Jaramillo, J. A. (1996).
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory and Contributions
to the Development of Constructivist Curricula. Education, 117(1), 133.
VYGOTSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY AND CONTRI-
BUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF
CONSTRUCTIVIST CURRICULA
JAMES A. JARAMILLJO, MA/ABD
Arizona State University
717 s. Mill Ave. Ste. 228
Tempe, AZ 85281
An analysis of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory indicates that his con~
ceptual framework contributed to the development of constructivist
theory and cunieula. These contributions are evident in light of how his
theoretical framework connects with the praxis of constructivist curric-
ula and pedagogy. This theory and practice connection is demonstrated
in the background, query, conceptual framework, assumptions, and
methodology of his approach's theoretical framework Conceptual par-
allels between Vygotsky's theory and constructivism were evident in the
following components: networking, socially negotiated meaning mak-
ing, experimentalism, collectivism, adults and more competent peers as
learning facilitators, the social and historical dimensions of learning,
problem solving, and active learning participation.
Introduction answer this query, I deem it essential to inves-
Vygotsky's (l930s) theoretical contribu- tigate how his approach was ultimately based
tions to the development of curricula and on a theoretical framework because this phe-
teaching strategies are widely known among nomenon shapes the methodology of an
educational theorists. Vygotsky devised a educator's research and teaching .
sociocultural theory which subsequently influ-
enced the development of the constructivist Objectives
movement. Although Vygotsky's contribu- The objective is to describe how this
tions to the field of education are apparent, approach was intrinsically shaped by a theo-
what has not been specifically addressed is retical framework. This theoretical framework
how the particulars of his theoretical frame- consists of the following interrelated proce-
work helped shape the development of dural components: query, conceptual
constructivist curricula. In short, how does framework, philosophical assumptions,
his sociocultural theory connect with the methodology, data, principles, techniques, and
schooling praxis of constructivism. learning setting. That is, as a researcher of
curricula and learning, Vygotsky ([1933]
Goals 1978) conceived these ideas and strained them
The purpose of this paper is to analyze through a procedure to form them, whereas
Vygotsky's (19305) sociocultural theory of practicing teachers tend to explicitly apply
learning with respect to how it relates to edu- each educational theory's teaching implica-
cation. To do this, I deem it essential to examine tions to the classroornl . Fortunately, Vygotsky
how this theory of learning impacted the teach- taught in the classroom setting and conduct-
ing strategies and curricula of the constructivist ed research, which probably gave him valuable
movement The conceptual content of this paper insight as to how to connect educational
addresses the following primary educational research theory with practical application in
query: With respect to the learning theory of the classroom.
constructivism how do students learn? To
133
134/ Education Vol. 117 No. 1
Teacher-Practitioner and Education his work, and further upon the interpretations
Researcher Roles of his works by psychologists, such as Berk
Although the teacher and researcher of (1994), Tudge (1990), and Gallimore and Thorp
learning both utilize theory, they do so in dif- (1990). Since translations from one language
ferent ways. In general, the teacher, as a to another tend to lose some of the original land
practitioner, primarily employs theory when guage's meaning, it follows that other
constructing curricula and teaching strategies English-speaking interpretations of Vygotsky's
while the researcher primarily utilizes theory works are bound to lose some conceptual sig-
to test its efficacy in a student-learning set- nificance. Aside from the translative loss and.
ting, or to devise novel ones. Although these the psychological interpretations of Vygotsky,
distinct roles exist, there is a general relation- the shear exhaustive breadth of this Lh€orist's
ship between each theory of learning and the writings requires that I address only a small
respective curricula and teaching strategies cadre of his approach's components
that distinct schools of educators employ.
Those educators who adhere to behavioristic, Background of Vygotsky
cognitivistic, and positivistic theoretical frame- Prior to examining Vygotsky's theoretical
works tend to instruct their students in a approach, I deem it necessary to investigate
teacher-centered mode, whereas those who his educational background because there were
adhere to constructivism, collectivistic, and a diversity of fields and mentors who shaped
thematic holistic theories tend to teach stu- his approach. The influence of the fields of
dents in a collective learning environment. The psychology, gestaltism, linguistics and encul-
teaching strategies and curricula that educators unarion are evident in Vygotsky's sociocultural
adopt implicitly reflect the teaming theories approach. The field of psychology's influence
which they advocate. Because teaching strate- upon Vygotsky, naturally, produced some par-
gies and curricula are based on theories of allels. On the other hand, Vygotsky also
learning, it is necessary to initially examine developed unique theoretical interests which
the explanation of Vygotsky and then, relate are reflected in his divergent views. Vygotsky
it to curricula instruction. was a social scientist and communist who
desired to educate Russian peasants about the
Methodology of this Paper virtues of communism. As a social scientist,
I interpreted Vygotsky's approach from the Vygotsky employed a micro view towards
standpoint of an educational anthropologist. studying how we learn in a given social situa-
This perspective involves adopting the roles of tion. In order to further delineate his approach,
an arm-chair researcher and a field-based class- it is necessary to initially examine his
room researcher, The duties of these roles appmach's theoretical framework.
