Introduction

Describing Data: Frequency Tables, Frequency Distributions, and Graphic Presentation

Describing Data: Numerical Measures
Describing Data: Measures of shape

Introduction to Statistics
BA HRM, BA CED, BA MFED & BA ME

Jamberi E. Mangarama

November 11, 2016

Moshi Co-operative University

Moshi, Tanzania

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 Introduction
Describing Data: Frequency Tables, Frequency Distributions, and Graphic Presentation
Describing Data: Numerical Measures
Describing Data: Measures of shape

Goals

 Understand why we study statistics

 Explain what is meant by descriptive statistics and

inferential statistics

 Distinguish between a qualitative variable and a

quantitative variable

 Describe how a discrete variable is different from a

continuous variable

 Scales of measurement.
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Describing Data: Numerical Measures
Describing Data: Measures of shape

What is meant by Statistics

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,

presenting, analyzing, and interpreting numerical
data to assist in making more effective decisions.

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Who Uses Statistics?

Statistical techniques are used extensively in

marketing, accounting, quality control, consumers,
professional sports people, hospital administrators,
educators, politicians, physicians, etc...

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Types of Statistics

Descriptive Statistics: Methods of organizing, summarizing,

and presenting data in an informative way.
E.g. According to Consumer Reports, General Electric washing
machine owners in Moshi municipality reported 9 problems per
100 machines during 2010. The statistic 9 describes the
number of problems out of every 100 machines.

Inferential Statistics: A decision, estimate, prediction, or

generalization about a population, based on a sample. It
consists of methods of drawing conclusions about the
population based on information obtained from few events of
incidences (sample).

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Population versus Sample

A population is a collection of all possible

individuals, objects, or measurements of interest

A sample is a portion , or part, of the population of

interest

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Types of Data

Qualitative or Attribute data: Are data that cannot be

expressed in units of measurements. These data give
non-numerical information.
E.g. Gender, religious affiliation, type of automobile owned,
state of birth, eye color are examples.

Quantitative data: Are data that are measurable and can be

quantified in units of measurements. These data give
numerical information.Information is reported numerically. E.g.
Balance in your checking account, minutes remaining in class,
or number of children in a family, weight in kg, distance in km,
etc

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Describing Data: Numerical Measures
Describing Data: Measures of shape

Quantitative data classifications

Quantitative data can be classified as either discrete or

continuous.
Discrete data: can only assume certain values and there are
usually ’gaps’ between values.
E.g. the number of bedrooms in a house, or the number of
hammers sold at the local Home Depot (1,2,3,,etc).

Continuous data: can assume any value within a specified

range. E.g. The pressure in a tire, the weight of a pork chop,
or the height of students in a class, etc.

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Describing Data: Numerical Measures
Describing Data: Measures of shape

Goals

 Organize qualitative data into a frequency table.

 Present a frequency table as a bar chart or a pie chart.

 Organize quantitative data into a frequency distribution.

 Present a frequency distribution for quantitative data

using histograms, frequency polygons, and cumulative
frequency polygons.

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Describing Data: Numerical Measures
Describing Data: Measures of shape

Frequency Distribution Table

A frequency distribution is the organization of

raw data in table format, using classes and
frequency.

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Describing Data: Numerical Measures
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Example

The number of miles that the employees

of a large department store traveled to work each day

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Example cont..
A frequency distribution to represent the above raw
data could be....

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Describing Data: Numerical Measures
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How to construct a grouped frequency distribution?

Choose between 5 and 20 classes (groups)

Sometimes statisticians use ”2 to the k” rule to
determine the number of classes
Classes should be mutually exclusive or
non-overlapping
Classes should be exhaustive
Choose classes of equal length as far as possible

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”2 to the k” rule

Essentially we would look to construct k classes for

our frequency distribution, when the value of 2k first
exceeds the number of observations in our sample.

So, if we had a sample with 39 observations, we

would first consider constructing 6 classes, because
26 = 64, the first power of 2 with a value larger
than the sample size of 39

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”2 to the k” rule cont..

A guide, not a dictator.

Strictly speaking the 2k rule is a guide, not a rule. If
the 2k rule suggests you need 6 classes, also consider
using 5 or 7 classes ... but certainly not 3 or 9.

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Class width

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Derived concepts

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Example

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Example cont..

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Derived concepts cont..

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Graphic presentation of a Frequency Distribution

The three commonly used graphic forms are;

 Histograms
 Frequency polygons
 Cumulative frequency distributions (ogive)

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Histogram

A histogram is a graph that displays the data by

using contiguous vertical bars (unless the frequency
of a class is 0) of various heights to represent the
frequencies of the classes

The classes are marked on the horizontal axis and

the class frequencies on the vertical axis. The class
frequencies are represented by the heights of the
bars.

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Example

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Example cont..

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Frequency polygon

A frequency polygon also shows the shape of a

distribution and is similar to a histogram.

