Set B below contains the five nominees for best

drama miniseries in the 15th Seoul International
Drama Awards.
B = {Hot Stove League, When the Camellia Blooms,
Crash Landing on You, Kingdom 1, Itaewon Class}

Set C below contains the top five Highest Rated

Korean Dramas in 2019 & 2020, ranked according to
IMDb.
C= {Hospital Playlist, Crash Landing on You, The
King: Eternal Monarch, Dinner Mate, Kingdom 1}

Notice that some drama series appear on more than

one of these lists.
A = {Hot Stove League, When the Camellia Blooms,
Crash Landing on You, Kingdom 2, Hyena}
B = {Hot Stove League, When the Camellia Blooms,
Crash Landing on You, Kingdom 1, Itaewon Class}
C = {Hospital Playlist, Crash Landing on You, The
King: Eternal Monarch, Dinner Mate, Kingdom 1}

Hot Stove League, When the Camellia Blooms,

Crash Landing on You are the Korean drama series
that are simultaneously in sets A and B.
We say that {Hot Stove League, When the Camellia
Blooms, Crash Landing on You} is the intersection of
A and B.

This is denoted by,

A ∩ B = {Hot Stove League, When the Camellia
Blooms, Crash Landing on You}.

Likewise,
A ∩ C = {Crash Landing on You}
B ∩ C = { Crash Landing on You, Kingdom 1 }

In general, if S and T are sets then

S ∩ T = {x|x ∈ S 𝐚𝐧𝐝 x ∈ T}.

Now suppose we merge all of the elements of A

with all of the elements of B to form a single,
larger set: {Hot Stove League, When the
Camellia Blooms, Crash Landing on You,
Kingdom 1, Itaewon Class, Kingdom 2, Hyena}

This new set is called the union of A with B, and

is denoted by,
A∪B

Likewise,
A ∪ C = {Hot Stove League, When the Camellia
Blooms, Crash Landing on You, Kingdom 2,
Hyena, Hospital Playlist, The King: Eternal
Monarch, Dinner Mate, Kingdom 1}

B ∪ C = {Hot Stove League, When the Camellia

Blooms, Crash Landing on You, Kingdom 1,
Itaewon Class, Hospital Playlist, The King:
Eternal Monarch, Dinner Mate, Kingdom 1}.

Note that in listing the elements of the sets

above, the order in which the Korean drama
series were listed did not matter, and it doesn’t
make sense to list the same film more than once
within the same set.

In general, for any sets S and T, then

S ∪ T = {x|x ∈ S 𝐨𝐫 x ∈ T}.

UNIVERSAL SET and SET OPERATIONS

UNIVERSAL SET
A universal set is a set of all elements
considered in a certain investigation or group,
and denoted by the symbol U. Cardinality
defines the total number of elements in a set.
Example
U = the set of digits in a decimal system
U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9}

SET OPERATIONS
We apply set operations in a manner
comparable with how we apply operations on
real numbers. The four (4) fundamental set
operations are the union, intersection,
complement, and difference of sets.

UNION OF SETS
Given two sets A and B, their set union,
denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set of elements that
belong to either A or b or to both.
A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

The word “or” in our definition of set union

using set builder notation is an inclusive or. It
means x is either element A or of B or element
of both.

Example
Let
A = {4,5,7}
B = {6,7}
C = {1,5,7}.

Find the following.

a. A ∪ B
b. B ∪ C
c. A ∪ B ∪ C
Solution
A ∪ B = {4, 5, 6, 7}
B ∪ C = {1, 5, 6, 7}
A ∪ B ∪ C = {1, 4, 5, 6, 7}
INTERSECTION OF SETS
Given two sets A and B, their intersection
denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of elements
common to both A and B.
A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Example 1
Let A = {a, b, c} TRIVIA
B = {b, c} The set is named after Georg
C = {x, y, z, a}. Cantor. Henry John Stephen
Find the following. Smith discovered it in 1875, and
a. A ∩ B Cantor first described it in 1883.
b. B ∩ C
Paradoxes about sets
c. A ∩ C The mathematician Bertrand
Solution Russell found that there are
a. A ∩ B = {b, c} problems with the informal
b. B ∩ C = ∅ definition of sets. He stated this in
c. A ∩ C = {a} a paradox called Russell's
paradox. An easier to understand
version, closer to real life, is called
DISJOINT SETS the Barber paradox.
Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is
THE BARBER PARADOX
empty. In the example we just did, sets B There is a small town somewhere.
and C are disjoint. In that town, there is a barber. All
Example the men in the town do not like
Find the intersection of the following sets. beards, so they either shave
themselves, or they go to the
Let A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} barber shop to be shaved by the
B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} barber.
C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
a. A ∩ B = {3, 5, 7} We can therefore make a
b. A ∩ C = {2, 4, 6} statement about the barber
himself: The barber shaves all
c. C ∩ B = { } or Ø men that do not shave themselves.

SET COMPLEMENT He only shaves those men (since

the others shave themselves and
The complement of a set A, denoted by A’, is the set of all do not need a barber to give them
elements in the universal set U that are not elements of set a shave).
A.
Example This of course raises the question:
What does the barber do each
U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} morning to look clean-shaven?
A = {2, 4, 6, 8}
B = {1, 3, 4, 7, 9} This is the paradox.
C = {0, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8} If the barber shaves himself, he
Find the following: cannot be a barber, since a barber
does not shave himself. If he does not
a. A’ shave himself, he falls in the category
b. B’ of those who do not shave
c. C’. themselves, and so, cannot be a
barber.
Solution
Source
U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} https://kids.kiddle.co/Set
a. A’ = {0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
b. B’ = {0, 2, 5, 6, 8}
c. C’ = {1, 3, 4, 9}

SET DIFFERENCE
The difference of two sets, written A - B is the set of all
elements of A that are not elements of B. The difference
operation, along with union and intersection, is an
important and fundamental set theory operation.
Example
Let
U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
A = {4, 5, 7}
B = {6, 7}
C = {1, 5, 7}.
Find the following.
a. U − A
b. U − B
c. U − (B − C)
Solution
a. U − A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9} − {4, 5, 7}
U − A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9}
b. U − B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ,6, 7, 8, 9} − {6, 7}
U − B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,8, 9}
c. U − (B − C) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9} − ({6, 7} − {1,5, 7})
U − (B − C) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9} − {6}
U − (B − C) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9}
VENN DIAGRAM
A Venn diagram uses overlapping circles or other shapes to illustrate the logical
relationships between two or more sets of items.

REPRESENTING SUBSETS ON A VENN DIAGRAM

U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
S = {0,1,2}
T = {0,1,2,3,4}
From the sets above, it can be noticed that all the elements of Sand T, respectively, are
elements of the Universal Set U.
Hence, Sand T are subsets of U,(S ⊆ U and T ⊆ U).
Also, since all the elements of S are elements of T, then S ⊆ T.