comprise reviewing the literature, interpret-
ing classroom lecture-notes, and employing The Theoretical Query and Conceptual
pastparticipant-observations of various class- Framework of Learning
room settings, that is, one who interprets Educational theories are explanations of the
student-teacher interactional-leaming settings human phenomenon of learning, not truth state--
at the school site. ments about why we do what we do. They
provide a conceptual framework for us to
Context of Limitations: Disclaimer explain how and why we learn. They are essen-
My interpretation of Vygotsky's sociocul- tially based on beliefs that direct the question
tural theory is based onEnglish translations of that each theorist proposes. In this respect,
Vygotsky's Theory.../ 135
Vygotsky implicitly adhered to a primary the- view of the world, radical Constructivists, unlike
oretical query which largely directed his behaviorists and cognitivists, assume there is
approach. To address the main query as to how no real world.2 Contrary to their behaviorist
students learn, Vygotsky explored how Stu- oounterpans, Constructivists posit that objec-
dents construct meaning. tive reality is a mental fabrication that a group
of individuals devised and accepted to define
Vygotsky: Sociocultural Theory/'Precursor their world's parameters .
to Constructivism In virtually every case, these individuals in
Although Vygotsky's sociocultural theory tum devised involuntary and voluntary asso-
(l930s) predates the constructivist movement, ciations, such as the church, science, and social
I am classifying him as a constructivist, because science institutions and often impose their inter-
his theoretical framework contributed immense- pretation, under the guise of formal authority,
ly to the development of this approach. In this as to what constitutes reality upon the masses
theory, he posits that social experience shapes in their countries and throughout the world.
the ways of thinldng and interpreting the world. This largely Eurocentric consensus is
He notes that individual cognition occurs in a incongruent with their view that we, as indi-
social situation. They cannot be separated which viduals within group contexts, construct our
correlates with the integrated nature of holism. own interpretations and therefore knowledge
The group is therefore vital to the learning of the world, rather than accept a universally
process for all initiates who learn higher forms imposed scheme. In this way, each learner's
of mental 8c1ivity via more lmowledgeable peas conception of reality varies, based on his/her
and adults who jointly construct and transfer interpretative experiences. The learner, then,
this activity primarily through language. constructs knowledge via his/her prior experi-
ences, mental structures, and beliefs. The
Constructivism learner is not an empty passive vessel waiting
Constructivism has a spectrum of contrib- to be tilted with drops of knowledge from an
utors whose divergent theoretical orientations instructor's lecture. Rather, he/she prefers to
subsequently provided this theory with a range be actively involved in handspn learning activ-
of teaching styles. Although one end of the spec- ities that interest him and that are just above
trum is delineated by Piaget's notion that we his current level of competence. To learn con-
learn in developmentary steps, rather than in cepts, the learner must experience them and
leaps and bounds, my focus is upon Vygotsky's socially negotiate their meaning in the authen-
view of a nonlinear learning sequence, which tic context of a complex learning environment.
constitutes the other. Vygotsky's version of :xm- In the classroom setting, students learn
structivisrn, then, is a non-developmentary view through interacting with their peers, teacher,
of education whereby a child's intellectual per- manipulatives, and their contextual setting.
sonality and socio-moral knowledge is Vygotsky advocates this setting, and uses
"constlllcted" by students internalizing con- holism to unite his approach's components.
cepts through self-discovery. B ecause Commensurate with the use of thematic holism.