It consists of line segments connecting the points

formed by the intersections of the class midpoints
and the class frequencies.

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Example cont..

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Cumulative frequency polygon (Ogive)

The Ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative

frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution

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Example cont..

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Example cont..

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Other types of graphs

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Example

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Example cont..

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Pie graph

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Example

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Example cont..

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Example cont..

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Stem and Leaf Plots

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Example

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Example cont..

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Goals

 Calculate the arithmetic mean, weighted mean, median,

mode, and geometric mean.

 Explain the characteristics, uses, advantages, and

disadvantages of each measure of location.

 Identify the position of the mean, median, and mode for

both symmetric and skewed distributions.

 Compute and interpret the range, mean deviation,

variance, and standard deviation.

 Understand the characteristics, uses, advantages, and

disadvantages of each measure of dispersion.
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In a nutshell

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In plain and simple english

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Measures of location

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Measures of location cont..

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Measures of location cont..

The mean

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Measures of location cont..

The mean

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Measures of location cont..

The arithmetic mean

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Measures of location cont..

The geometric mean

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Measures of location cont..

The harmonic mean

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Measures of location cont..

The weighted mean

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Measures of location cont..

The median

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Measures of location cont..

The median (Ungrouped data)

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Measures of location cont..

The median (Ungrouped data)

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Measures of location cont..

The median (Ungrouped data)

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Measures of location cont..

The median (Grouped data)

 For a grouped data, the median is the middle

observation of a distribution of arranged
numerical data.
 This value sometimes is denoted by x̃
 If the distribution has a total frequency of n, we
must count n/2 items starting at either end.

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Measures of location cont..

The median (Grouped data) cont..

The median obtained by interpolation is given by;

n
−

cf
Q2 = LCB + 2 ×c
f
where;

LCB=Lower confidence boundary of the median

class
n =Number of items in the data
cf =Cumulative freq. before the median class
f =Freq. of the median class
c =Size of the median class interval 56 / 94
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Measures of location cont..

The mode

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Measures of location cont..

The mode (grouped data)

 For a grouped data, the mode is the observation

which occurs the most or with the highest
frequency.
 This value sometimes is denoted by x̂

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Measures of location cont..

The mode (Grouped data) cont..

From a frequency distribution or histogram the

mode can be obtained from the formula;
 
∆1
X̂ = LCB + ×c
∆1 + ∆2
where;
LCB=Lower confidence boundary of the modal class
∆1 =Excess of modal frequency over frequency of next lower
class
∆2 =Excess of modal frequency over frequency of next higher
class
c =Size of the modal class interval
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Dispersion

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Measures of dispersion

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Measures of dispersion cont..

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Measures of dispersion cont..

The range

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Measures of dispersion cont..

The range

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Measures of dispersion cont..

The standard deviation

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Measures of dispersion cont..

The standard deviation

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Measures of dispersion cont..

The standard deviation (grouped data)

From a frequency distribution or histogram the

standard deviation can be obtained from the
formula; s
fi (xi − x̄)2
P
s=
n−1

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Measures of dispersion cont..

The mean absolute deviation

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Measures of dispersion cont..

The mean absolute deviation

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Measures of dispersion cont..

The coefficient of variation

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Measures of dispersion cont..

The coefficient of variation

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Measures of dispersion cont..

Quartile deviation

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Measures of dispersion cont..

Quartile deviation cont..

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Measures of dispersion cont..

Quartile deviation

Although quartiles are not measures of dispersion, but they are

useful in computing quartile deviation.
Quartiles: Divides data into four sets (after ordering from
least to greatest)
 Q1 Quartile 1 (Lower quartile)
 Med Quartile 2 (Median)
 Q3 Quartile 3 (Upper quartile)
InterQuartile Range: Middle 50% (falls between Q1 & Q3)

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Measures of dispersion cont..

Quartile deviation..

The procedure for computing quartiles is the same

as for the median. In general, the quartiles are
computed by;
!
in
− cf
Qi = LCB + 4 ×c
fQi
where;
LCB=Lower confidence boundary of the i th quartile
n =Number of items in the data
cf =Cumulative freq. before the i th quartiles
fQi =Freq. of the i th quartile
c =Size of the i th quartile class interval 75 / 94
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Box and Whisker Plot

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Box and Whisker Plot cont..

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Box and Whisker Plot cont..

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Box and Whisker Plot cont..

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Skewness

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Skewness cont..

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Skewness cont..

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Measures of skewness

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Measures of skewness
Pearson’s coefficient

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Measures of skewness
Pearson’s coefficient cont..

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Measures of skewness
Quartile coefficient

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Measures of skewness
Quartile coefficient cont..

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Kurtosis

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Kurtosis cont..

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Kurtosis cont..

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Kurtosis cont..

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Measures of kurtosis

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Measures of Kurtosis cont..

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Summary of descriptive statistics

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