Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Matter and Chemical Change Unit B

Topic 1 Exploring Matter

• Safety First
• Classifying Matter
• Mixtures of Matter

Topic 2 Changes In Matter

• Can You Ever Be Sure About Changes?
• Properties: Chemical or Physical?

Topic 3 What Are Elements

• Taking Apart Matter
• New Discoveries
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Laws, Theories, Models, and Observations
• A Brief History of Atomic Models

Topic 4 Classifying Elements

• Element Symbols
• Different Kinds of Elements
• Chemical Families
• Alkali Metals
• Alkali Earth Metals
• The Noble Gases
• The Halogens

Topic 5 The Periodic Table

• Mendeleev Builds a Table
• Putting the Elements in Order
• Mass Number
• Periodic Table Models

Topic 6 Chemical Compounds

• Understanding Formulas for Compounds
• Molecular Compounds
• How Are Molecular Compounds Named?
• Ionic Compounds
• How Are Ionic Compounds Named?

Topic 7 Chemical Reactions

• Chemical Equations
• Breaking Chemical Bonds
Topic 8 Reaction Rate
• Speeding Up a Reaction With Catalysts
• Slowing Down a Reaction With Inhibitors
• Corrosion
• Preventing Corrosion
• Combustion
• Products of Combustion

Matter Links Science In Action

Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Topic 1 Exploring Matter

Safety First
A good science lab is a safe one. All of the procedures, equipment and chemicals you use have
been designed to help you understand the science principles you are investigating.

Go over the safety notes provided (link below) and be prepared to

take the safety test in class (do the practice test - link below - to help prepare you – the test in
class will be slightly different). Do the two activities in the Science Focus textbook as well (p. 93
Put Safety First & p. 94 Fasten Your Safety Seat Belt)
Notes: http://www.edquest.ca/Labs/labsafety.html
Practice Test: http://www.edquest.ca/Tests/safety.html

Classifying Matter
The particle model of matter is an important part of what you will be learning in this unit.
Recall that:
• All matter is made up of tiny particles.
• All the particles in a substance are the same; different substances are made of
different particles.
• There are attractive forces among particles-these attractions may be strong or weak.
• The particles are always moving; the more energy the particles gain, the faster they
move.
• There are spaces among the particles.

The Particle Model of Matter is a scientific model which helps to visualize a process we cannot
see directly. The first two points help us to understand that particles make up matter. The other
three points help to explain density and how matter behaves when temperature changes.

Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, or gas.

The Particle Model of Matter is useful in explaining the differences among solids, liquids, and
gases. Illustrations such as these help to clarity the particle theory.

Solids have a definite shape Liquids take the shape of its Gases always fill whatever
and volume because the container because the particles container they are in. The
particles of a solid can move can move around more freely attractions among the particles
only a little. They vibrate back than they can in solids. A of a gas are so weak that
and forth, but strong forces liquid's particles are held individual particles are quite far
hold them in fixed positions. together by strong attractions apart, with spaces among them.
to each other, so a liquid, like a Since gas particles are moving
solid, occupies a definite constantly and randomly in all
volume. directions, they spread
throughout their container, no
matter what its shape and
volume.
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Mixtures of Matter

A pure substance is made up of only one kind of

matter and has its own unique set of physical A mixture is a combination of 2 or more pure substances
properties.
Types of Pure Substances Types of Mixtures
• element • mechanical (heterogenous)
- cannot be broken down into any simpler - each substance in the mixture is visible
substance
• compound • solution (homogeneous)
- is a combination of two or more elements in - each substance is not clearly visible
fixed proportions (A substance dissolved in water is called an aqueous
solution)
• suspension
- is a cloudy mixture in which tiny particles are held
(suspended) with another substance, and can be
filtered out
• colloid (emulsions)
- is also a cloudy mixture, but the particles are so
small that they cannot be filtered out easily (emulsions
are types of colloids in which liquids are dispersed in
liquids)

Whether a mixture is a solution, colloid or suspension

depends on the size of the particles, solubility and
mixing ability (miscibility)
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Topic 2 - Changes In Matter

Matter can change from one form to another, or create new materials.