Vygtosky's approach falls within the construc- Vygotsky similarly employed the congruent
tivist theoretical spectrtnn, it is imperative that concept of networking in his constructivist
we examine this theory's assumptions. approach. He sought to determine how stu-
dents make sense of themselves and their world
Assumptions of Constructivism via their learning experiences. To do this, he
To describe how students construct their posits that teachers should obtain knowledge
136/Education Vol. 117 No. 1
about how students categorize their world, in lives and diagrams (see Brenner, 1995). These
order to devise interdisciplinary themes or students can initially construct a concrete
schemata networks that correlate with the inter- understanding of this operation by interacting
ests of students. Teachers use thematic holism with one another and numerical tangibles
or networks by posing a theme to students, (blocks), and then, later, construct abstract
such as the zoo, where students can respond meaning by associating the tangibles with writ-
with suhthemes, such as kinds of animals, types ten symbols (laramillo, 1996). Eventually, they
of animal noises, and formal script roles of surpass these manipulatives, and learn how to
staff. Thematic holism and constructivism's solve problems through abstract thinking. writ-
theoretical application to reality is apparent in ing, or calculator use.
how teachers and students as humans relate to Thus, a student's development cannot lm
the teaming settings of the formal and natural understood by a study of the individual; we
world, Unlike traditional teaching, Vygotsky must also examine the external .social world
would advocate a bottom~up teaching approach in which that individua.l's life developed. In
where the teacher facilitates, as opposed to the social world, Vygotsky notes that Cogni-
directs. what and how students learn concepts tive and linguistic skill appear twice on two
both in and out of the classroom. Ideally, teach- planes; first, it appears on the social plane, and
ers would likewise employ participant then on the psychological plane. Initially, in
observations of student actions to inductively appears between people as an interpsychelog -
and deductively ascertain how informants cal category, and then within the individual as
derive meaning from their social settings (see an intrapsycbological category. In Vygotsky's
Erickson, 1986). notion of social he asserts that the .social is
instrumental towards understanding and teach-
Social Interaction ' ing children. The social consists of the rules and
In symmetry with holists, Constructivists TIOIIIIS of society that adults and mere compe-
address the question as to how students team tent peers leach their younger initiates. Like a
by focusing on how each individual constructs rite of passage, in the school setting, students
knowledge in a social setting. Vygotsky noted learn via un~educative and educative experi-
that individuals interact with one another in ences as to what society deems as appropriate
social situations to socially negotiate meaning. behavior. Along with learning what is appro »
The notion of social for Vygotsky separates priate, students must actively participate in the
him from behaviorists and the sensationalists classroom as a primer in 'coming how to mn-
of the British school of thought. who viewed tribute democratically in policy and voting.
the individual experience as being detached The classroom, then should he an egalitar-
from the social setting. Unlike behaviorist and ian setting.. rather than a teacher-centered
sensationalists, Vygotsky suessed that the mind setting where authority solely determines Clair -
and body of the subject are joined, and that ricula. Therefore, the curricula should reflect
this connection is further expressed between the both parties' interests so as to facilitate the con--
subject and objects in his environment. The nection between curricula and students. When
subject develops his own interpretative mean- this does not occur in the classroom situation
ing ofan act while communicating with others. and up throughout the institutions of society,
This is exemplified 'm a math lesson where a then, the social structure will breakdown.
teacher conveys the concept of a mathemati» because non-panicipants will feel disempew-
cal operation, such as addition, to a group of ered All participants must feel they are playing
students, by providing them with manipula- a fair game on a level field where the rules are
Vygotsky's Theory.../ 137
synonymous. Ultimately, when the rules perpetuates and promotes social conformity.
become external to the very participants of As is evident, Vygotsky would concur that
society, an oligarcby tends to make policy for deviant acts, such as plagiarism, tend to stem
the disenfranchised. To counter this phenom- future growth. To counter these disjointed mise-
enon's deleterious presence, Vygotsky would ducativc experiences, Vygotsky would say that
encourage students to participate in the c1ass~ teachers need to devise curricula that directs
room with the instructor as rule makers and students along a continuity of experience.
curricula planners. To develop curricula teach- Vygotsky's stress upon experiential leam-
ers must find middle ground between their m
' g is further evident in the role of the teacher
decisions towards curricula development and as a facilitator of this phenomena. The nature
individual student interests. Vygotsky implic- of the adult role is reflected in his zone ofprox-
itly corroborates this concept since he espouses ima! development. Thus, teachers of the
that enculturation requires active social par- Vygotsky mold must foster learning among
tieipation in and out of school. Moreover, students that combines intema! and external
VygoLsky's notion of Marxist theory with an experiences. This experience is an interplay of
Engel praxis similarly supports the need for a cognitive, emotional and external interaction.