REPRESENTING SUBSETS ON A VENN DIAGRAM

U= { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 }
S = { 0, 1, 2 }
T = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }

Notice that the smaller circle is enclosed in the bigger one. This implies that all the elements
enclosed on the smaller circle, in this case, Set S are also elements of the bigger circle, in
this case Set T. Hence, S ⊆ T. In the same manner, both circles are enclosed in a rectangle,
in this case Universal Set U. Thus, both sets S and T are subsets of U. It must be noted that
the elements of U include all the elements in the two circles.

INTERSECTION OF TWO SETS ON A VENN DIAGRAM

The intersection of two sets A and B, A ∩ B, consists of all elements belonging to both A
and B. This can be represented in Venn diagram by:
EXAMPLE
If M = {vowels in the alphabet} and L = {letters in ‘algebra’ }, determine M ∩ L.

M = {a, e, i, o, u}
L = {a, l, g, e, b, r}

The elements in the overlapping areas of the two circles are ‘e’ and ‘a’.
Therefore, M ∩ L = {a, e}

UNION OF TWO SETS ON A VENN DIAGRAM

Let A and B be the two sets. The union of A and B is the set of all those elements which
belong either to A or to B or both A and B. It is denoted as A U B.

A U B = {all the elements found on the shaded

portion of the two circles}

EXAMPLE
If M = {vowels in the alphabet} and L = {letters in ‘algebra’}, determine M U L.
M = {a, e, i, o, u}
L = {a, l, g, e, b, r}
To get the union of M and L, just list ALL the elements found in the two circles. Hence, M U
L = {a, e, i, o, u, l, g, b, r}

COMPLEMENT OF A SET ON A VENN DIAGRAM

The complement of a set, denoted A', is the set of all elements in the given universal set U
that are not in A.

A' = {set of all elements located in the shaded portion of the rectangle }

EXAMPLE
If U = {days of the week } and B = { days not included
on weekdays}, determine B’.

The complement of B is the set of elements not

located in the circle (located in the shaded portion
of the rectangle), hence

B’ = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,

Friday}.

DISJOINT SETS ON A VENN DIAGRAM

Two sets are called disjoint if they have no elements in common. Thus, the intersection of
these two sets is an empty set, { }.

From the Venn diagram, the two circles have no overlapping area. This suggests that there
are no elements common to both sets. Hence, it can be said that A and B are disjoint.
EXAMPLE

Determine whether sets A and B are disjoint.

A = { x │ x is an even number < 10}
B = { x │ x is an odd number < 10}

A = {2, 4, 6, 8}
B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

From the Venn diagram above, there are no elements common to both A and B.
Thus, A and B are disjoint.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Use the Venn Diagram below to identify the
elements of the indicated sets
1. A ∩ (B U C)
2. (A’ ∩ B) U C

A = {K, P, N, V, R}
B = {N, V, J, H, T, Q}
C = {R, V, H, J, X}

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
1. A ∩ (B U C) A = {K, P, N, V, R}
B = {N, V, J, H, T, Q}
C = {R, V, H, J, X}
Step 1: Perform first the operation within a parenthesis.
A ∩ (B U C)
B U C = {R, V, J, H, X, N T, Q}
Step 2: Get the intersection of the union of B and C and A.
A ∩ {R, V, J, H, X, N T, Q} = {N, R, V}

Therefore, A ∩ (B U C) = {N, R, V}.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
2. (A’ ∩ B) U C A = {K, P, N, V, R}
B = {N, V, J, H, T, Q}
C = {R, V, H, J, X}
Step 1: Determine first the complement of A, A’.
A’ = {X, J, H, Q,T, E }
Step 2: Perform the operation within the parenthesis.
(A’ ∩ B) U C
(A’ ∩ B) = {X, J, H, Q, T, E} ∩ B
(A’ ∩ B) = {J, H, Q, T}
Step 3: Get the union of {J, H, Q, T} and C.
{J, H, Q, T } U C = {R, X, V, J, H, Q, T }

Therefore, (A’ ∩ B) U C ={R, X, V J H Q T }.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
The areas of a Venn Diagram are often represented as regions using Roman
Numerals. For each item below, identify the region in which it would be placed.

a. 6
b. 20
c. 30
d. 9
e. 15
f. 42
g. 210

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

a. Notice that 6 is an even number and divisible by three. Therefore, it is present on the
intersection of even numbers and multiples of three.
6 is in REGION II

b. Since 20 is an even number and it is divisible by 5, therefore 20 is an intersection of even

numbers and multiples of 5.
20 is in REGION IV

c. Thirty (30) is an intersection of all the sets present in the problem because it is divisible by
5 and 3 and it also an even number.
30 is in REGION V

d. Nine (9) is only divisible by three and it is an odd number.

9 is in REGION III

e. Fifteen (15) is a multiple of both 3 and 5. Thus, it represents an intersection between

them.
15 is in REGION VI

f. Since 42 is an even number and is divisible by three, therefore it is present on the

intersection of even numbers and multiples of three.
42 is in REGION II
g. 210 is an intersection of all the sets present in the problem because it is divisible by 5 and
3 and it is also an even number.
210 is in REGION V

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A travel agent surveyed 100 people to find out how many of them had visited the cities of
Tagaytay City and Baguio City. Thirty-one people had visited Tagaytay City, 26 people
had been to Baguio City, and 12 people had visited both cities. Draw a Venn diagram to find
the number of people who had visited:
a. Tagaytay City or Baguio City
b. Baguio City but not Tagaytay City
c. only one of the two cities
d. neither of the cities

Let M be the set of people who had visited Tagaytay City

B be the set of people who had visited Baguio City
U be the set of people surveyed

| M | = 31
| B | = 26,
| M ∩ B | = 12
| U | = 100

Hence number in
M only = 31 – 12 = 19
and number in
B only = 26 – 12 = 14.

a. Number visiting Tagaytay or Baguio = 19 + 14 +12 = 45

b. Number visiting Baguio City only = 14
c. Number visiting only one city = 19 + 14 = 33
d. Number visiting neither city = 100 – 45 = 55

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
In a survey of 500 investors, it was reported that 270 invested in stocks, 300 invested in
bonds, and 100 invested in both stocks and bonds. Use Venn diagram to answer the
following.
a. How many invested in stocks only?
b. How many invested in bonds only?
c. How many invested in both?
d. How many invested in neither stocks nor bonds?
e. How many invested in either stocks or bonds?

Let:
Stocks = S = |270|
Bonds = B = |300|
S∩B = 100

Hence,
S only = (270 – 100) = 170
B only = (300 - 100) = 200
a. How many invested in stocks only?
ANSWER : 170
b. How many invested in bonds only?
ANSWER : 200
c. How many invested in both?
ANSWER : 100
d. How many invested in neither stocks nor bonds?
500-(170 +100+ 200) = 30
e. How many invested in either stocks or bonds?
170 + 200 + 100 = 470

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A group of 62 students were surveyed, and it was found that each of the students surveyed
liked at least one of the following three fruits: apple, bananas, and cucumber.