Every kind of matter has its own distinguishing characteristic properties that can be used to
identify the kind of matter it is. Properties are characteristics that can be used to describe how a
substance behaves substance. These properties can be physical or chemical.
Changes that matter can undergo fall into two classification categories: physical change and
chemical change.

A physical change occurs when a material changes form but not composition. A change of state
is an example of a physical change where energy is used or released.

No new substances are formed. The change is not permanent.

Dissolving is also a physical change.

A chemical change occurs when two or more substances react and create one or more new
substances. It is often permanent, although not always. Combustion is an example.

Can You Ever Be Sure About Changes?

It is often difficult to decide if a change is physical or chemical, so certain clues will help you
decide if a chemical change has occurred.
• Change in colour
• Change in odour
• Formation of a gas (bubbles) in a liquid
• Formation of a solid (precipitate) in a liquid
• Release or absorption of energy (heat)
• Materials you started with are used up
• A new material is formed
• The change is difficult to reverse
The only evidence that will guarantee a chemical change has occurred is that a new substance
has been formed.

Properties: Chemical or Physical?

Any property that can be observed without forming a new substance is a physical property.
These can include: color, texture, luster, smell, state, melting point, boiling point, hardness,
malleability, ductility, crystal shape, viscosity, solubility, density and conductivity (electrical and
heat).

Any property that describes how a substance reacts with another substance when forming a new
substance is a chemical property. Chemical properties include: reaction with acids, ability to burn
(combustibility), reaction with water, behaviour in air and reaction to heat, toxicity, stability.
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Topic 3 What Are Elements

The original ‘elements’ were earth, air, fire and water.

Ancient Greek philosophers thought matter was made out of these four ‘elements’.
They thought all things were made from these four elements with varying degrees of hotness,
coldness, dryness and wetness.

Alchemists (part pharmacist and part mystic) developed many useful procedures, including
distillation, and they described the properties of many different materials. They also thought they
could change lead and copper into gold. They used special symbols to prevent others from
finding out their secrets.

The current view of matter began with Sir Francis Bacon, who stated that all science should be
based on experimental evidence, rather than thought. Robert Boyle recognized that elements
could combine to form compounds. Bacon and Boyle motivated others to search for elements.

Taking Apart Matter

Scientists began using heating, burning, mixing, and cooling to take matter down until it could not
be broken down any further, to determine if a substance was a pure substance or a mixture.
Antoine Lavoisier defined elements as pure substances that could not be decomposed into
simpler substances by means of a chemical change. In this way he identified 23 pure substances
as elements. Lavoisier was one of the first chemists to use a balanced view of chemical change,
which we now call …

The Law of Conservation of Mass

In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants,
is always equal to the total mass of the products.

This law ties in well with the atomic theory, which states that atoms are never created or
destroyed. In a chemical reaction the atoms and molecules are simply rearranged.
This law of conservation of mass however does not apply to nuclear reactions, because there Is
some loss of mass: the mass is changed into energy. This was first suggested by Albert
Einstein in his famous equation:
E =MC2
2
(E Is Energy, M is Mass, C is a large number)
A very tiny amount of mass is equal to a very large amount of energy
In an open system some of the mass seems to disappear, when it is in the form of a gas.

Other scientists followed up on the law of conservation of mass by stating the …

Law of Definite Composition
Compounds are pure substances that contain two or more elements
combined together in fixed (or definite) proportions.
Water is an example of this law. Pure water always contains 11% Hydrogen and 89% Oxygen.
Chemistry Tutorials http://www.chemistrycoach.com/tutorials-2.htm

Law of Multiple Proportions states that the masses of one element, which combine with a fixed
mass of the second element, are in a ratio of whole numbers.

