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LODJ
37,8
Effects of authentic leadership,
affective commitment and
job resourcefulness on
1038 employees’ creativity and
Received 23 February 2015
Revised 21 May 2015
2 June 2015
individual performance
Accepted 3 June 2015 Ana Suzete Dias Semedo and Arnaldo Fernandes Matos Coelho
Faculty of Economics, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal, and
Neuza Manuel Pereira Ribeiro
School of Technology and Management,
Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Leiria, Portugal

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to report the findings of a study examining the relationship
between authentic leadership (AL), attitudes and employees’ behaviours. More specifically, how AL
influences affective commitment, job resourcefulness and creativity, which, in turn, influence
individual performance.
Design/methodology/approach – Empirical research has analysed the data from a questionnaire
administered to a sample of 543 employees belonging to various public and private organisations in
Cape Verde. The model was tested using structural equation modelling.
Findings – The results reveal that AL influences employees’ attitudes (affective commitment and job
resourcefulness) and their creativity, affective commitment and job resourcefulness predict the
employees’ creativity, and job resourcefulness and creativity predict individual performance.
Practical implications – The results from this study can help managers to understand how to
increase employees’ creativity and performance through AL, affective commitment and job
resourcefulness. Indirectly, the study also suggests that organisations should focus on selecting
leaders with authentic features and implement appropriate training activities, coaching and
development that aim to increase AL since this may well result in a positive impact on employees’
attitudes and behaviours.
Originality/value – The originality of this study is that it focusses on the integration of the five
concepts, AL, affective commitment, job resourcefulness, creativity and individual performance, in a
single study, providing a model that depicts the chain of effects between AL, employees’ attitudes,
employees’ creativity and individual performance.
Keywords Affective commitment, Creativity, Authentic leadership, Individual performance,
Job resourcefulness
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Leadership in organisations is perceived and valued by many stakeholders as a key
element of success, a differentiating factor with strong impact on the achievement of
goals through the transmission of motivation to its employees (Silva and Torres, 2010).
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal However, due to the large number of moral and financial scandals associated with
Vol. 37 No. 8, 2016
pp. 1038-1055
unscrupulous leaders of once-reputable companies, the need arises for new theories
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited such as authentic leadership (AL), which are based on the moral character of the leader,
0143-7739
DOI 10.1108/LODJ-02-2015-0029 concern for others and congruency between ethical values and actions (Shahid, 2010).
It is necessary to promote an appropriate organisational environment starting with the Effects of
creation of a good relationship between leaders and employees, because one of the authentic
major challenges for organisations is to retain the best talents in a highly competitive
business environment. In this sense, Nazari and Emami (2012) suggest a need to
leadership
concentrate on AL as a root construct underlying all positive forms of leadership and
its development.
Although the research in AL is recent, several studies stand out to seek a better 1039
understanding of this issue and its impact on organisations and employees’ lives
(e.g. Walumbwa et al., 2008, 2010; Wong et al., 2010; Gardner et al., 2011; Rego et al.,
2013; Alok, 2014). Recently, the idea that AL is extremely important in organisations
has been supported, as it helps its members to commit themselves to work, promoting a
better social climate and better relationships between leaders and employees (George,
2003; Avolio and Gardner, 2005). Ilies et al. (2005) proposed that leaders with a
relational authenticity will strive for open and truthful relationships with their
followers, and such orientation will have a number of positive outcomes. This research
follows the same line of investigation, as it shows how perceptions of AL have an
impact on employees’ attitudes (affective commitment and job resourcefulness), and
how these attitudes impact their creativity and individual performance.
There are studies on AL, affective commitment, job resourcefulness, creativity and
individual performance, but none of them integrate these five concepts in a single
model. Likewise, there are many studies on leadership and its consequences, but
research regarding AL and its impacts on employee attitudes and behaviours is scarce.
Hence, this study aims to fill the research gaps by showing how AL can be a real asset
changing employees’ attitudes and behaviours, increasing creativity and individual
performance. More specifically this study aims to understand how AL influences
employees’ affective commitment, job resourcefulness and creativity and then how this
variable impacts individual performance. The originality of this study focusses on the
integration of these five concepts in a single study, providing a model that depicts the
chain of effects between AL, employees’ attitudes, employees’ creativity and individual
performance. This study promotes a holistic approach on AL field investigating the
impacts on employee’s attitudes and behaviours.
The study’s results seek to contribute to the argument that AL is not simply a
theory for consideration by the academic community but also one of relevance to the
business community, particularly in respect to the introduction of potential corrective
actions, which this type of leadership is able to implement, thereby improving
individual and organisational performance.
This paper is structured as follows: introduction of the study topic; research
background and hypothesis development; method; findings; discussion and
conclusions; theoretical contributions; implications for management; and the
limitations and recommendations for future works.