34 liked apple
30 liked bananas
33 liked cucumber
11 liked apple and bananas
15 liked bananas and cucumber
17 liked apple and cucumber
19 liked exactly two of the following fruits: apple, bananas, and cucumber

a. How many students liked apples, but not bananas or cucumber?

b. How many students liked cucumber, but not bananas or apples?
c. How many students liked all of the following three fruits: apples, bananas, and
cucumber?
d. How many students liked apples and cucumber, but not bananas?

Since we don’t know the number of people who like all the fruits let us denote it as x.
STEP 1 Denote the total number of students who like the fruits outside the
circle which is
34 liked apples
30 liked bananas
33 liked cucumber
Take note that it would be the sum of each set or circle

STEP 2
Let us subtract x from the intersection of each set
mentioned in the problem
11 liked apples and bananas : 11 – x
15 liked bananas and cucumber : 15 – x
17 liked apples and cucumber : 17 – x
STEP 3
Since 19 liked exactly two of the following fruits: apple, bananas, and cucumber, then
(11 – x) + (15 – x) + (17 – x) = 19
43 – 3x = 19
24 = 3x
x=8

STEP 4 Solve for the number of the students who like only 1 fruit

Apple only = 34 – (9 + 8 + 3)
Apple only = 14 students
14 12
Banana only = 30 – (7 + 8 + 3)
Banana only = 12 students

Cucumber only = 33 – (9 + 8 + 7)
9
Cucumber only = 9 students

a. How many students liked apples, but not

bananas or cucumber?
ANSWER : 14 students
b. How many students liked cucumber, but not
bananas or apples?
ANSWER : 9 students
c. How many students liked all of the following
three fruits: apples, bananas, and cucumber?
ANSWER : 8 students
d. How many students liked apples and
cucumber, but not bananas?
ANSWER : 9 students

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Define a Cartesian product, a relation and a function;
2. Construct the Cartesian product of two sets or more;
3. Provide examples of relations and functions; and
4. Compare and contrast a relation and a function.
INTRODUCTION

T
he Cartesian product is named after René Descartes, whose formulation of analytic geometry

gave rise to the concept, which is further generalized in terms of direct product.

Source
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product

CARTESIAN PRODUCT, A x B
In sets, the order of elements is not important. In the ordered pair (4, 5) the element 4 is called
For example, the sets {1, 2, 3} and {3, 1, 2} the first entry or first component, and 5 is called
are equal to each other. However, there are the second entry or second component of the
instances in mathematics where the order of pair. Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (b, a) are
elements is important. For example, the pairs equal

of numbers with coordinates (4,5) and (5,4)

if and only if a = b.
represent different points on the cartesian
plane. This leads
Given two arbitrary sets A and B, the Cartesian
to the concept of ordered pairs. Product A × B is the set of all ordered pairs
(x, y) such that x A and y B.
An ordered pair is defined as a pair of
elements that occur in particular order. Ordered
pairs are A × B = {(x, y) / x A and y B}
usually written in parentheses.
The Cartesian product is also known as the cross
– product.
EXAMPLE 1 STEP 1
Write the cartesian product of the sets Determine the union of sets A and B
A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {2, 5}. (A ⋃B) × C = ({2, 3, 5} ⋃ {5}) × {a,b}
(A ⋃B) × C = {2, 3,5} × {a, b}
Solution:
A × B = { (2, 2), (2, 5), (4, 2), (4, 5), (6, 2), (6,
5)} STEP 2
Determine the cartesian product of sets {2,3, 5}
and C
EXAMPLE 2
(A ⋃B) × C = ({2, 3, 5} ⋃ {5}) × {a,b}
Let A = {H, T} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Write the
cartesian product A × B and cartesian product
B × A. (A ⋃B) × C = {2, 3,5} × {a, b}
(A ⋃B) × C = {(2, a), (2,b), (3, a),(3, b), (5, a),(5, b)}
Solution:
A × B = {(H, 1), (H, 2), (H, 3), (H, 4), (H, 5),
(T, 1), (T, 2), (T, 3), (T, 4), (T, 5)} b. C × (A ∩ B)
STEP 1
B × A = {(1, H), (2, H), (3, H), (4, H), (5, H), Determine the intersection of sets A and
(1, T), (2, T), (3, T), (4, T), (5, T)} B C × (A ∩ B) = {a,b} × ({2,3, 5} ∩ {5})
C × (A ∩ B) = {a,b} × {5}
As you can see from this example, the
Cartesian products A × B and B × A do not STEP 2
contain exactly the same ordered pairs. So, in Determine the cartesian product of sets C and {5}
this case, A × B ≠ B × A. Hence, the Cartesian
product is not commutative. C × (A ∩ B) = {a,b} × ({2,3, 5} ∩ {5})
C × (A ∩ B) = {a,b} × {5}
EXAMPLE 3 (A ⋃B) × C = {(a, 5), (b, 5)}
Consider the sets C = {a, b, c, d} and E = {1, 2}.
Write the cross – product C × E.
RELATIONS
Solution:
C × E = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 1), (d, 1), (a, 2), (b,
EXAMPLE 5
2),
Consider the sets A = {1, 3}, B = {3, 5, 7}. Find
(c, 2), (d, 2)}
(A × B) ∩ (A × B).
We can construct the Cartesian product of
Solution
more than two sets in a similar manner.
STEP 1
Determine the following cross – products:
Let A1, A2, ..., An be a collection of sets. Then
the Cartesian product of these sets with this A × B and B × A
prescribed order is the set of ordered n-tuples:
A × B = {1,3} × {3,5, 7}
A1 × A2 × ... × An = {(x1, x2, ..., xn) : xi Ai A × B = {(1,3), (1, 5), (1, (3,3) 7),, (3, 5), (3, 7)}
for each i = 1,2, ...,
n} B × A = {3,5, 7} × {1, 3}
B × A = {(3,1),, (3, (5, 1), (5,3), (7, 1), (7, 3)}
EXAMPLE 4 3)
Consider the sets A = {2, 3, 5}, B = {5}. Find STEP 2
the following sets: Determine the intersection of A × B and B × A:
a. (A ⋃ B) × C (A × B) ∩ (B × A) = { (3,3)}
b. C × (A ∩ B)
Hence, the intersection of A × B and B × A is
{ (3,3)}.
Solution
a. (A ⋃ B) × C
EXAMPLE 6 Solution
Consider the sets A = {2, 3, 5}, B = {5} and C= A × B × C = {(2, 5, a), (2, 5, b), (3, 5, a), (3, 5, b),
{a, b}. Write the cross – product A × B × C. (5, 5, a), (5, 5, b)}

Given two arbitrary sets A and B, a relation from A to B is a subset of A × B. A relation on A is a

subset of A × A.

Relation Representation
There are other ways to write the relation, apart from set notation, such as through tables, plotting
it on XY- axis or through mapping diagram.