Pure substances have constant composition and properties. An unknown substance can be
identified by measuring a property of the substance (eg. density) and compare it to known values
of other substances. If the test property matches a known value, it is likely that substance,
because each substance has its own distinguishing properties unique to that substance.
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

New Discoveries

Allesandro Volta made the first practical battery (the

voltaic pile) around 1800, by piling zinc and copper
plates on top of each other, separating them with
electrolyte-soaked paper discs.
When this voltaic pile was hooked up to transfer the
electricity through water, they discovered hydrogen and
oxygen gases could be produced and the water level
dropped slightly. Using electricity to split molecules into
their elements was a process called electrolysis.
Scientists used electrolysis to isolate the elements
potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and
barium.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

John Dalton developed a theory that helped explain what happened in the electrolysis of water
and was a new way to explain chemical facts and laws. His Atomic Theory was widely accepted.
• All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms
• Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or divided into smaller particles.
• All atoms of the same element are identical in mass and size. Atoms of one element
are different in mass and size from the atoms of other elements.
• Compounds are created when atoms of different elements link together in definite
proportions

An element is a pure substance made up of only one type of particle, or atom. Each element has its own
unique set of distinguishing properties and cannot be broken down into simpler substances by means of a
chemical change.
A compound is a pure substance made up of 2 or more elements chemically combined together.
Compounds can be broken down into the elements that they are composed of.

Laws, Theories, Models, and Observations

In science, laws do not explain anything. They simply describe and summarize what happens.

Theories are imaginative ways to explain why something happens the way it does.

Theories are developed over the course of many observations and hundreds of experiments
before other scientists will accept it.

Observations Hypothesis Experiments Theory Time Revised Theory

as many
times revised
as needed Hypothesis

Scientific ideas may change over time as more evidence is gathered. Most of Dalton’s atomic
theory has stood the test of time, however, smaller particles (subatomic) have been discovered
and Dalton’s Theory needed to be revised.

Scientific models help others to visualize structures or processes that cannot be seen directly.

Some of the atomic models are illustrated on p. 113 in the Science Focus 9 textbook.
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

A Brief Timeline of Atomic Theory

Year Evolving Theory of Matter 3D Model

(Stone Age) Matter was made up of solid material,

8000 B.C.
which could be fashioned into tools. Stone implements

Chemists investigated the properties of only those

6000-1000 B.C. materials that were of high value to humans. Metals
(gold and copper)

(Bronze Age) The effect of heat on copper, lead to the

4500 B.C creation of a strong material (bronze) for use as Bronze tools
tools.

(Iron Age) Iron combined with carbon to make steel,

1200 B.C. Steel
for even stronger tools.

Everything was made out of

350 B.C. Air – Water - Earth – Fire Earth/Wind/Fire/Ice
(atomos particles)

Theory of Matter was based more on

1500 States of Matter
experimentation. (History of Alchemy)

1660 Particles can be compressed. (Boyle) Particles

System for the naming of chemicals was developed.

1770 Molecule
(Lavoisier)

Air is necessary for

1780 Molecules
combustion to occur.

A Brief History Atomic Models (p. 113 SF9)

Observation principles Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1808
during experimentation. (billiard ball model)

JJ Thomson
Raisin bun model
1897 Raisin bun
with charged particles.
(plum pudding model)

(1904) Negatively charged particles Ernest Rutherford

1911 orbiting around nucleus. (planetary model)

1913 Electrons rotate randomly Niels Bohr

(1922) around the nucleus. (atomic model)

the atom is a cloud of electrons

Today
around a nucleus
‘quantum model’
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Topic 4 Classifying Elements

Element Symbols
History of Chemical Symbols - http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/chemical_symbols.html

New elements continue to be discovered. Finding a pattern in an unknown helps scientists to

organize ideas and information. It also helps scientists to interpret what the information means
and explain these ideas, based on what they have learned.

