PHYSIC AL CONSTANTS

CONSTANT SYMBOL THREE-FIGURE VALUE BEST KNOWN VALUE*

Speed of light c 3.003108 m/s 299 792 458 m/s (exact)
Elementary charge e 1.60310219 C 1.602 176 4871402 310219 C
Electron mass me 9.11310231 kg 9.109 382 151452 310231 kg
Proton mass mp 1.67310227 kg 1.672 621 6371832 310227 kg
Gravitational constant G 6.67310211 N # m2/kg 2 6.674 281672 310211 N # m2/kg 2
Permeability constant m0 1.2631026 N/A2 1H/m2 4p31027 (exact)
Permittivity constant P0 8.85310212 C 2/N # m2 1F/m2 1/m0c2 (exact)
Boltzmann’s constant k 1.38310223 J/K 1.380 65041242 310223 J/K
Universal gas constant R 8.31 J/K # mol 8.314 4721152 J/K # mol
Stefan–Boltzmann constant s 5.6731028 W/m2 # K4 5.670 4001402 31028 W/m2 # K4
Planck’s constant h 15 2p"2 6.63310234 J # s 6.626 068 961332 310234 J # s
Avogadro’s number NA 6.0231023 mol21 6.022 141 791302 31023 mol21
Bohr radius a0 5.29310211 m 5.291 772 08591362 310211 m
*Parentheses indicate uncertainties in last decimal places. Source: U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2007 values

SI PREFIXES THE GREEK ALPHABET

POWER PREFIX SYMBOL UPPERCASE LOWERCASE
1024 yotta Y Alpha A a
1021 zetta Z Beta B b
1018 exa E Gamma G g
1015 peta P Delta D d
1012 tera T Epsilon E P
109 giga G Zeta Z z
106 mega M Eta H h
103 kilo k Theta U u
102 hecto h Iota I i
101 deca da Kappa K k
100 — — Lambda L l
1021 deci d Mu M m
1022 centi c Nu N n
1023 milli m Xi J j
1026 micro μ Omicron O o
1029 nano n Pi P p
10212 pico p Rho R r
10215 femto f Sigma S s
10218 atto a Tau T t
10221 zepto z Upsilon Y y
10224 yocto y Phi F f
Chi X x
Psi C c
Omega V v

Conversion Factors (more conversion factors in Appendix C)

Length Mass, energy, force Pressure
1 in 5 2.54 cm 1 u 5 1.661310227 kg 1 atm 5 101.3 kPa 5 760 mm Hg
1 mi 5 1.609 km 1 cal 5 4.184 J 1 atm 5 14.7 lb/in2
1 ft 5 0.3048 m 1 Btu 5 1.054 kJ
1 light year 5 9.4631015 m 1 kWh 5 3.6 MJ Rotation and angle
1 eV 5 1.602310219 J 1 rad 5 180°/p 5 57.3°
Velocity 1 pound 1lb2 5 4.448 N 1 rev 5 360° 5 2p rad
1 mi/h 5 0.447 m/s 5 weight of 0.454 kg 1 rev/s 5 60 rpm
1 m/s 5 2.24 mi/h 5 3.28 ft/s
Time Magnetic field
1 day 5 86,400 s 1 gauss 5 1024 T
1 year 5 3.163107 s
Essential

UNIVERSITY PHYSICS SECOND EDITION

Richard Wolfson
Middlebury College
Publisher: James Smith
Executive Editor: Nancy Whilton
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Wolfson, Richard.
Essential university physics / Richard Wolfson.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-321-70669-0 (v. 1 : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-321-70669-2 (alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-0-321-71204-2 (v. 2 : alk. paper)
ISBN 10: 0-321-70669-2; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-70669-0
ISBN-10: 0-321-71204-8 (alk. paper)
(Volume 1 without Mastering Physics)
1. Physics—Textbooks. I. Title.
ISBN 10: 0-321-71204-8; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71204-2
QC21. 3.W65 2012
(Volume 1 with Mastering Physics)
530—dc22
ISBN 10: 0-321-71206-4; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71206-6
2010039884
(Volume 1 Exam copy)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—EB—14 13 12 11 10
ISBN 10: 0-321-70127-5; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-70127-5
(Volume 2 without Mastering Physics)
ISBN 10: 0-321-71174-2; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71174-8
(Volume 2 with Mastering Physics)
ISBN 10: 0-321-71198-X; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71198-4
(Volume 2 Exam copy)
 Brief Contents
Chapter 22 Electric Potential 372
Chapter 1 Doing Physics 1
Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors 389
PART ONE Chapter 24 Electric Current 403