Relation in Table Relation in Graph Relation in Mapping Diagram

EXAMPLE
Consider the sets A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {2, 5}.

A X B = { (2, 2), (2, 5), (4, 2), (4, 5), (6, 2), (6, 5)}

Define the elements of the following relations.

1. R1= {(x,y) / y
> x} 2. R2=
{(x,y) / x > y}
3. R3= {(x,y) / y = x}

Solution:
1. R1= {(x,y) / y > x} = {(2, 5), (4, 5)}
2. R2= {(x,y) / x > y} = {(4, 2), (6, 2), (6, 5)}
3. R3= {(x,y) / y = x} = {(2, 2)}

FUNCTIONS

A function f from X to Y is a relation from X to Y such that for each ordered pair (x,y), each first
coordinate x is paired to exactly one second coordinate y.

Note
A function is a subset of a relation. All functions are relations, but not all relations are functions.
EXAMPLE 1
Determine if each is a function or a relation.
1.
A = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)}
2.
y = 3x + 5
3.
x2 + y2 = 25
4.
y>x–1

Solution
1.
A = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,5}
x y
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5

From the table, each x-coordinate is paired exactly to one y-coordinate.

Hence, A = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,5)} is a FUNCTION.
2.
y = 3x + 5
Let’s try plugging values for x and determine the corresponding value for y. If x = 1, y = 8. Do
this for other values of x.
x y
1 8
2 11
3 14
4 17
From the table, we can see that for every value of x, there is a unique
value of y. Hence, the linear equation y = 3x + 5 is a FUNCTION.

3.
x2 + y2 = 25
If we substitute 3 as the value of x in the above equation,
x2 + y2 = 25

(3) 2 + y2 = 25

2
= 25 - 9
y

y=±4

If x = 3, y = +4 and - 4. Since there are two values of y for a unique value of x,

then x2 + y2 = 25 is a RELATION.

4.
y>x–1
There are several possible solutions for this inequality. Let us try the ordered pairs (2,3) and
(2,4).

If x = 2 and y = 3: If x = 2 and y = 4
(3) > 2 – 1 4>2–1
3>1 ✓ 4 > 1 ✓
There is more than one possible value of y for each
value of x. Therefore, the inequality y > x – 1 is a
RELATION.

EXAMPLE 2
Use the mapping below to
1. Determine whether the relation is a function.

2. Find the elements of A.

3. Find the elements of B.

SET A: Subject Number (x) SET B: Subject Code (y)

668

669
MATH 1013
673

678

968
SOMN 1013
969

970

GEOM 1013 822

1. MATH 1013 and SOMN 1013 have 4 and 3 subjects codes respectively. Each x – value
is not matched with only one y – value, hence this relation is not a function.
2. Set A contains the elements MATH 1013, SOMN 1013 and GEOM 1013.
3. Sets B contains the elements 668, 669, 673, 678, 968, 969, 970 and 822.

REFERENCES
Printed References
1. Quintos, R. et.al. (2019). Mathematics in the modern world. Bulacan: Saint Andrew
Publishing House.
2. Aufmann, R.N. et.al. (2018). Mathematics in the modern world. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.
3. Reyes, J.A. (2018). Mathematics in the modern world. Manila: Unlimited Books Library
Services & Publishing Inc.

Electronic Resources
1. Lippman , David. Sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021 from http://
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-hostos-introcollegemath/chapter/set-theory/
2. Khan Academy. Sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021 from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/probability-library/basic-setops/v/
intersection-and-union-of-sets
3. Pishro-Nik , Hossein. Introduction to probability: operations on sets. Retrieved February 5,
2021 from https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter1/1_2_2_set_operations.php
4. Svirin, A. Cartesian product. Retrieved September 20, 2021 from
https://math24.net/cartesian-product-sets.html

Learning Materials
1. Worksheet
2. Module
___________________________________________________________________________ 1
________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. distinguish between deductive and inductive types of reasoning;
2. identify premises and conclusions in logical arguments; and
3. solve number pattern problems by application of inductive reasoning.

LESSON 8 Inductive and Deductive Reaoning

INTRODUCTION
When we first hear the terms
“deductive” and “inductive” being
differentiated from each other, it
can be truly confusing. This is because
most times, we simply assume
the two terms are

synonymous to each other - that is,

that they refer to the same meaning.

However, they are very

much different. In fact, they are
opposites!

Deduction starts from the top, while induction begins at the bottom.

DEDUCTION and INDUCTION

Deduction starts from the top with clear rules.
Those rules are then applied to some observation in order to predict an outcome:
1. All students in this class play guitar. Paul is a student of this class. Therefore, Paul
plays guitar.
2. At the conference, all the people present are thirty or older. Maria is in the room.
Therefore, Maria is at least thirty years old.

Induction begins at the bottom with a set of observations.

And then, from those observations, a set of rules is inferred:
1. Every quiz has been easy. Therefore, the test will be easy.
2. The teacher used PPT in the last few classes. Therefore, the teacher will use PPT
tomorrow.

LOGICAL ARGUMENT
A logical argument is composed of the premise and the conclusion.
A premise can be an assumption, law, rule, widely held idea, or observation.
We can reason either inductively or deductively from the premise to obtain a conclusion.

DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Deductive reasoning is characterized by applying general principles to specific examples.
Deductive reasoning starts general and then gets specific.

LESSON 8 Inductive and Deductive Reaoning

EXAMPLE 2
All integers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. Therefore, 905 is divisible by 5.
Premise : All integers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5.
Conclusion : 905 is divisible by 5.
EXAMPLE 3
All home renovations cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my home
renovation will cost P200,000. Hence, my home renovation will cost more than Php200,000.
Premise : All home renovations cost more the estimate, and the contractor estimated
my home renovation to cost P200,000.
Conclusion : My home renovation will cost more than Php200,000.

EXAMPLE 4
Today is Friday. Tomorrow will be Saturday.
Premise : Today is Friday
Conclusion : Tomorrow will be Saturday.

INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive reasoning is characterized by drawing a general conclusion from repeated
observations of specific examples. This general conclusion is called a conjecture.

A conjecture is an educated guess based upon repeated observations of a particular

process or pattern. As a result of the conjecture being an educated guess from observation,
the conjecture may or may not be true.

Inductive reasoning usually takes specific examples, and then makes general conclusions.

EXAMPLE 1
Our house is made of rocks. Both of my next – door neighbors have rock houses. Therefore,
all houses in our neighborhood are made of rocks.
Premise : My house and next–door neighbors’ houses are made of rocks.
Conclusion : All houses in our neighborhood are made of rocks.

EXAMPLE 2
Matt leaves for school at 6:00 AM. Matt is always on time. Matt, then, will always be on time if
he leaves at 6:00 AM.
Premise : Matt has always been on time every time he leaves for school at 6:00am.
Conclusion : Matt will always be on time if he continues to leave at 6:00am.