Early chemists used symbols of the sun and the planets to identify the elements known to them.
This later was a problem, when more elements were discovered, because they ran out of planets.

Metal gold silver iron mercury tin copper lead

Symbol ♂ Ŏ ♀
Celestial
Sun Moon Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn
Body

John Dalton developed a new set of symbols in the early 1800’s to improve communication
between chemists.

Symbol G S
Element hydrogen oxygen carbon gold silver mercury

http://www.chemsoc.org/exemplarchem/entries/2001/robson/symbolspart1.htm

Berzelius later revised Dalton’s symbols by replacing them with letters, instead of pictures. He
represented the elements by their first letter (capitalized) or their first two letters (first one
capitalized and the second letter lower case).

Elements were listed in order of their atomic mass. Atomic mass is the mass of one atom of an
element. It is represented in atomic mass units (amu).

John Newland’s “law of octaves” identified the pattern in which the properties of the elements
seemed to repeat at regular intervals, similar to the octave scale in music.

Demitri Mendeleev later revised the pattern in 1869, when he organized the elements into the first
periodic table.
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Different Kinds of Elements

One way of classifying elements is to sort them into categories, based on their distinct properties.
Long before anyone knew any detail about the atoms or any of the periodic properties the
elements were divided into two broad categories → metals and non-metals.
Distinct properties of metals were malleability and ductility, shiny luster
and were solid at room temperature (except mercury).
Non-metals: some were gases, solids or liquids; solid non-metals are
brittle; they are flexible, dull and non-conductors of electricity or heat.
In-between elements were called ‘metalloids’, having properties of
both metals and non-metals.

Transition Metals - The 38 elements in groups 3 to 12 are called transition metals. The
only elements in this group known to produce a magnetic field are
iron, cobalt and nickel.
Other Metals - There are 7 elements considered "other metals" in groups 13 to 15. All
these elements are solid with a high density. Examples are tin,
aluminum and lead.
Metalloids - These elements have both metal and non-metal properties. Some of
them are semi-conductors, which means, they can carry an electrical
charge under special conditions. Metalloids are great for computers
and calculators.
Non-Metals - These fall into groups 14 to 16 in the periodic table. They can't
conduct heat or electricity very well and are brittle. They also can't be
made into wire or sheets. At room temperature, non-metals turn into
gasses and solids.
Rare Earth Elements - There are 30 rare earth elements. Many of them are synthetic or man-
made. They're found in group three of the periodic table and the sixth
and seventh groups.

Chemical Families
Chemical family is a term used to describe a group of related elements that have similar
properties.

Alkali Metals - These are group 1 in the periodic table. They don't occur freely in
nature and are softer than most metals. Like all metals, they are great
heat conductors and can even explode if exposed to water – they are
very reactive and need special storage. They easily give off an
unpaired electron by forming a compound.

Alkaline Earth Metals - These are group 2 in the periodic table. Because they're extremely
reactive, they aren't found freely in nature. An example of an alkaline
earth metal is radium.

Noble Gases - The 6 noble gases are in group 18. All of them have the maximum
number of electrons possible in their outer shell which makes them
stable. Examples of noble gases are helium, neon and krypton.

Halogens - All 5 halogens are non-metallic elements. Compounds that contain

halogen are called ‘salts’. At room temperature, they are in three
states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Topic 5 The Periodic Table

Mendeleev Builds a Table

The system of using atomic mass to classify and organize all the elements
known and undiscovered was created based on Dalton’s Theory,
by Dmitiri Mendeleev (1834-1907)