2. Research background and hypothesis development

2.1 AL
The process of AL combines the positive capacities of the leader and a highly
developed organisational context (Luthans and Avolio, 2003). Walumbwa et al. (2008)
note that AL is a pattern of leadership behaviour that promotes both positive
psychological outcomes such as an ethical climate and higher self-awareness and an
internalised moral perspective, all of which subsequently produce more balanced
information treatment and higher transparency and relational work with followers,
LODJ thereby contributing to the positive self-development of followers. The literature
37,8 reveals that most academic researchers have considered the following dimensions:
self-awareness – relates to a deeper understanding of their own strengths and
weaknesses and the multifaceted nature of self (Walumbwa et al., 2008); relational
transparency – manifests in behaviours to share information, thoughts and real
feelings in interpersonal interaction, avoiding inappropriate emotional expressions
1040 (Avolio et al., 2004); internalised moral perspective – describes the fact that the leader is
guided by standards of moral conduct and acts according to them, to the detriment of
the group pressures, organisations or society pressures (Gardner et al., 2005;
Walumbwa et al., 2008); and balanced processing – refers to the degree to which the
leader objectively analyses all relevant information before making a decision (Kernis,
2003; Walumbwa et al., 2008).
This study aims to respond to the suggestions of researchers (e.g. George et al., 2007)
that AL is a good way to achieve lasting and positive results through its ability to
stimulate creative ideas, affective commitment and job resourcefulness, all of which
combine to improve individual performance. As mentioned above, several researchers
have suggested that AL promotes better employees’ outcomes and consequently the
organisation’s performance (Alshammari et al., 2015; Avolio and Mhatre, 2012;
Walumbwa et al., 2008, 2010). These outcomes may be reflected in better emotional
connection between employees and the organisation and increased willingness to find
solutions to the challenges at work, which subsequently increases creative behaviour
and the effort to meet set targets, thereby producing better performance. In other
words, AL promotes positive relationships between leaders and employees (George,
2003) which results in better attitudes, which in turn, enhances employees’ creativity
and performance (Leroy et al., 2012; Karatepe and Aga, 2013; Rod and Ashill, 2009).
This study adopts a similar perspective to the leader-member exchange (LMX) based
on the idea that the dyadic relationships between employees and supervisors may
influence the employees’ work attitudes and outcomes.

2.2 Affective commitment

Affective commitment consists of personal and emotional attachment to an idea, and in
the work context, this relates to employees and their organisations. According to Meyer
and Allen (1992), affective commitment refers to the employee’s emotional attachment
to the organisation. Employees that have strong affective commitment want to stay
employed in the organisation. An employee who is affectively committed to the
organisation likes to be part of it, since she/he believes in its values and objectives
(Allen and Meyer, 2000). The literature reveals that of the three components of
organisational commitment (affective, normative and instrumental), the affective
dimension has more desirable implications for the individual’s behaviour in the
organisation. Several studies have sought to determine the causes and effects of
affective commitment (e.g. Meyer et al., 2002; Rego et al., 2013). At the same time,
several scholars (e.g. Gardner et al., 2005; Kernis, 2003) have revealed that the authentic
leader’s behaviour embodies principles and values that strive to achieve and maintain
open and true relationships; it is probable that the higher the degree of the leader’s
authenticity as perceived by employees, the stronger the emotional bond that unites
them. For example, by being relationally transparent, behaving honestly and adopting
a balanced information processing, authentic leaders establish higher quality
exchanges with their followers (LMX theory) and they reciprocate with higher
affective commitment (Paillé, 2009). Research suggests that the quality of the
exchanges between employees and their leaders is predictive of attitudinal job Effects of
outcomes like affective commitment (e.g. Gertsner and Day, 1997). Alshammari et al. authentic
(2015), in turn, suggest that, ethical leaders constantly make efforts to incorporate
moral principles, values and beliefs in their behaviour, embodying a commitment to a
leadership
higher organisational purpose enshrined through prudence, persistence and patience.
The authenticity of the leader is positively related to the employee’s commitment to the
organisation including the emotional attachment (Walumbwa et al., 2008; Leroy et al., 1041
2012; Rego et al., 2013). In view of these various considerations, the following
hypothesis is proposed:
H1. Employee perceptions of AL positively influence affective commitment.