EXAMPLE 3
During the past 15 years, a tree has produced mango fruits every other year. Last year, the
tree did not produce mango fruits, so this year the tree will produce mango fruits.
Premise : A tree has produced mangoes every other year for the past 15 years, and
the tree did not produce any last year.

LESSON 8 Inductive and Deductive Reaoning

EXAMPLE 4
Every windstorm in this area comes from the North. I can see a big cloud of dust caused by a
windstorm in the distance; so, a new storm is coming from the North.
Premise : Every windstorm in this area comes from the North, and a big cloud of
dust due to a windstorm is seen in the distance. Conclusion : A new storm is coming
from the North.

APPLICATION OF INDUCTIVE REASONING

NUMBER PATTERNS
Inductive reasoning can be used to determine the most probable next entry (or entries) in a
pattern.

EXAMPLE 1
3, 7, 11, 15, 19, ?
By observation, each number in the list was obtained by adding 4 to the previous number.
Therefore, the probable next number is 19 + 4 = 23.

EXAMPLE 2
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ?
Starting with the third number in the list, we can see that each is obtained by adding the two
previous numbers: 1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 2 = 3, 2 + 3 = 5, and so on. The probable next number in
the list is therefore 8 + 13 = 21.

EXAMPLE 3
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ?
In obtaining the next number, it appears that the previous number is doubled. Therefore, the
probable next number is 16 x 2 = 32.

EXAMPLE 4
3, 5, 9, 15, 23, ?
From the first going to the second number, 2 was added.
From the second to the third one, 4 was added. From the third to the fourth one, 6 was added.
It appears that the next numbers in the sequence are obtained by adding increasing
multiples of 2. Since the latest number was obtained from the addition of 8, the probable
next number is 23 + 10 = 33.

MAKING A CONJECTURE
Inductive reasoning can be used to make a conjecture. Recall from earlier: A conjecture is an
educated guess based upon repeated observations of a particular process or pattern.

EXAMPLE 1
Consider the following procedure:
Pick a number.
Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

LESSON 8 Inductive and Deductive Reaoning

Solution
Step In mathematical terms
1. Suppose we pick 5 as our original 5
number.
2. Multiply the number by 8 8 x 5 = 40
3. Add 6 to the product 40 + 6 = 46
4. Divide the sum by 2 46 / 2 = 23
5. Subtract 3 23 – 3 = 20
We started with 5, followed the procedure, and ended up with 20.
If we used 6 as the starting number, we end up with 24.
Starting with 10 produces an end result of 40.
In each of these cases, the resulting number is four times the original number.

Conjecture
Following the given procedure, the resulting number is four times the original number.

Using the data in the given table, apply inductive reasoning to answer each of the questions
below.
Length of Period of pendulum,
pendulum, in units in heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6

a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?

b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

NOTE:

The period of a pendulum is the time it takes

for the pendulum to swing from left to right
and back to its original position.

LESSON 8 Inductive and Deductive Reaoning

b. Basing on the table, we have these observations:

A pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period (=2 heartbeats) that is twice that of
a pendulum with a length of 1 unit (=1 heartbeat).

A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period (=4 heartbeats) that is twice that
of a pendulum with a length of 4 units (=2 heartbeats).
Thus, we make a conjecture that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles
its period.

FINDING A COUNTEREXAMPLE
To show that a conjecture is true, you must show that it is true for all cases. You can show
that a conjecture is false, however, by finding just one counterexample.

A counterexample is a specific case for which the conjecture is false.

EXAMPLE 1
A student makes a conjecture about the sum of two numbers.
Conjecture
The sum of two numbers is always more than the greater number.
Find a counterexample to disprove the student’s conjecture.

Solution
Selecting numbers –2 and –3.
(–2) + (–3) = –5
However, the sum –5 is less than the greater number, which is –3. Thus, we have proven with
this counterexample that the student’s conjecture is false.

EXAMPLE 2
Verify that each of the following is false, by finding a counterexample:
a. |𝑥| > 0
b. 𝑥2 > 𝑥
c. 𝑥

Solution
a. |𝑥| > 0
If we choose our x to be equal to 0: 𝑥 = 0
We know that the absolute value of 0 is 0 itself, so we find that 0 > 0 is FALSE.
We have thus disproven that |𝑥| > 0.

b. 𝑥2 > 𝑥
If we choose our x to be equal to 1: x =1
We know that the square of 1 is just 1 itself, so we find that 1 > 1 is FALSE.

c. 𝑥
If we choose our x to be equal to -3: x =-3

LESSON 8 Inductive and Deductive Reaoning

REFERENCES
Printed References
1. Quintos, R. et.al. (2019). Mathematics in the modern world. Bulacan: Saint Andrew Publishing
House.
2. Aufmann, R.N. et.al. (2018). Mathematics in the modern world. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.
3. Reyes, J.A. (2018). Mathematics in the modern world. Manila: Unlimited Books Library
Services & Publishing Inc.

Electronic Resources
1. Lippman , David. Sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021
from http:// https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-hostos-introcollegemath/chapter/set-theory/
2. Khan Academy. Sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021 from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/probability-library/basic-setops/v/
intersection-and-union-of-sets
3. Pishro-Nik , Hossein. Introduction to probability: operations on sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021
from https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter1/1_2_2_set_operations.php
4. Svirin, A. Cartesian product. Retrieved September 20, 2021
from https://math24.net/cartesian-product-sets.html

Learning Materials
1. Worksheet
2. Module

LESSON 8 Inductive and Deductive Reaoning

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. construct a difference table to predict the next term of a sequence;
2. determine an nth-term formula for a sequence given by geometric figures; and
3. generate the next numbers in the Fibonacci sequence

LESSON 9 Number Patterns

INTRODUCTION
TERMS OF A SEQUENCE

Source: https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/sequences-series.html

An ordered list of numbers such as 5,14,27,44,65, … is called a sequence. The numbers in a

sequence that are separated by commas are the terms of the sequence. In the above sequence,
5 is the first term, 14 is the second term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the
fifth term. The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65, which is the last
written term.
a1 represents the first term of a sequence. a2
represents the second term of a sequence.
a3 represents the third term of a sequence.
.

an represents the nth term of a sequence.

It is customary to use the subscript notation 𝑎𝑛 to designate the nth term of a sequence

DIFFERENCE TABLE
In solving for the next term of a sequence, we often construct a difference table, which
shows the differences between successive terms of the sequence.

LESSON 9 Number Patterns

Source: https://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/maths/sequences/revise-it/the-nth-term

EXAMPLE 1
Consider the sequence,
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …

Find the next term of the sequence

Solution
Sequence: 2 5 8 11 14 …

First differences: 3 3 3 3 ← 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒,

𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

Each of the numbers in the first differences is the difference between the two closest numbers
just above it (upper right number minus upper left number). In this case, the first differences
are all the same. Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict the next number in the
sequence, we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the sequence.