Ti=50 Zr=90 ?[2]=180

Mendeleev collected the 63 elements V=51 Nb=94 Ta=182
known at the time and arranged them Cr=52 Mo=96 W=186
according to their atomic mass - the Rh=104,4[3
Mn=55 Pt=197,4[4]
average mass of an atom of an element - ]
(which he wrote on a file card). Fe=56 Ru=104,4 Ir=198
Ni=Co=59 Pd=106,6 Os=199
He then arranged the cards into a H=1[5] Cu=63,4 Ag=108 Hg=200
‘solitaire-like’ table. He played with them, Be=9,4 Mg=24 Zn=65,2 Cd=112
by sorting and arranging the elements in B=11 Al=27,4 ?[6]=68 Ur=116[7] Au=197?
many different combinations. C=12 Si=28 ?[8]=70 Sn=118
N=14 P=31 As=75 Sb=122 Bi=210?
Mendeleev was able to identify gaps
O=16 S=32 Se=79,4 Te=128?
where elements, not yet discovered,
F=19 Cl=35,5 Br=80 J=127[9]
would be able to fit.
Li=7 Na=23 K=39 Rb=85,4 Cs=133 Tl=204

Find out more about Dmitri Mendeleev Ca=40 Sr=87,6 Ba=137 Pb=207
Blast From The Past @ ?[10]=45 Ce=92[11]
http://www.edquest.ca/content/view/214/ ?Er=56 La=94
?Yt=60 Di=95
?In=75,6 Th=118?

Putting the Elements in Order

When Mendeleev arranged the elements in order of their mass he found that the properties of the
elements repeated at periodic intervals. This enabled him to group elements into families. The
gaps he left in the organization of the elements in his table were filled in many years later when
more elements were discovered. In 1875 gallium was discovered and proved that Mendeleev’s
organization of the elements worked, because it fit in where he had placed a (?). The next (?)
was not replaced until 1939 when francium was discovered. In 1915 the Modern Periodic Table
was reorganized with a focus on atomic structure and included more information about each
element.

Atomic Number – An element is defined by the number of protons it has. Carbon

The number of protons an atoms have six protons, hydrogen atoms have one proton and
atom has is called the atomic oxygen atoms have eight protons. The chemical behavior of an
number. element depends on the number of protons in an atom.

Mass Number - The atomic mass number of an element is simply the sum of the
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of 1 atom of the element.
Atomic Symbol - These are almost always one or two letters that represent an
element. They're used worldwide and usually relate to the name of
the element or the Latin name of the element. An example of this
is "O" for Oxygen and "Ca" for Calcium.
Atomic Mass – The average mass of an element in atomic mass units (amu.) The
To find the average number mass in an atom is roughly the mass of one proton or neutron. The
of neutrons for an element, atomic mass is a decimal number on the Periodic Table because
simply subtract the number it's an average of the various isotopes (one or more atoms that
of protons (atomic number) have the same atomic number but different mass numbers) of an
from that atomic mass. element.
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Periodic Table Models

About 112 elements are known today.

They are organized into what is called ‘The Periodic Table of Elements’

Understanding the Periodic Table ( Web Elements.com )

Horizontal rows are called periods (numbered 1-7)

Vertical columns form a group, or family of elements (numbered 1-18)

There are so many good resources available to help you look into the details of the Periodic
Table and also to help you with Think and Link Investigation 2-D (Science Focus pgs. 129-133)
Meet the Modern Periodic Table, that you should have access to the Internet when you
complete the investigation.

Periodic City – A Site that shows many different versions of the Period Table
http://www.mpcfaculty.net/ron_rinehart/periodic.htm
[Other versions] http://chemlab.pc.maricopa.edu/periodic/foldedtable.html
Los Alamos Periodic Table
Visual Elements (Flash Version)
Pictorial Periodic Table - http://chemlab.pc.maricopa.edu/periodic/periodic.html
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Topic 6 - Chemical Compounds

When any of the 112 elements combine into groups of 2 or more they form compounds. If an
atom of an element transfers electrons to another atom of a different element, an ionic compound
is formed. If atoms of elements are shared, a molecular compound is formed.