Mechanics 12 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits 419

Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line 13 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field 439

Chapter 3 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions 30 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction 466

Chapter 4 Force and Motion 48 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits 491

Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws 66 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and

Electromagnetic Waves 510
Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power 85
Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy 101 PART FIVE
Chapter 8 Gravity 118
Optics 531
Chapter 9 Systems of Particles 133
Chapter 30 Reflection and Refraction 532
Chapter 10 Rotational Motion 155
Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments 544
Chapter 11 Rotational Vectors and Angular
Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction 564
Momentum 174
Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium 186
PART SIX

PART TWO Modern Physics 585

Chapter 33 Relativity 586
Oscillations, Waves, and Fluids 203
Chapter 34 Particles and Waves 609
Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion 204
Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics 628
Chapter 14 Wave Motion 224
Chapter 36 Atomic Physics 644
Chapter 15 Fluid Motion 246
Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids 662
PART THREE Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics 680

Thermodynamics 264 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos 706

Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat 265

APPENDICES
Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 282
Appendix A Mathematics A-1
Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law
of Thermodynamics 295 Appendix B The International System of Units (SI) A-9

Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 312 Appendix C Conversion Factors A-11
Appendix D The Elements A-13
PART FOUR Appendix E Astrophysical Data A-16
Electromagnetism 331 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-17
Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field 332 Credits C-1
Index I-1
Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law 351
iii
 About the Author

Richard Wolfson
Richard Wolfson is the Benjamin F. Wissler Professor of Physics at Middlebury College,
where he has taught since 1976. He did undergraduate work at MIT and Swarthmore Col-
lege, and he holds an M.S. degree from the University of Michigan and Ph.D. from Dart-
mouth. His ongoing research on the Sun’s corona and climate change has taken him
to sabbaticals at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado;
St. Andrews University in Scotland; and Stanford University.
Rich is a committed and passionate teacher. This is reflected in his many publications
for students and the general public, including the video series Einstein’s Relativity and the
Quantum Revolution: Modern Physics for Nonscientists (The Teaching Company, 1999),
Physics in Your Life (The Teaching Company, 2004), and How the Universe Works:
Understanding Physics, from Quark to Galaxy (The Teaching Company, 2011); books
Nuclear Choices: A Citizen’s Guide to Nuclear Technology (MIT Press, 1993), Simply
Einstein: Relativity Demystified (W. W. Norton, 2003), and Energy, Environment, and
Climate (W. W. Norton, 2007); and articles for Scientific American and the World Book
Encyclopedia.
Outside of his research and teaching, Rich enjoys hiking, canoeing, gardening, cook-
ing, and watercolor painting.

iv
 Preface to the Instructor
Introductory physics texts have grown ever larger, more massive, more encyclopedic,
more colorful, and more expensive. Essential University Physics bucks that trend—with-
out compromising coverage, pedagogy, or quality. The text benefits from the author’s
three decades of teaching introductory physics, seeing firsthand the difficulties and mis-
conceptions that students face as well as the “Got It!” moments when big ideas become
clear. It also builds on the author’s honing multiple editions of a previous calculus-based
textbook and on feedback from hundreds of instructors and students.

Goals of This Book

Physics is the fundamental science, at once fascinating, challenging, and subtle—and yet
simple in a way that reflects the few basic principles that govern the physical universe. My
goal is to bring this sense of physics alive for students in a range of academic disciplines
who need a solid calculus-based physics course—whether they’re engineers, physics ma-
jors, premeds, biologists, chemists, geologists, mathematicians, computer scientists, or
other majors. My own courses are populated by just such a variety of students, and among
my greatest joys as a teacher is having students who took a course only because it was re-
quired say afterwards that they really enjoyed their exposure to the ideas of physics. More
specifically, my goals include:
● Helping students build the analytical and quantitative skills and confidence needed
to apply physics in problem solving for science and engineering.
● Adressing key misconceptions and helping students build a stronger conceptual un-
derstanding.
● Helping students see the relevance and excitement of the physics they’re studying
with contemporary applications in science, technology, and everyday life.
● Helping students develop an appreciation of the physical universe at its most funda-
mental level.
● Engaging students with an informal, conversational writing style that balances pre-
cision with approachability.