2.3 Job resourcefulness

Job resourcefulness is the propensity of individuals to overcome obstacles and garner
scarce resources in the pursuit of work-related goals (Licata et al., 2003). It is the
ability of people to face various challenges in the workplace looking for solutions to
problems in order to achieve individual or organisational targets. Licata et al. (2003)
characterise this theoretical construct as being influenced by personality traits,
including conscientiousness and openness to experience. According to McCrae and
John (1992), conscientiousness contains proactive aspects that are revealed in the
need for achievement and attachment to work and inhibitor aspects manifested in
prudence and moral scruples. Conscientiousness assesses the organisational degree,
persistence and motivation for behaviour, that is, oriented towards a particular goal.
The openness to experience, in turn, is defined as a factor that predicts the potential
tendency of individuals to seek changes (McCrae and John, 1992). Openness to
experience has main components as openness to new ideas, intellectual curiosity,
fantasy or active imagination, aesthetic sensitivity and a wide range of feelings.
It should be noted that it is possible to make the contrast between employees who
show participative behaviour, give practical guidance and are conscientious and
others who are lazy and careless. However, there is very little research on this topic.
In this study, job resourcefulness is considered as a consequence of the perception of
AL and as a predictor of creativity and individual performance. Authentic leaders
have a strong impact on employees, and this impact is associated with identification
with the leaders themselves, hope, trust, positive emotions and optimism (Avolio
et al., 2004). These factors can instill within employees a willingness to find solutions
to the challenges at work (Licata et al., 2003). Authentic leaders are characterised as
being persistent and intrinsically motivated (Rego et al., 2013) and may transmit that
internal motivation to employees as a means of encouraging them to overcome
obstacles and to seek resources to achieve their work objectives (Licata et al., 2003).
It can be said that through a relationship based on transparency, and the sharing and
objective analysis of all relevant information before making a decision, the authentic
leader presents employees with a role model, who helps them to face the various
workplace challenges they encounter and to search for continually better solutions to
problems. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H2. Employee perceptions of AL positively influence job resourcefulness.

2.4 Creativity
Creativity is defined as the production of something for the first time, and in the
organisational context, it can result in dramatic change; hence, an exploration of the
LODJ concept of creativity can be valuable in attempts to understand the phenomenon of
37,8 change and, ultimately, organisational efficiency and survival (Woodman et al., 1993).
Other scholars simply perceive creativity as an idea that generates new and useful
solutions (Amabile, 1988; George and Zhou, 2007). Creativity can be considered one of
the main processes through which individuals demonstrate their potential as human
beings. In this study, creativity is presented as a consequence of AL, affective
1042 commitment and job resourcefulness. As mentioned by Amabile (1988) and Binnewies
et al. (2008), creativity can be understood as the production of new ideas and solutions
that may be related to the type of bond which the individual believes she/he has with
the organisation to which she/he belongs. Thus, affective commitment may play a key
role in creative behaviour; indeed, workers who show greater affective commitment
also demonstrate more creative behaviours (Organ and Ryan, 1995).
Additionally, it is observed that people’s ability to obtain scarce resources and
overcome obstacles in the achievement of workplace goals (Licata et al., 2003) fosters
greater creativity within them. That is, to say, the additional effort that employees
are willing to make in their organisations adds value through creative and innovative
suggestions. The skills possessed by individuals that enable them to overcome
obstacles at work are influential upon their behaviour, making them become more
confident, more proactive and more successful in problem solving (Licata et al., 2003).
Job resourcefulness requires a certain internal motivation among employees who, in
turn, can generate new and useful ideas (Organ and Ryan, 1995).
Leadership and supervision have an essential influence on creativity (Tierney, 2008).
Some researchers found that transformational leadership positively relates to creativity
(Gong et al., 2009; Shin and Zhou, 2003). Other studies looked at the impact of
supervisory behaviours such as supervisory support (Madjar et al., 2002),
empowerment (Zhang and Bartol, 2010), supervisory developmental feedback
(Zhou, 2003) and supervisory benevolence (Wang and Cheng, 2010) on creativity.
George and Zhou (2007) showed that employees exhibited increased creativity when
supervisors built a supportive context by providing developmental feedback, being
trustworthy or providing interactional justice. Employees’ critical thinking is
stimulated by AL to the extent that the leaders’ authenticity, and in particular their
emotional intelligence, plays an important role that enables and supports creativity
(Zhou and George, 2001). Being authentic leaders, individuals with higher levels of
emotional intelligence and who act according to their words, values and beliefs,
contributes to the development and success of interpersonal relationships and a work
environment in which creativity is fostered and encouraged (Rego et al., 2013).
AL stimulates employees’ positive emotions which subsequently increase their
creativity (e.g. Fredrickson, 2003; Gavin and Mason, 2004).
Taking into account this discussion of creativity, the following hypotheses are
proposed:
H3a. Affective commitment positively influences creativity.
H3b. Job resourcefulness positively influences creativity.
H3c. The perceptions of AL positively influence creativity.