Sequence: 2 5 8 11 14 17 ← 14 + 3

First differences: 3 3 3 3 3

EXAMPLE 2
Use the difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …

Solution
Construct a difference table as shown below

Sequence: 5 14 27 44 65 …

First differences: 9 13 17 21 ← 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒
Second differences: 4 4 4 ← 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

LESSON 9 Number Patterns

To compute for the next term, we work upward. That is, we add 4 to the first difference, 21, to
produce the next term of the first difference, 25. We then add this difference to the fifth term,
65, to predict that 90 is the next term of the sequence. This process can be repeated to predict
additional terms of the sequence.

Sequence: 5 14 27 44 65 90 ← 65 + 25

First differences: 9 13 17 21 25 ← 21 + 4

Second differences: 4 4 4 4

EXAMPLE 3
Use the difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …

Solution
Construct a difference table as shown below

Sequence: 2 7 24 59 118 207 332 ← 207 + 125

First differences: 5 17 35 59 89 125 ← 89 + 36

Second differences: 12 18 24 30 36 ← 30 + 6

Third differences: 6 6 6 6

Adding 6 to the second difference, 30, will give us 36. Adding 36 to the first difference, 89, will
give us 125. And finally, adding 125 to the 6 th term of the sequence, 207, will give us the next term
of the sequence that is 332.

nth-TERM FORMULA FOR A SEQUENCE

In the first three examples, we used a difference table to predict the next term of the sequence. In
some cases, we can use patterns to predict a formula, called nth-term formula, that generates
the terms of a sequence.

EXAMPLE 1
Consider the formula an = 3n2 + n. Find the 40th term of the sequence.

Solution
The given nth-term formula defines a sequence and provides a method for finding any term of the
sequence. For instance, if we replace the n with 1, 2, 3 ,4, 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6, then the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛
generates the sequence 4, 14 30, 52, 80, 114.

LESSON 9 Number Patterns

EXAMPLE 2
Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in following figure continues.

Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures continues.

a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?
Solution
a. Examine the figures for patterns. Note that the second figure has two tiles on each of the
horizontal sections and one tile between the horizontal sections. The third figure has three
tiles on each horizontal section and two tiles between the horizontal sections. The fourth
figure has four tiles on each horizontal section and three tiles between the horizontal
sections.
4
3
2 3
2
1 1

1 2 3 4

= 𝒏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏) + 𝒏 𝑎4 = 4 + 3 + 4 = 11 ∴ 𝒂𝒏
=1+1= 2 𝑎2 = 2 + 1 + 2 = 5 𝑎3 = 3 + 2 + 3 = 8
1 = 11

Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by the formula an =
3n − 1

b. To compute for the number of tiles in the 8th figure, we replace the n in the formula by 8 a8
= 3(8) − 1 a8 = 23

c. To determine which figure will in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we solve the equation an
= 3n − 1 320 = 3n − 1 3n = 321 n = 107

Hence, the 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.

LESSON 9 Number Patterns

THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

Source: https://medium.com/better-programming/the-beauty-of-the-fibonacci-sequence-c6f95674b94e

Recalling from what we had learned in Week 1: Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World,
we studied about the Fibonacci Sequence and how it is often seen in nature.

The Fibonacci Sequence

Named for the famous mathematician, Leonardo Fibonacci, this number sequence is a simple,
yet profound pattern. Based on Fibonacci’s ‘rabbit problem’, this sequence begins with the
numbers 1 and 1, and then each subsequent number is found by adding the two previous
numbers. Therefore, after 1 and 1, the next number is 2(1+1). The next number is 3(1+2) and then
5(2+3) and so on.

The Fibonacci Numbers

The numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are given by the following recursive definition.

𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 3

LESSON 9 Number Patterns

EXAMPLE 1
Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh and eighth Fibonacci numbers.

Solution
The first six Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8. The seventh Fibonacci number is the sum
of the two previous Fibonacci numbers. Thus,

Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2

F7 = F6 + F5

F7 = 8 + 5

F7 = 13

F8 = F7 + F6

F8 = 13 + 8

F8 = 21

LESSON 9 Number Patterns

BINET’S FORMULA
We can find any term in the Fibonacci sequence by computing for the sum of the two previous
terms. However, this procedure of adding the previous two terms can be tedious. For instance,
what is the 100th term or the 1000th term of the Fibonacci sequence? To find the 100th term, we
need to know the 98th and 99th terms. To find the 1000th term, we need to know the 998th and
999th terms. Many mathematicians tried to find a non-recursive nth-term formula for the
Fibonacci sequence without success, until a formula was discovered by Jacques Binet in 1843.
The following formula is known as Binet’s formula for the nth Fibonacci number.
𝝋𝒏 − (−𝝋)−𝒏
𝑭𝒏 =
√𝟓
1+√5
Where: 𝜑 is the golden ratio = ≈ 1.618
2
𝒏 𝒏
𝟏
𝟏 + √𝟓 𝟏 − √𝟓
𝑭 = [( ) −( ) ]
𝒏 √𝟓 𝟐 𝟐
𝑛 𝑛
−𝑛 𝑛
Since (−𝜑) or will be too small compared to 𝜑 or , we can ignore it in our
calculations and just round of our answer to the nearest integer
Thus, the Binet’s Formula Simplified is given by
𝒏
𝜑𝑛 𝟏 + √𝟓 𝟏
𝐹 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 { } = 𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒕 { ( ) }
𝑛 √5 √𝟓 𝟐
nint is an abbreviation for “the nearest integer of”

EXAMPLE 2
Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the 20th, 30th, and 40th Fibonacci numbers.

Solution
Using the simplified Binet’s
Formula, n
√
Fn = nint ∗ nint = nearest integer of

F20 = nint

F30 = nint

F40 = nint

LESSON 9 Number Patterns

Polygonal Numbers
The ancient Greek mathematicians were interested in the geometric shapes associated with
numbers. For instance, they noticed that triangles can be constructed using 1, 3, 6, 10, or 15 dots.
They called the numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ... triangular numbers. The Greeks called the numbers 1,
4, 9, 16, 25, ... square numbers and the numbers 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, ... pentagonal numbers.

An nth-term formula for the triangular numbers is: n(n +

1)
Triangularn = 2
The square numbers have an nth-term formula of
Squaren = n2

The nth-term formula for the pentagonal numbers is n(3n −

1)
Pentagonaln = 2

REFERENCES
Printed References
1. Quintos, R. et.al. (2019). Mathematics in the modern world. Bulacan: Saint Andrew Publishing
House.

LESSON 9 Number Patterns

Electronic Resources
1. Lippman , David. Sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021
from http:// https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-hostos-introcollegemath/chapter/set-theory/
2. Khan Academy. Sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021 from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/probability-library/basic-setops/v/
intersection-and-union-of-sets
3. Pishro-Nik , Hossein. Introduction to probability: operations on sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021
from https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter1/1_2_2_set_operations.php
4. Svirin, A. Cartesian product. Retrieved September 20, 2021
from https://math24.net/cartesian-product-sets.html

Learning Materials
1. Worksheet
2. Module

LESSON 9 Number Patterns

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. use four steps of Polya in problem solving;

2. apply the different problem-solving strategies in solving real life problems.