New to This Edition

We’ve updated this second edition based on user feedback to expand coverage of a few
● Complete edition Volumes 1–2
key topics and abbreviate coverage of some that are less widely taught. We’ve also (shrinkwrapped) with Mastering-
added new and revised features to improve conceptual understanding and spotlight rele- Physics® (ISBN 0-321-714-
vancy, and have completely overhauled end-of-chapter problem sets. Specific changes 385): Chapters 1–39
include:
● Volume 1 with Mastering-
Physics® (ISBN 0-321-71204-8):
● Expanded coverage of impulse (Ch. 9), the addition of the wave equation (Ch.14), Chapters 1–19
and a new statistical treatment of entropy (Ch. 19). ● Volume 2 with Mastering-
● Reduced coverage of toroids (Ch. 26) and phasors (Ch. 28). Physics® (ISBN 0-321-71174-2):
● New Conceptual Examples that contain a Making the Connection follow-up Chapters 20–39
question applying the concept from the example to a quantitative problem based on ● Complete edition Volumes 1–2
a real-world situation. (shrinkwrapped) (ISBN 0-321-
● New Applications to emphasize how physics concepts apply to real-world 69692-1): Chapters 1–39
situations, including biomedical and engineering fields. ● Volume 1 (ISBN 0-321-70669-2):
● To Learn/To Know chapter previews are now called New Concepts, New Chapters 1–19
Skills/Connecting Your Knowledge, and have been revised to better emphasize ● Volume 2 (ISBN 0-321-70127-5):
the key concepts in each chapter and to show how they connect with concepts in Chapters 20–39
previous chapters.

v
vi Preface to the Instructor

● End-of-chapter (EOC) problem sets now include new biomedical-related

problems that investigate physics concepts in biology, medicine, and biomedical
technologies, and new computational problems that require a computer or graph-
ing calculator.
● Every end-of-chapter problem set now includes new Passage Problems similar to
the types of questions asked on the MCAT Exam. Each set includes 4 multiple-
choice questions based on a passage of text, often with an accompanying figure or
graph, and involves biomedical and other real-world scenarios.
● EOC problem sets have been thoroughly revised to include new calculus-based
problems, new context-rich problems, and more medium-difficulty problems.
● All quantitative results—both in-text examples and EOC problems—have been
checked independently for accuracy by two physicists.
● Finally, we’ve incorporated new research results and new applications of physics
principles wherever they’re relevant.

Pedagogical Innovations
This book is concise, but it’s also progressive in its embrace of proven techniques from
physics education research and strategic in its approach to learning physics. Chapter 1
introduces the IDEA framework for problem solving, and every one of the book’s sub-
sequent worked examples employs this framework. IDEA—an acronym for Identify,
Develop, Evaluate, Assess—is not a “cookbook” method for students to apply mind-
lessly, but rather a tool for organizing students’ thinking and discouraging equation
hunting. It begins with an interpretation of the problem and an identification of the key
physics concepts involved; develops a plan for reaching the solution; carries out the
mathematical evaluation; and assesses the solution to see that it makes sense, to com-
pare the example with others, and to mine additional insights into physics. In nearly all
of the text’s worked examples, the Develop phase includes making a drawing, and most
of these use a hand-drawn style to encourage students to make their own drawings—a
step that research suggests they often skip. IDEA provides a common approach to all
physics problem solving, an approach that emphasizes the conceptual unity of physics
and helps break the typical student view of physics as a hodgepodge of equations and
unrelated ideas. In addition to IDEA-based worked examples, other pedagogical fea-
tures include:
● Problem-Solving Strategy boxes that follow the IDEA framework to provide de-
tailed guidance for specific classes of physics problems, such as Newton’s second
law, conservation of energy, thermal-energy balance, Gauss’s law, or multiloop
circuits.
● Tactics boxes that reinforce specific essential skills such as differentiation, setting
up integrals, vector products, drawing free-body diagrams, simplifying series and
parallel circuits, or ray tracing.
● Got It? boxes that provide quick checks for students to test their conceptual under-
standing. Many of these use a multiple-choice or quantitative ranking format to
probe student misconceptions and facilitate their use with classroom-response
systems.
● Tips that provide helpful problem-solving hints or warn against common pitfalls
and misconceptions.
● Chapter openers that include a forward-looking New Concepts, New Skills list
for the chapter ahead, and a backward-looking Connecting Your Knowledge list
of important ideas on which the chapter builds. Both lists reference specific chapter
sections by number.
● Applications, self-contained presentations typically shorter than half a page,
provide interesting and contemporary instances of physics in the real world, such as
bicycle stability; flywheel energy storage; laser vision correction; ultracapacitors;
wind energy; magnetic resonance imaging; global climate change; combined-cycle
power generation; circuit models of the cell membrane; CD, DVD, and Blu-ray
technologies; and radiocarbon dating.
 Preface to the Instructor vii