2.5 Individual performance

Individual performance refers to a set of individual behaviours or actions that are
relevant to the organisation’s goals (Campbell, 1990). Employees who consider work
more as a vocation than a mere job to earn money demonstrate good performance Effects of
(Rego et al., 2007). The measurement of individual performance, according to authentic
Mott (1972), is achieved through three dimensions: productivity, adaptability and
flexibility. Productivity evaluates the efficiency and also represents the quantity and
leadership
quality of the product or service Adaptability embraces two dimensions: a symbolic
adaptation that includes anticipating problems and the satisfactory and timely
development of solutions to them, and openness to new methods and technologies 1043
applicable to the activities of the organisation, and a behavioural adaptation that refers
to the acceptance of solutions and is measured by the speed with which changes are
decided and the number of relevant members of the organisation who accept the
changes. Moreover, flexibility relates to the employees’ ability to rapidly adjust to
variations in the amount of work, as well as to respond to crises.
This study considers individual performance to be the result of the affective
commitment, job resourcefulness and creativity possessed by the individual concerned.
Rego and Souto (2004) argue that affectively committed employees are more willing
and motivated to contribute significantly towards the organisation than are employees
who are less affectively committed. This assertion echoes that of Meyer and
Herscovitch (2001), who believe that a strong affective commitment component can
increase the likelihood of the adoption of behaviours that are beneficial to the intended
goal. Some authors propose that more affectively committed employees are more likely
to better perform their function (e.g. Meyer et al., 2002; Leroy et al., 2012). Undoubtedly,
people’s ability to overcome obstacles in order to achieve work-related goals implies an
internal motivation that influences their behaviour (Licata et al., 2003; Rod and Ashill,
2009), and hence, their performance (Karatepe and and Aga, 2013). In respect of job
resourcefulness, this also requires some internal motivation on the part of employees to
encourage them to develop new and useful ideas (Organ and Ryan, 1995), which in turn,
enhance individual performance (Luthans et al., 2007). A “resourceful” collaborator has
the capacity to fulfil his/her obligations even when there are difficult circumstances
that normally limit the ability to achieve goals successfully (Licata et al., 2003).
A creative person has unique features that allow him/her to differentiate him/herself
from co-workers, in particular through the exercise of independence, confidence and
preparedness to take risk (Sternberg and Lubart, 1999). These attributes promote
greater flexibility within such an individual, thus making that person more adaptable
and open to new experiences. Luthans et al. (2007) argue that the most creative
collaborators are continually looking for challenges and strive to meet set targets,
thereby producing better performance. In view of these arguments, the following
proposed hypotheses are formulated:
H4a. Affective commitment positively influences individual performance.
H4b. Job resourcefulness positively influences individual performance.
H5. Creativity positively influences individual performance.

3. Method
The study was carried out in Cape Verdean organisations, more specifically, the
Santiago and São Vicente Islands, and 543 employees participated. Of these, 56 per cent
were female, the average age was 33 years old, 59.7 per cent held college degrees and
46 per cent held leadership positions. Moreover, 80 per cent belonged to the service
sector and 53.6 per cent were in the public sector; 32 per cent of the organisations
LODJ represented had between 51 and 100 employees. The data collection period ran from
37,8 April to July 2014, and the following procedures were adopted to gather that data: after
the first contact with the organisations’ leaders, and in the case of a positive answer, the
person responsible for each work team and/or department was identified and a request
to distribute a questionnaire to some random employees was made; the questionnaires
were accompanied by a letter explaining the purpose of the research and giving a
1044 guarantee of maximum confidentiality of data and anonymity of the participants; some
instructions regarding how to complete the questionnaire and thus prevent all possible
error were provided; and it was requested that on completion, the questionnaire be
placed in the envelope provided and closed in the presence of the researcher.