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

INTRODUCTION
One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was George
Polya (1877-1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940. He was
known as the Father of Modern Problem – Solving. He did extensive studies and wrote
numerous mathematical papers and three books about problem – solving. The basic problem
– solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the following four steps.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan. Once you You must have a
Understand
3. Carry out the plan. have found a clear understanding
the of the problem.
4. Review the solution solution,
check the Problem
solution.

Review Polya’s 4 -Step

the Problem -Solving
Devise a
Solution Strategy plan

Successful
problem solvers
use a variety of
Work carefully. Carry -out techniques
Keep an accurate and neat
record of all your attempts.
the when they
Realize that some of your initial
plans will not work and modify
plan attempt to solve
your plan.
a problem.

Understand the Problem

You must have a clear understanding of the problem. To help us in understanding the problem
we must consider to follow the following questions.
a. Can you restate the problem in your own words?
b. Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
c. Is there something missing information, if known, would you allow to solve the
problem?
d. Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem? e. What is the
goal?

Devise a Plan
Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve problem.
Here are some frequently-used procedures.
a. Make a list of known information.
b. Make a list of information that is needed.
c. Draw a diagram.
d. Make an organized list that allows the possibilities.
e. Make a table or chart.

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

MIDTERM No part of this E-module/LMS Content can be reproduced, or transported or shared to others without permission from the
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___________________________________________________________________________ 3
________MATHEMATICS in the MODERN WORLD First Semester SY 2021 – 2022
f. Work backwards.
g. Try to solve similar but simpler problems.
h. Look for a pattern.
i. Write an equation. If necessary, define what each problem represent.
j. Perform an experiment
k. Guess a solution and then check your result.
l. Use indirect reasoning.
Carry Out the Plan
a. Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
b. Work carefully.
c. Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
d. Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to devise
another plan or modify your existing plan.

Review the Solution

a. Once you have found a solution, check it.
b. Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
c. Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
d. Ask yourself whether there is generalization of the solution that could apply to other
problems.

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

EXAMPLE 1
Consider the map shown in figure below. Allison wishes to walk along the streets from point A
to point B. How many direct routes can Allison take?

Solution
Understand the Problem
We would not be able to answer the problem if Allison retraced her path or travelled away from
point B. Thus we assume that on a direct route she always travels along a street in a direction
that gets her closer to point B.

Devise a Plan
The map has many extraneous details. Thus we make a digram that allows us to concentrate
on the essential information.
Because there are many routes, we consider the similar but similar diagrams shown below.
The number at each street intersection represents the number of routes from point A to that
particular intersection.

Figure 1

Look for patterns. It appears that the number of routes to an intersection is the sum of the
number of routes to the adjacent intersection to its left and the number of routes to the
intersection directly above.
For instance, the number of routes to the intersection labeled 6 is the sum of the number of
routes to the intersection to its left, and the number of routes to the intersection directly above,
which is also three.

Carry out the Plan

Using the pattern discovered, we see from Figure 1 that the umber of routes from point A to
point B is 20 + 15 = 35.

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

EXAMPLE 2
In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays each of the other teams
exactly three times. How many league games will be played?

Solution
Understand the Problem
A total of 10 teams play in the league exactly three games against each other teams. We must
look for the total number of league games that has to be played.

Devise a Plan
To solve this problem, first we consider similar but a simpler version of the given problem.
Suppose there are only four teams (team A, B, C and D) in the league and they play against
each of the other team once. So, each team plays three games in total ( one game against
each of the other teams). So,total number of games played will be 4 x 3 = 12. However, in the
calculation, game played has been over counted, for example, game between A and B, and B
and A has been calculated as 2 games while it is just one game. So, the correct number of
games played will be half of the previous result;

= 6 games
Carry out the
Plan Using the processed discussed above, 10 teams play each other once in total of

= 45 games.
Now, each team is played against the other exactly three times, so the total number of games
listed is 45 x 3 = 135.

Review the Soluton

Construct an organized list which shows all the matches played. Let the 10 teams be A, B, C,
D, E, F, G, H, I, and J.

Then, the games played will be:

AB, AC, AD, AE, AF, AG, AH, AI, AJ, BC, BD, BE, BF, BG, BH, BI, BJ, CD, CE, CF, CG, CH,
CI, CJ, DE, DF, DG, DH, DI, DJ, EF, EG, EH, EI, EJ, FG, FH, FI, FJ, GH, GI, GJ, HI, HJ, IJ.

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

EXAMPLE 3
In the decimal representation , determine the 100th digit to the right of the decimal point.

Solution
Understand the Problem
In this problem we have to find the 100 th place of the fraction in its decimal representation.
Considering the fraction and its decimal representation,

= 0.259259259259 …

Devise a Plan
The decimal form of the fraction shows that the decimal part consists of three digits 2, 5,
and
9. So the 100th place is either 2, 5 or 9. Then we will observe that '259' (3 digits) get repeated
after the decimal point again and again in number.

Carry out the Plan

We want the 100th places, so we take the closest multiple of 3 in order to reach the start of the
pattern again. Here closest multiple of 3 is 99. The 99th number therefore is 9 followed by the
100th number which is 2. The answer then is 2.

Review the Solution

To check our solution we have,
100 = 99 + 1 = 3 x 33 + 1 (3 is repeating digit, so divide 99 by 3 we will get 33 and when we
will multiply 3*33 = 99 and add 99 + 1, we will get 100).

So, the 99th decimal will be 9 (3rd digit of

0.259259259…) Followed by the 100th = 2, Then 100th
decimal will be 2.

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

EXAMPLE 4
In consecutive turns of a Monopoly game, Stacy first paid $800 for a hotel. She then lost half
her money when she landed on Boardwalk. Next, she collected $200 for passing GO. She
then lost half her remaining money when she landed on Illinois Avenue. Stacy now has
$2,500. How much did she have just before she purchased the hotel?

Solution
Understand the Problem
We need to determine the number of dollars that Stacy had just prior to her $800 hotel
purchase.

Devise a Plan
We could guess and check, but we might need to make several guesses before we found the
correct solution. An algebraic method might work, but setting up the necessary equation could
be a challenge. Since we know the end result, let us try the method of working backwards.

Carry out the Plan

Stacy must have had $5000 just before she landed on Illinois avenue; $4800 just before she
passed GO; and $9600 prior to landing on Boardwalk. This means that $10, 400 just before
she purchased the hotel.

Review the Solution To check our solution we start with $10, 400 and proceed through each
of the transactions. $10,400 less $800 is $9, 600. Half of $9, 600 is $4, 800. $4, 800
increased by 200 is $5, 000. Half of $5, 000 is $2, 500.