Understanding Formulas for Compounds

The combination of elements to form compounds has a chemical formula and a chemical name.
The chemical formula uses symbols and numerals to identify which elements and how many
atoms of each element are present in the compound.
For example:
ethanol ( C2 H6 O ) has 2 carbon atoms, 6 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom

To determine a chemical name, a standardized chemical naming system, or nomenclature, is

used. Guyton de Morveau in France developed it in 1787. The metal name is always first. Since
1920, the IUPAC ( International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ) is responsible for determining
the appropriate name for each compound.

If you know the formula for a compound you can determine its chemical name
If you know its name, you can determine its formula.

Write the chemical formula as determined by the name of the compound.

(If a poly atomic ion is part of the formula, keep the poly-atomic ion intact)
Aluminum oxide 2 - Al 3-O Al2O3
Calcium nitrite 1 - Ca 2 - NO2 Ca(NO2)2
Sodium Chloride 1 - Na 2 – Cl2 NaCl
If the compound contains a metal the compound is ionic.
If the compound does not contain a metal, it is molecular.
Write the name of the compound as determined by the chemical formula.
Al2O3 2 - Al 3-O Aluminum oxide
Ca(NO2)2 1 - Ca 2 - NO2 Calcium nitrite
NaCl 1 - Na 2 – Cl2 Sodium Chloride

Chemical Name & Atomic

Physical State Chemical Formula
model
C6H12O6
The chemical formula for glucose tells us that
Glucose (s) - solid
each molecule is made of 6 carbon atoms, 12
hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms.
Nitrogen dioxide (g) - gas
NO2
Carbon dioxide (g) - gas
CO2
Water (l) – liquid
H2O

(aq) – aqueous solution This is used when substances are dissolved in water.
A saltwater solution would be NaCl (aq)
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Molecular Compounds

A molecule is the smallest independent unit of a pure substance. Diatomic molecules are
molecules made up of 2 atoms of the same element (oxygen O2, nitrogen N2, hydrogen H2). Most
molecular compounds do not form large structures.
When non-metals combine, they produce a pure
substance called a molecule, or molecular Properties of molecular compounds
compound. They can be solids, liquids, or gases at • Low melting point
room temperature. The bonding between atoms is • Low boiling point
strong, but the attraction between the molecules is • Good insulators
weak. • Poor conductors
• Distinct crystal shape
Examples: sugar ( C12H22O11(s) )
acetylene, water

Of the 10 million compounds discovered so far, about 9 million are molecular compounds

Writing Formulas For Molecular Compounds

The formula tells how many of each type of atom is present in the molecule.

How Are Molecular Compounds Named?

A compound made from two elements is called a binary compound.
Rules for naming binary molecular compounds:
1. The first element in the compound uses the element name # of Atoms Prefix
2. The second element has a suffix – ide – 1 mono
2 di
3. When there is more than 1 atom in the formula, a prefix is used 3 tri
which tells how many atoms there are: 4 tetra
5 penta
6 hexa-
7 hepta-
4. Exception to #3 above – when the first element has only 1
atom the prefix mono is not used 8 octa-
9 nona-
10 deca-

Examples: CO2(g) carbon dioxide CCl4(l) carbon tetrachloride SiO2(s) Silicon dioxide

If you are changing from the written name to the chemical symbol:
1. Write the symbols for the elements in the same order as they appear in the name.
2. Use subscripts to indicate the numbers of each type of atom.
Some molecular compounds are better known by their common names rather than their chemical
names, example: water H2O is actually dihydrogen oxide, propane C3H8 is tricarbon octahydride.
The bracketed symbol following the chemical formula represents what state (solid, liquid, gas) the
compound is in. (aq) means aqueous (water) solution.
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds are pure substances formed as a

result of the attraction between particles of opposite Properties of ionic compounds
charges, called ions. When an atom gains or loses • High melting point
electrons, the atom is no longer neutral – it is an ion, • Good electrical conductivity
either positively or negatively charged. • Distinct crystal shape
• Solid at room temperature

Sodium Chloride ( table salt ) – NaCl – is an ionic compound. When it is dissolved in water, the
metal (Na) loses an electron – to become positively charged - and the nonmetal (Cl2) gains an
electron – to be negatively charged - forming an aqueous solution of ions. Conductivity is the
ability of a substance to carry an electric current. The ionic salt solution provides good
conductivity. Positive sodium ions attract negative chloride ions to form a cube-shaped
arrangement (ionic model). The force holding them together is called ionic bonds.