3.1 Measures
3.1.1 AL. Perceptions of AL were measured by the 16 five-point items of the Authentic
Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) (Copyright © 2007 ALQ by Bruce J. Avolio, William L.
Gardner and Fred O. Walumbwa). The ALQ measures four dimensions: self-awareness,
relational transparency, internalised moral perspective and balanced processing. The
Portuguese version, as translated and back-translated by Rego et al. (2012), was used, and
it contains 16 items. Individuals reported the frequency (1: never, …, 5: often, if not
always) with which their supervisors adopted the 16 behaviours/attitudes on a five-point
Likert-type scale. The data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
(see Table I). From the first-order CFA, it is observed that the factor loading ranged
between 0.64 and 0.81, and from the Cronbach’s αs, it is seen that the dimensions are
greater than 0.8, thus revealing factorial validity and reliability of measures. The fit
indices (χ2/gl ¼ 1.72; RMSEA ¼ 0.04; GFI ¼ 0.96; CFI ¼ 0.98; TLI ¼ 0.98) suggest that the
model fits very well with the data. In the second-order CFA, the results do not differ much,
experiencing the same factor loading, Cronbach’s αs and fit indices. However, from the
first-order CFA, it was found that the four dimensions of AL are highly correlated, which,
in turn, indicates the existence of a latent variable or factor (Marôco, 2014). Thus, AL is
deemed as a second-order variable as suggested by Walumbwa et al. (2008).
3.1.2 Creativity. Creativity was measured according to the instrument developed
and validated by Zhou and George (2001) which comprises 13 items measured on a
five-point Likert-type scale (1: the statement does not apply absolutely anything at all
to me; …; 5: this statement completely applies to me). Examples of items are “I’m not
afraid to take risks” and “I suggest new ways of performing work tasks”. Data about
creativity also show reliability and factorial validity of the measures (Cronbach’s α
greater than 0.8 and factor loading ranging from 0.59 to 0.70). According to Hair et al.
(1992), factor loadings greater than 0.30 may be considered significant, while loadings
over 0.50 are considered very significant.
3.1.3 Individual performance. Individual performance was measured by an
instrument developed by Mott (1972), consisting of ten items that are subdivided
into three dimensions (productivity, adaptability and flexibility). Employees were
asked about their performance in comparison with that of their colleagues via
statements on a five-point Likert-type scale (1: below average, …, 5: excellent). The data
were also subjected to the CFA (see Table II). In the first-order CFA, factor loading
range from 0.63 to 0.79, and Cronbach’s αs are greater than 0.7, showing factorial
validity and reliability of the measures. The adjustment indices suggest that the model
fits the data well (χ2/gl ¼ 2.1; RMSEA ¼ 0.04; GFI ¼ 0.98; CFI ¼ 0.99; TLI ¼ 0.98). In the
second-order CFA, the results do not change from that of the first-order CFA.
 1st-order model 2nd-order model
Effects of
Dimensions FL α FL α authentic
leadership
Self-awareness 0.80 0.80
Seeks to obtain information (feedback) of people to improve the
working relationships between them 0.74 0.74
Understand how their actions impact on others 0.66 0.67
Know when it is time to reevaluate and change their positions on 1045
important issues 0.71 0.70
Have a clear sense of how others perceive their (his/her) ability 0.74 0.74
Relational transparency 0.82 0.82
Shows the emotions that match what you feel 0.64 0.64
Encourages all people to say what they think 0.73 0.73
Says exactly what he thinks 0.74 0.74
Tells the hard truths 0.65 0.66
Assume the errors he commits 0.69 0.69
Moral internal perspective 0.81 0.81
Makes decisions based on their core values 0.68 0.68
Take tough decisions based on high-ethical standards 0.68 0.68
Asks me to take positions according to my core values 0.75 0.75
Their actions are consistent with their beliefs and convictions 0.75 0.75
Balanced processing 0.81 0.81
Analyse relevant information before making a decision 0.74 0.75
Carefully listen to the different points of view before drawing
conclusions 0.81 0.81
Calls me views which question their (his/the) deepest positions 0.76 0.76
Authentic leadership 0.99
Self-awareness 0.97
Relational transparency 0.95
Moral internal perspective 0.87
Balanced processing 0.85
χ2/df 1.72 1.71
Root mean square error of approximation 0.04 0.04 Table I.
Goodness of fit index 0.96 0.96 Authentic
Comparative fit index 0.98 0.98 leadership:
Tucker-Lewis coefficient 0.98 0.98 confirmatory
Note: FL, factor loading factor analysis

In the first-order CFA, the dimensions showed high correlations between them,
which indicates the existence of a higher order construct, so that the second-order CFA
was considered.
3.1.4 Affective commitment. Affective commitment was measured by the six items
of the Meyer et al. (1993) scale. Employees were asked to indicate the extent of their
agreement with the statements presented by using a five-point Likert scale (1: strongly
disagree, …, 5: strongly agree). Sample items included “I really feel the problems of this
organisation as if they were my own” and “This organisation has great personal
meaning to me”. The results of the CFA show reliability and factorial validity of the
measures (Cronbach’s α is −0.8 and factor loading range from 0.59 to 0.85), which are
higher than minimum value recommended by Hair et al. (1992).
3.1.5 Job resourcefulness. To measure job resourcefulness, the instrument developed
by Licata et al. (2003) was used. This contains four items measured using a Likert scale
with five points (1: strongly disagree, …; 5: strongly agree). Examples of items included
LODJ 1st-order model 2nd-order model
37,8 Dimensions FL α FL α
Productivity 0.77 0.77
Compared with their colleagues, which of the following best
describes how your supervisor ranked last formal performance
review? 0.63 0.63
1046 Compared with the productivity levels of your colleagues, as do
you rate your level of production in quantity? 0.76 0.76
Compared with your colleagues, how would you rate the quality of
your work? 0.79 0.78
Adaptability 0.82 0.82
Compared with your colleagues, which is the level of efficiency of
your work? In other words, to what extent do you use appropriately
the resources (money, people, equipment, etc.)? 0.70 0.70
Compared with your colleagues, which is your effectiveness in
adapting to changes in work? 0.79 0.79
Compared with your colleagues, which is your quickness to adapt
to changes in work? 0.76 0.76
Flexibility 0.73 0.73
Compared with your colleagues, how would you rate your ability to
adjust to changes in work mode? 0.75 0.75
Compared with your colleagues, how do you evaluate your reaction
to situations concerning emergency (such as seizures, short
deadlines, unexpected personal issues, allocation of resources,
problems, etc.)? 0.65 0.65
Compared with your colleagues, how do you assess the quality of
your response to emergency situations related? 0.65 0.65
Individual performance 0.89
Productivity 0.78
Adaptability 0.96
Flexibility 0.95
χ2/df 2.1 2.1
Table II. Root mean square error of approximation 0.04 0.04
Individual Goodness of fit index 0.98 0.98
performance: Comparative fit index 0.99 0.99
confirmatory Tucker-Lewis coefficient 0.98 0.98
factor analysis Note: FL, factor loading