Alternative Solution
We can also work by using algebra. Let A be the amount of money Stacy had just before she
purchased the hotel then,
1 1
[ (A − 800) + 200] = 2500
2 2

[ (A − 800) + 200] = 2(2500)

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

(A − 800) + 200 = 5000

(A − 800) = 5000 − 200
2
1
(A − 800) = 4800
2
A − 800 = 2(4800)
A − 800 = 9600
A = $10,400
EXAMPLE 5
A hat and a jacket together cost $100. The jacket costs $90 more than the hat. What are
the costs of the hat and the jacket?

Solution
Understand the Problem
The total cost of hat and jacket is $100. The jacket costs $90 more than the hat. It
means that the difference between the cost of the jacket and the hat is $90.

Devise a Plan
We let j be the cost of the jacket and h be the cost of the hat. We know that jacket is $90
more than the hat therefore we can say that j = h + 90

Carry out the Plan

Solve the equation generated by substituting values, collecting the like terms and
isolating the h term,
j+h=
100 (h
+ 90)
+h=
100
2h + 90 = 100
2h = 100 − 90
2h = 10

Now, divide both sides of the equation by 2, we get h = 5. Substituting the value of h to
j = h + 90 we get the value of j = 95.

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

Review the Solution

Checking our solution we must add the cost of the jacket and the cost of the hat we get
$95 + $5 = $100 the total cost of the jacket and the hat.

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

EXAMPLE
6
Thrice the difference of a number and 10 is 40 more than that number. Find the number.

Solution
Understand the Problem
Read and understand carefully the given question or problem. Since we are looking for a
number, then let n be the unknown number.

Devise a Plan
Since we let n be the unknown number, therefore we can say that
3(n − 10) = 40 + n.

Carry out the Plan

Solve the equation being derived,
3(n − 10) = 40 + n
3n − 30 = 40 + n
3n − n = 40 + 30
2n = 70

Now, divide both sides of the equation by 2, we get n = 35. Therefore, the unknown number
is 35.

Review the Solution

If you take thrice the difference of 35 and 10, the result is the same as 40 more than 35, i.e.
3(35 − 10) = 40 + 35
3(25) = 75
75 = 75

Hence, the answer is 35.

7
One number is 15 less than another number. If the sum of the two numbers is 65, find
the value of each number.

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

EXAMPLE
Solution
Understand the Problem
Read and understand carefully the given question or problem. We are looking for
two numbers, and since we can express one number in terms of the other, we let n
be one of the numbers and the other is expressed as n – 15, i.e.
n one number
n – 15 other number

Devise a Plan
From the given phrase, “the sum of the two numbers is 65”, we can
therefore say that n + (n − 15) = 65

Carry out the Plan

Solve the equation being derived,
n + (n −
15) = 65
2n − 15
= 65
2n = 65 + 15
2n = 80

Now, divide both sides of the equation by 2, we get n = 40. Substituting the value of n to
n – 15, we get the value of 25.

Therefore the two numbers are 40 and 25.

Review the Solution

If we add 40 and 25 (a number 15 less than 40), we get 65, i.e.
40 + (40 − 15) = 65
40 + 25 = 65
65 = 65

Hence, one number is 40 and the other number is 25.

8
There are 45 students in a certain MMW class. Approximately 80% of the students passed the
prelim examination in MMW. How many students passed the prelim examination in MMW?

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

EXAMPLE
Solution
Understand the Problem
Read and understand carefully the given question or problem. Since we are looking for the
number of students who passsed the prelim examination in MMW, then we let n be the
number of students who passed the prelim examination.

Devise a Plan
From the given phrase, “approximately 80% of the students passed the prelim examination in
MMW.”, we can therefore say that n = 80% of 45

Carry out the Plan

Solve the equation being
derived, n = 80% of 45 n =
0.80(45) n = 36

Review the Solution

36 is 80% of 45.

Therefore, 36 students passed the prelim examination in MMW.

9
Michelle purchased the latest model of laptop for her online class at a local electronics store
for P61,500 which included tax. If the tax rate is 2.5%, find the price of the laptop before the
tax was added.

Solution
Understand the Problem
Read and understand carefully the given question or problem. Since we are looking for the
price of the laptop before the tax was added, then we let n be the price of the laptop before
tax was added

Devise a Plan
The price of the laptop plus the tax is equal to P61,500.
n + 0.025n = 61,500

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

EXAMPLE
Carry out the Plan
Solve the equation being
derived, n + 0.025n = 61,500
1.025n = 61,500 n = 60,000

Review the Solution

If 2.5% tax is added to P60,000, you would get P61,500, i.e.
n + 0.025n = 61,500
60,000 + 0.025(60,000) =
61,500
60,000 + 1,500 = 61,500
61,500 = 61,500

Therefore, the original price of the laptop is P60,000.

10
In a certain health facility for COVID patients, the length of the rectangular room is 2
meters more than three times the width. Find the dimensions of the health facility if its
perimeter is 44 meters.

Solution
Understand the Problem
Read and understand carefully the given question or problem. Since we are looking for the
dimensions of the rectangular health facility, then we let
L be the length of the room
W be the width of the room

We can also express L in terms of W, i.e.

L = 2 + 3W

Devise a Plan
Since the perimeter is given, then
P = 2L + 2W
44 = 2(2 + 3W) + 2W

Carry out the Plan

Solve the equation being derived,
44 = 2(2 + 3W) + 2W

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

EXAMPLE
44 = 4 + 6W + 2W
44 − 4 = 8W
40 = 8W

Now, divide both sides of the equation by 8, we get W = 5. Substituting the value of W to
L = 2 + 3W, we get
L = 2 + 3(5)
L = 2 + 15
L = 17 meters

Review the Solution

If the width is 5 meters, then the length, which is 2 meters more than 3 times the
width would have to be 17 meters. The perimeter of the facility with width of 5
meters and length of 17 meters would have to be 44 meters, i.e.
P = 2L + 2W
44 = 2(17) + 2(5)
44 = 34 + 10
44 = 44

Therefore the dimensions of the retangular room in a health facility are 5 meters and 17
meters.

REFERENCES
Printed References
1. Quintos, R. et.al. (2019). Mathematics in the modern world. Bulacan: Saint Andrew Publishing
House.
2. Aufmann, R.N. et.al. (2018). Mathematics in the modern world. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.
3. Reyes, J.A. (2018). Mathematics in the modern world. Manila: Unlimited Books Library
Services & Publishing Inc.

Electronic Resources
1. Lippman, David. Sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021 from
http:// https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-hostos-introcollegemath/chapter/set-theory/
2. Khan Academy. Sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021 from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/probability-library/basic-setops/v/
intersection-and-union-of-sets
3. Pishro-Nik , Hossein. Introduction to probability: operations on sets. Retrieved February 5, 2021
from https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter1/1_2_2_set_operations.php
4. Svirin, A. Cartesian product. Retrieved September 20, 2021
from https://math24.net/cartesian-product-sets.html

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

EXAMPLE
Learning Materials
1. Worksheet
2. Module

LESSON 10 Problem – Solving Strategies

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