Ion Charges
A superscript ( + ) or a ( – ) are used to indicate the charge. Na+ and Cl-
Some ions can also form when certain atoms of elements combine. These ions are called
polyatomic ions (poly meaning “many”). Polyatomic atoms are a group of atoms acting as one.
Example:
1 carbon atom reacting with 3 oxygen atoms produces
1 carbonate group of atoms, which act as one. CO32-

Then, when carbonate ions react with calcium atoms they produce
calcium carbonate, or known by its common name - limestone. Ca CO32-

How Are Ionic Compounds Named?

Two rules:
1. The chemical name of the metal or positive ion goes first,
followed by the name of the non-metal or negative ion.
2. The name of the non-metal negative ion changes its ending to ide.
NB: one exception – Where negative ions are polyatomic ions, the name remains unchanged.
Some elements with more than one ion charge use a roman numeral in its chemical name to
clearly show which ion is being used. Cu(II)SO4 (Copper II Sulfate)

Using Ion Charges and Chemical Names To Write Formulas

Step 1 – Print the metal element’s name, symbol and ion charge,
Ca2+ Cl1-
then the non-metals name, symbol and ion charge
Step 2 – Balance the ion charges (the positive ion must balance with
Ca2+ Cl1- Cl1-
the negative ion
Step 3 – Write the formula by indicating how many atoms of each
CaCl2
element are in it.

Periodic Table Patterns: ion charge

Alkali metals 1+
Halogens 1-
Generally elements in a group all have the same ion charge (most consistency at either end of the table)

All ionic compounds have distinct (different) crystal shapes.

Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Topic 7 Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reaction Movies ( So Cool! ) Examples of Chemical Reactions

http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/jcesoft/cca/cca0/sampmovs.htm http://www.howe.k12.ok.us/~jimaskew/creact.htm
Chemical Reactions in the body (see figure 2.47 on page 146)
Cellular Respiration is a chemical reaction that takes place in the cells in your body.
Animations of cellular respiration

A chemical reaction takes place when two or more substances combine to form new
substances. Different types of chemical reactions can occur, including combination,
decomposition, displacement and exchange reactions. The substances at the beginning of
the reaction are called reactants. The new materials produced by the reaction are called
products. The properties of the products differ from those of the reactants, thus a chemical
change has occurred. A chemical change results from a chemical reaction. Evidence that a
chemical change has occurred include:
• A change in colour
• The formation of an odour
• The formation of a solid (precipitate) or a gas (bubbles)
• The release or absorption of energy
¾ A chemical change, which releases energy, is called EXOTHERMIC.
¾ A chemical change, which absorbs energy, is called ENDOTHERMIC

Chemical Equations
Chemical reactions can be written as word equations which gives the names of all the reactants
(separated by a "plus' sign + ) followed by an arrow which points to the names of all the products
(separated by a 'plus' sign +)
eg. ( iron + oxygen + water Æ rust )
(Iron plus oxygen plus water produces rust)
Reactants -> Products