“I am very intelligent and enterprising in the execution of my work” and “I am

imaginative when it comes to overcoming obstacles in my work”. The data submitted
to CFA also show the reliability and factorial validity of the measures (Cronbach’s α is
0.8 and factor loading vary within 0.63 and 0.79).

3.2 Reliability and validity

Initially, the CFA was conducted to test the measurement model, and the
psychometric properties of the scales used seem to be in agreement with the reference
values (Hair et al., 2005). Thereafter, the CFA was conducted for the structural model
and included all the variables within it. The indices were adjusted (e.g. χ2/gl ¼ 1.6;
RMSEA ¼ 0.03; GFI ¼ 0.89; CFI ¼ 0.94; TLI ¼ 0.95). Through analysis of the
standardised residuals and the modification indices for the sources of
mis-specification, seven items were removed and a well-fitting 41-item and ten-
dimensional model emerged, whose indices were (e.g. χ2/df ¼ 1.4; RMSEA ¼ 0.02;
GFI ¼ 0.91; CFI ¼ 0.96; TLI ¼ 0.96) (see Figure 1). The α values are all above 0.7, and Effects of
the composite reliabilities (CR) is equal to or greater than 0.7. These data present authentic
convergent validity, the average variance extracted (AVE) is greater than 0.5, except
creativity (0.32). The outcome measures seem to be reliable according to Hair et al.
leadership
(2005). Discriminant validity is evidenced because all the correlations between
constructs are significantly below 1 and all the squared correlations are smaller than
the AVE (see Table III). 1047
3.3 Common method variance
To minimise the risk of common method variance, we used some procedural methods
proposed by Podsakoff et al. (2003): the total respondents were guaranteed anonymity
and confidentiality of information collected and were told that there was no right or
wrong answers; there was randomness in the ordering of multiple items; we did not use
scales with bipolar numerical values or assign verbal designations for the midpoints of

Affective 0.10***
Creativity
Commitment

0.15***

0.09
0.12***
0.65 ***
Authentic
Leadership

0.20***

0.17***

Job Individual
Resourcefulness Performance
0.38*** Figure 1.
Analysis of
structural
Notes: 2/gl =1.4; RMSEA = 0.02; GFI = 0.91; CFI = 0.96; equation model
TLI = 0.96. ***p < 0.001

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 CR AVE

1. Authentic leadership
(AL) 3.46 0.69 0.91 (0.99) 0.95 0.83
2. Affective
commitment (AC) 3.40 0.58 0.28** 0.73 (0.80) 0.81 0.53
3. Job resourcefulness
Table III.
Means, standard
(JR) 3.89 0.52 0.26** 0.13** 0.74 (0.81) 0.79 0.55
deviations,
4. Creativity (C) 3.66 0.49 0.46** 0.27** 0.45** 0.57 (0.88) 0.89 0.32
correlations,
5. Individual Cronbach’s αs,
performance (IP) 3.50 0.57 0.31** 0.19** 0.52** 0.53** 0.78 (0.89) 0.82 0.61 composite reliability
Notes: The numbers in parentheses on the diagonal represent Cronbach’s αs and the numbers italics are and average
square root of AVE. **p o0.01 variance extracted
LODJ the scales. The test of the single factor (Harman, 1967) was also carried out. A principal
37,8 component analysis (unrotated solution) on all the variables revealed eight factors with
eigenvalues greater than 1. They accounted for 56 per cent of the total variance, the first
of which explained only 24 per cent of the variance. The technique of marker variable
(Lindell and Whitney, 2001) was used by including a variable “purchase behaviour”,
in the statistical analysis, which is not correlated with any of the variables of the model.
1048 All methods used show there are no problems with common method variance.