● For Thought and Discussion questions at the end of each chapter designed for
peer learning or for self-study to enhance students’ conceptual understanding of
physics.
● Annotated figures that adopt the research-based approach of including simple
“instructor’s voice” commentary to help students read and interpret pictorial and
graphical information.
● End-of-chapter problems that begin with simpler exercises keyed to individual
chapter sections and ramp up to more challenging and often multistep problems that
synthesize chapter material. Context-rich problems focusing on real-world
situations are interspersed throughout each problem set.
● Chapter summaries that combine text, art, and equations to provide a synthesized
overview of each chapter. Each summary is hierarchical, beginning with the chap-
ter’s “big picture” ideas, then focusing on key concepts and equations, and ending
with a list of “applications”—specific instances or applications of the physics pre-
sented in the chapter.

Organization
This contemporary book is concise, strategic, and progressive, but it’s traditional in its or-
ganization. Following the introductory Chapter 1, the book is divided into six parts. Part
One (Chapters 2–12) develops the basic concepts of mechanics, including Newton’s laws
and conservation principles as applied to single particles and multiparticle systems. Part
Two (Chapters 13–15) extends mechanics to oscillations, waves, and fluids. Part Three
(Chapters 16–19) covers thermodynamics. Part Four (Chapters 20–29) deals with electric-
ity and magnetism. Part Five (Chapters 30–32) treats optics, first in the geometrical optics
approximation and then including wave phenomena. Part Six (Chapters 33–39) introduces
relativity and quantum physics. Each part begins with a brief description of its coverage,
and ends with a conceptual summary and a challenge problem that synthesizes ideas from
several chapters.
Essential University Physics is available in two paperback volumes, so students can
purchase only what they need—making the low-cost aspect of this text even more attrac-
tive. Volume 1 includes Parts One, Two, and Three, mechanics through thermodynamics.
Volume 2 contains Parts Four, and Five, and Six, electricity and magnetism along with op-
tics and modern physics.

Instructor Supplements
NOTE: For convenience, all of the following instructor supple- A comprehensive library of more than 220 applets from
ments (except the Instructor Resource DVD) can be down- ActivPhysics OnLineTM and a suite of over 70 PhET
loaded from the “Instructor Area,” accessed via the left-hand simulations are also included.
navigation bar of MasteringPhysics® (www.masteringphysics. ● MasteringPhysics® (www.
com). masteringphysics.com) is the most
● The Instructor Solutions Manual (ISBN 0-321-69723- advanced physics homework and
5) contains solutions to all end-of-chapter exercises and tutorial system available. This online homework and
problems, written in the Interpret/Develop/Evaluate/ As- tutoring system guides students through the toughest
sess (IDEA) problem-solving framework. The solutions topics in physics with self-paced tutorials that provide
are provided in PDF and editable Microsoft® Word for- individualized coaching. These assignable, in-depth
mats for Mac and PC, with equations in MathType, and tutorials are designed to coach students with hints and
can also be downloaded from the Instructor Resource feedback specific to their individual errors. Instructors
Center (www.pearsonhighered.com/irc). can also assign end-of-chapter problems from every
● The Instructor Resource DVD (ISBN 0-321-71171-8) chapter, including multiple-choice questions, section-
provides all the figures, photos, and tables from the text specific exercises, and general problems. Quantitative
in JPEG format. All the problem-solving strategies, Tac- problems can be assigned with numerical answers
tics Boxes, key equations, and chapter summaries are and randomized values (with sig fig feedback) or
provided in PDF and editable Microsoft® Word formats solutions.
with equations in MathType. Each chapter also has a set ● Pearson eText is available either automatically when
of PowerPoint® lecture outlines and “clicker” questions. MasteringPhysics® is packaged with new books or as a
viii Preface to the Instructor

purchased upgrade online. Users can search for words or ● The Test Bank (ISBN 0-321-71172-6) contains more than
phrases, create notes, highlight text, bookmark sections, 2000 multiple-choice, true-false, and conceptual questions
click on definitions to key terms, and launch ActivPhysics in TestGen® and Microsoft Word® formats for Mac and
applets and PhET simulations as they read. Professors PC users. More than half of the questions can be assigned
also have the ability to annotate the text for their course with randomized numerical values. The Test Bank can also
and hide chapters not covered in their syllabi. be downloaded from www. pearsonhighered.com/irc.