Combustion is a chemical reaction that occurs when oxygen reacts with a substance to form a
new substance and gives off energy.
Identification Tests:
¾ for OXYGEN
Light a wooden splint. Blow out the flame, allowing the splint to continue glowing. Hold the glowing splint in a
small amount of the unknown gas. If the splint bursts into flame, then the gas being tested is oxygen.
¾ for HYDROGEN
Light a wooden splint. Hold the glowing splint in a small amount of the unknown gas. If you hear a "pop",
then the gas being tested is Hydrogen.
¾ for CARBON DIOXIDE
If you put a burning splint into Carbon Dioxide, the flame will go out and you will know the gas is not oxygen
or hydrogen, but you will not know for sure that it is Carbon Dioxide. The test for Carbon Dioxide is not a
combustion test, but rather uses a liquid called limewater (a clear colorless solution of calcium hydroxide, or
slaked lime). Bubble the unknown gas through the limewater solution, or add a few drops of the limewater
solution to the gas and swirl it around. If the limewater turns milky, the gas is Carbon Dioxide.

Although a chemical equation may look complicated, by knowing what you know now, it should
be much easier to understand.
HC2H3O2(l) + NaHCO3(g) -> NaC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(vinegar) (baking soda) (sodium acetate) (water) (carbon dioxide)

Breaking Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonds are forces that cause a group of atoms to behave as a unit. Energy is stored in
these bonds. To break the bonds energy must be added. When bonds form, energy is released.
All chemical reactions involve energy being absorbed ENDOTHERMIC, or released EXOTHERMIC.
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction, because it needs light energy to occur, whereas
combustion is an exothermic reaction, because it gives off light and heat.
Science Focus 9 Matter and Chemical Change Class Notes

Topic 8 Reaction Rate

The speed of a chemical reaction is called the reaction rate.

¾ Temperature of the reactants affects the rate of all reactions (The higher the temperature
the faster the reaction rate)
¾ Surface Area of the reactants affects the reaction rate (The more surface in contact, the
faster the reaction rate)
¾ Concentration of the reactants affects the reaction rate. (The higher the concentration,
the faster the reaction rate)
¾ The presence of a Catalyst affects the reaction rate

Speeding Up a Reaction With Catalysts

A catalyst is a substance that help a reaction proceed faster and are not consumed in the
reaction. Types of reactions involving catalysts can be found in living and non-living things.
Enzymes are natural catalysts that help in the reactions in the body, which break down food.
They also get rid of poison in the body. Catalase (an enzyme found in plant and animal cells)
speeds up the breaking down of hydrogen peroxide into harmless oxygen and water.

Slowing Down a Reaction With Inhibitors

Inhibitors are substances that slow down chemical reactions. Plants have natural inhibitors in
their seeds to prevent germination until the right conditions are present. Inhibitors are added to
foods to slow down their decomposition.

Corrosion
Corrosion is a slow chemical change that occurs when oxygen in the air reacts with a metal.
Corrosion is a chemical reaction in which the metal is decomposed (eaten away), when it reacts
with other substances in the environment. The corrosion of iron is called 'rusting'.

Many metals can corrode. The green roofs of the parliament buildings are an example of
corrosion. The red-brown copper color is replaced with the green color because copper corrodes.
Gold does not corrode. Solid solutions of metals (alloys) resist corrosion.

Preventing Corrosion
Corrosion protection (e.g. painting the metal) involves protecting metal from contact with the
environment and the factors that affect the reaction rate of this chemical reaction. Coating a
corrosive metal with a thin layer of zinc is called galvanization. The process of coating a
corrosive metal with another metal through electrolysis (review p.110) is called electroplating.

Combustion
Combustion is the highly exothermic combination of a substance with oxygen. Combustion
requires heat, oxygen, and fuel.

Products of Combustion
The burning of propane ( C3H8 ) in a barbeque is an exothermic reaction that produces heat to
cook the food. If the heat is too intense, the products being cooked will be changed into pure
carbon (the meat will be burnt). The products of combustion are not always beneficial. Burning
fossil fuels (such as propane) produces carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, smoke, soot, ash and heat. Some of these products are pollutants which will be covered
in more detail in Environmental Chemistry – Unit C.

H H H

H–C–C–C–H ( Propane C3H8 )

H H H