4. Findings
Table III presents the means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s α, correlations, and CR,
AVE of all key variables, and shows that all variables correlate positively with each other.
AL is positively correlated with all other variables. There are also positive correlations
between employees’ affective commitment, their perceptions of AL, job resourcefulness,
creativity and individual performance. Similarly, job resourcefulness was positively
associated with perceptions of AL, employees’ affective commitment, creativity and
individual performance. Creativity, in turn, is shown to positively associate with all other
variables. Finally, individual performance also behaved similarly, showing positive and
significant correlations with AL, affective commitment, job resourcefulness and creativity.
The results (see Table IV) show that AL exerts a positive and statistically significant
effect on EA ( β ¼ 0.15, po0.001). Consequently, the H1 was supported. The AL variable
also influences positively and significantly job resourcefulness ( β ¼ 0.17, po0.001), thus
supporting H2. Affective commitment has a positive and significant influence on creativity
( β ¼ 0.10, po0.05). Job resourcefulness, in turn, is related to and significantly positive with
creativity (β ¼ 0.20, po0.001). AL also exerted a positive and statistically significant effect
on creativity ( β ¼ 0.12, po0.001). The H3a, H3b and H3c are, therefore, supported.
Affective commitment appears to have no effect on individual performance
( β ¼ 0.09, p ¼ 0.11). Job resourcefulness already has a positive and significant effect on
individual performance ( β ¼ 0.38, p o 0.001). H4b was partially supported, whereas
H4a was not supported.
Finally, creativity was seen to relate in a positive and statistically significant way
with individual performance ( β ¼ 0.65, p o 0.001), supporting H5.

5. Discussion and conclusions

The results show the predictive power of AL with respect to affective commitment,
suggesting that the perceptions of employees regarding their leaders’ authenticity
influence their emotional attachment to the organisation. This result coincides with those

Hypothesis Relations Estimate SE CR p Conclusion

H1 AC←AL 0.150 0.029 5.155 *** Supported

H2 JR←AL 0.168 0.034 4.969 ***
H3a C←AC 0.102 0.035 2.957 0.003
H3b C←JR 0.197 0.038 5.111 ***
H3c C←AL 0.118 0.024 5.002 ***
H4a IP←AC 0.093 0.058 1.612 0.107 Rejected
Table IV. H4b IP←JR 0.378 0.062 6.111 *** Supported
Standardised H5 IP←C 0.647 0.137 4.731 ***
regression: summary Notes: ***p o0.001
of studies by Gardner et al. (2005), which suggest that employees are much more Effects of
emotionally committed in the execution of their tasks and have a greater focus on authentic
achieving their objectives when their perceptions of their leaders’ authenticity are strong
(Darvish and Rezaei, 2011; Leroy et al., 2012). The H2 was confirmed, the results
leadership
demonstrating that employees are predisposed to finding solutions to their daily work
problems and to overcome any obstacles encountered when they perceive certain
characteristics among their leaders, such as self-awareness, relational transparency, an 1049
internal moral perspective and the balanced processing of information. The real leader
has the ability to instill hope, confidence, optimism and positive emotions in employees
(Avolio et al., 2004), all of which subsequently contribute to increase employees’
willingness to seek ways of effectively addressing challenges at work (Licata et al., 2003).
It is also shown by the results that affective commitment explains employees’
creativity, suggesting that when they are affectively committed to the organisation,
employees develop more creative ideas. As noted by Isen et al. (1987), the happiest
people tend to be more creative. Creative attitudes are related to sensitivity to problems,
attraction to complexity, autonomy, self-confidence (Barron and Harrington, 1981),
persistence, professional achievement and dedication to work (Rice, 2006). These are
features that promote the establishment of an affectionate bond between the individual
and the organisation and determine how individuals’ creativity is influenced. The result
from the study is consistent with that of the existing literature, which reports that
employees who demonstrate greater affective commitment tend to show more creative
behaviour (Organ and Ryan, 1995). Job resourcefulness also seems to have an impact on
employees’ creative spirit. Individuals’ ability to garner scarce resources and overcome
obstacles in trying to achieve work goals (Licata et al., 2003) stimulates their creativity,
and the internal motivation involved in this mind-set contributes towards the
production of more new and useful ideas (Organ and Ryan, 1995).
AL, in turn, shows a positive influence on employees’ creativity, suggesting, as
noted by several scholars (Avolio et al., 2004; Gardner et al., 2005) that through their
characteristics, they foster greater enthusiasm among employees for them to present
creative ideas, solve problems and take advantage of opportunities for the benefit of the
organisation. Individuals must be psychologically comfortable in order to be creative
(West and Altink, 1996). Hence, the H3 was also supported.
Contrary to what was predicted and what other studies have shown (e.g. Meyer and
Herscovitch, 2001; Meyer et al., 2002), the employees’ emotional bonds towards the
organisation did not influence their individual performance. This finding may be
related to the participants’ cultural traits, which predispose their performance to
be dependent not on an affectionate bond with the organisation but on other factors,
including job resourcefulness and creativity. It also coincides with the outcome
obtained by Mehrabi et al. (2013), who found no relationship between organisational
commitment and performance and particularly organisational citizenship behaviours.
A “weak relationship between affective commitment and CCO” (an important
component of individual performance) was found and discussed in previous research
(Carmeli and Colakoglu, 2005, p. 77). For example, Carmeli and Colakoglu (2005)
proposed emotional intelligence to moderate the relationship between affective
commitment and CCO. In other words, they found that this positive relationship is
strongest for individuals with higher emotional intelligence. This result from our study
suggests the need for further investigations showing that this relationship may be an
indirect one or subject of strong moderating effects, since the low correlations with
other variables eliminate the possibility of multicollinearity.
LODJ Job resourcefulness has already been shown to influence individual performance. This
37,8 result suggests that employees’ performance is influenced by the internal motivation to
seek to overcome obstacles in order to achieve goals related to their work (Licata et al., 2003;
Karatepe and Aga, 2013). Job resourcefulness influences in a positive and meaningful way
those employees who seek to perform their work well (Rod and Ashill, 2009).
Finally, the results suggest that high levels of individual performance are
1050 influenced by the creative and innovative spirit of employees (Rashid et al., 2004).
When individuals are creative, they are always looking for challenges and strive to
meet the goals set, thus exhibiting higher levels of performance (Avolio et al., 2004;
Luthans et al., 2007).