Student Supplements
● The Student Solutions Manuals, Volume 1 (Chapters end-of-chapter problems from every chapter including
1–19) (ISBN 0-321-71203-X) and Volume 2 (Chapters multiple-choice questions, section-specific exercises,
20–39) (ISBN 0-321-71205-6) contain detailed solutions and general problems. Quantitative problems can be as-
to all of the odd-numbered end-of-chapter problems signed with numerical answers and randomized values
from the textbook. All solutions are written in the Inter- (with sig fig feedback) or solutions.
pret/Develop/Evaluate/Assess (IDEA) problem-solving ● Pearson eText is available through MasteringPhysics®,
framework. either automatically when MasteringPhysics® is pack-
● MasteringPhysics® (www.masteringphysics.com) is the aged with new books or as a purchased upgrade online.
most advanced physics homework and tutorial system Allowing students access to the text wherever they have
available. This online homework and tutoring system access to the Internet, Pearson eText comprises the full
guides students through the most important topics in text with additional interactive features. Users can search
physics with self-paced tutorials that provide individual- for words or phrases, create notes, highlight text, book-
ized coaching. These assignable, in-depth tutorials are mark sections, click on definitions to key terms, and
designed to coach students with hints and feedback spe- launch ActivPhysics applets and PhET simulations as
cific to their individual errors. Instructors can also assign they read.

Acknowledgments
A project of this magnitude isn’t the work of its author alone. writing introductory physics a large part of my professional
First and foremost among those I thank for their contributions career. Dr. Adam Black, physics editor and Ph.D. physicist at
are the now several thousand students I’ve taught in calculus- Addison-Wesley, had the vision to see promise in a new intro-
based introductory physics courses at Middlebury College. ductory text that would respond to the rising chorus of com-
Over the years your questions have taught me how to convey plaints about massive, encyclopedic, and expensive physics
physics ideas in many different ways appropriate to your di- texts. Brad Patterson, developmental editor for the first edition,
verse learning styles. You’ve helped identify the “sticking brought his graduate-level knowledge of physics to a role that
points” that challenge introductory physics students, and you’ve made him a real collaborator and the closest this book has to a
showed me ways to help you avoid and “unlearn” the miscon- coauthor. Brad is responsible for many of the book’s innovative
ceptions that many students bring to introductory physics. features, and it was a pleasure to work with him. We’ve gone
Thanks also go to my Middlebury faculty colleagues and to to great lengths to make this book as error-free as possible, and
numerous instructors and students from around the world who much of the credit for that happy situation goes to Charles
have contributed valuable suggestions that were incorporated Hibbard and Peter W. Murphy. Not only did they check the
in the revisions of my earlier introductory physics text, Physics numbers for every worked example, but they also read the
for Scientists and Engineers (Wolfson and Pasachoff, third edi- entire book in page proof with a professionally critical eye, and
tion: Addison-Wesley, 1999). I’ve heard you, and you’ll find they’re responsible for many improvements to both text and art
still more of your suggestions implemented in Essential Uni- made even at that late stage.
versity Physics. I also wish to thank Martha Steele, Ashley Eklund, Nancy
Experienced physics instructors thoroughly reviewed every Whilton, and Beth Collins at Addison-Wesley, and Jared
chapter of this book, and reviewers’ comments resulted in sub- Sterzer at PreMediaGlobal, for their highly professional efforts
stantive changes—and sometimes in major rewrites—to the in shepherding this book through its vigorous production
first drafts of the manuscript. We list all these reviewers below. schedule. Martha, especially, has been with this project since
But first, special thanks are due to six individuals who made its first edition, and her cheerful and meticulous attention to de-
exceptional contributions to the quality and in some cases the tail has made production of this book a smooth and pleasant
very existence of this book. First is Professor Jay Pasachoff of process. Finally, as always, I thank my family, my colleagues,
Williams College, whose willingness more than two decades and my students for the patience they showed during the inten-
ago to take a chance on an inexperienced coauthor has made sive process of writing and revising this book.