6. Theoretical contributions
Some researchers (e.g. Avolio and Mhatre, 2012; Gardner et al., 2011) have argued that
more empirical research is necessary to understand the mechanisms through which AL
influences effective employees’ responses and to expand the nomological network for AL.
Thus, this study responds to this call showing the chain of effects between AL and
employees’ performance. This investigation helps to explain this process suggesting that
AL predicts employees’ attitudes like affective commitment and job resourcefulness,
which in turn, explain their behaviour expressed on their creativity and individual
performance. The results are significant because they support theory and new empirical
research, suggesting that the quality of working conditions created by leaders may play
an important role in the extent to which employees develop better attitudes, a creative
spirit and an increased performance. Authenticity may enhance the ability of leaders to
improve the social climate, to empower employees and to boost creativity and
performance. Constructs like AL and job resourcefulness are underexplored in the
literature. Hence, this study is revealing that they deserve additional attention from both
researchers and practitioners.

7. Implications for management

The results from this study can help managers to encourage creativity and good
performance from their employees through AL, affective commitment and job
resourcefulness. Hence, by implication, the research outcomes suggest that
organisations should focus on training leaders who value self-awareness,
transparency in their relationships with others, display an internal moral perspective
and demonstrate balanced processing of information, in order to guarantee good
results at the individual level and, consequently, at the organisational level. Indirectly,
the study also suggests that organisations should focus on selecting leaders with
authentic features and implement appropriate training activities, coaching and
development that aim to increase AL since this may well result in a positive impact on
employees’ attitudes and behaviour. Leaders must act in a trustful, honest, respectful
and courteous way, cultivating their credibility, thus enhancing employees’ job
resourcefulness, affective commitment and creativity. According to George (2003), by
“leading with heart”, leaders are more able to establish closer relationships with
colleagues and employees. Authentic leaders must understand the importance of
positive relationships with employees, since the quality of relationships may be an
important determinant of success. Showing how AL promotes individual attitudes and
how these attitudes influence creativity and individual performance, this study helps
organisations and their leaders to boost employees and organisations’ outcomes.
8. Limitations and recommendations for future work Effects of
The study focusses on just two of the islands of Cape Verde as it was not possible to authentic
conduct fieldwork on all the islands due to the distance between them. Thus,
opportunities remain to collect data from the other islands, thereby widening the
leadership
picture. In respect of the research population, a convenience sample was surveyed
whose representation might be questionable. Moreover, a further limitation concerns
the collection of data at a single moment in time and through the same source, which 1051
may involve common method variance (Podsakoff et al., 2003). That said,
certain preventative measures were undertaken, such as the Harman test, the
marker variable and other procedures described earlier to reduce or eliminate such
variance. Nonetheless, future studies should collect the data at different points in time
or via a multiple-source method. The non-inclusion of moderating variables in the
study can also be considered a limitation. Future studies should investigate whether
other variables like affective well-being, satisfaction with management or
organisational identification mediate or moderate the relationship between AL,
creativity and individual performance. Irrespective of these known shortcomings,
however, the study contributes to the organisational studies literature in its
consideration of the influence of AL on employee behaviour and performance and
opens new avenues of research.

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About the authors

Ana Suzete Dias Semedo is a PhD Candidate in Business Management at the Faculty of
Economics, University of Coimbra. Ana Suzete Dias Semedo is the corresponding author and can
be contacted at: [email protected]
Arnaldo Fernandes Matos Coelho has a PhD and is a Professor at the Faculty of Economics,
University of Coimbra.
Neuza Manuel Pereira Ribeiro has a Postdoctoral Degree and is a Professor at the School of
Technology and Management, CIGS, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria.

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