level egalitarian playing field. In addition to The teacher's role in designing this interplay
the importance of active socialistic participa- is manifested in Vygotsky's notion of the zone
tion during the learning process, Vygotsky of proximal development which delineates a
emphasizes experiential learning. child's learning environment as not solely in
Vygotsky wrote extensively about learning advance of children but all around them. The
by doing. In his theory of experience, he notes surrounding social nature of learning encom-
that meaning is gleaned from experience. Nev- passes the sLudenL's interactions with other
ertheless, not all experiences foster appropriate peers and the instructor. As Vygotsky ([1933}
learning, there are normative and deviant expe- 1978) writes, "the mind extends beyond the
riences. Normative experiences are those that skin and is inseparably joined with other mind<"
connect. with an individual's growth whereas (cited in Wertsch, 1991, p. 90). It is teachers
deviant ones do the converse. A student who and more competent peers who guide each stu-
copies his answers from another student's exam dent's social and cultural experiences.
commits a deviant experience, because his act To facilitate continual lcaniing among stu-
does not enable him to meaning fully learn con- dents, Vygotsky posited that a teacher can leach
cepts now or in the future. Thus, his continued any subj act effectively to any child at any level
act of plagiarism would not connect with what of developmait. To do this, the teacher employs
society deems as acceptable behavior, so it is modeling and scaffolding techniques at a level
only a matter of time before he is caught and 'that parallels the learner's zone of proximal
thereby disconnected from future normative development. Teachers activate this zone when
experiences. Although Vygotsky does not they teach students concepts that are just above
explicitly use these words to distinguish expe- their current skills and knowledge level, which
riences, his use of the term social, with its motivates them to excel beyond their current
corresponding notion that society with its insti- skills level. To prompt students to attain the
tution of schooling establishes mores and additional sldlls needed to reach this zone,
taboos, reveals this dichotomy. Moreover this teachers encourage them to learn by doing an
dichotomy of normative and deviant experi- activity. That is, students learn concepts by
ences corresponds with the conceptual using manipulatives (concrete objects) in a real-
parameters of Vygotsky's notion that society istic-authentic context to construct meaning
138/ Education Vol. 117 No. 1
from their intcipretative experiences. This is abstract language symbols (words), such a the
exemplified when students use these manipu- word "table," teachers direct them to solely
Iatives to problem solve and consequently learn abstract concepts, sudl as thiMm§ which
develop an understanding of the theme of a does not have a concrete association. Upon
subject such as math (sec Kohl, 1976). Under achieving this competence, students can con-
the guidance of an instructor, students handle verse about abstract concept, such as
and visualize these manipulative in small philosophy, which enables them to ponder and
group-cooperative learning settings where they invent new abstraction to describe themselves,
learn hew to associate these tangible objects others, and their interactions.
with abstract-mathematical concepts . As students engage in dialogues with more
To learn higher forms of mental activity competent partners and adults, they internalize
with the help of adults and more skilled peers, the language of these interactions and use it to
necessitates that this 'experience interweave organize their individual endeavors in the same
with future ones which corresponds with the manner (Berk, 1994). Language thus plays as
notion of a continuity prerequisite. To ensure essential part in socially shaping the minds of
that a student's learning experience is contin- students, because it is their major vehicle of
uous, teachers must act as guides and set the communication with one another. It also func-
conditions for students to successfully inter- tions 8.5 the principal means by which social
act with their learning setting. To do this, experience is represented psychologically, and
educators must devise curricula that consists of is therefore a necessary tool of communica-
adult knowledge and wisdom and lead the child tion in virtually every social situation
to understand the former and latter's meaning (Vygotsky [1934] 1978). In the learning setting,
in relation to the processes by which they were the teacher's goal is to convey his interpreta-
developed. To impart knowledge to their chil- tion of his preexisting social world (personal
dren, adults use the communication system of cosmology) to his students to cnculturate them
language to enculturate their children. More- into their culture.
over, Vygtosky emphasized that adults use Although Vygotsky stressed the need to
language to inculcate their culture's social val- have adults guide students into adulthood, he
ues and beliefs to children. also recognized the influence that peers have
Vygotsky described language as a tool that on one another as they construct meaning. 'this
humans use to share soda! meanings among influence is evident in Vygotsky's zone ofprox-
one another and to explain how we advance ima! devekJpment. Vygotsky aclalowledges that
developmentally from natural processes to children come to learn adult meanings and
higher mental processes (Tudge, 1990). For actions through peer collaboration. He would
example, as adults teachers use their abstract likewise advocate that teachers should recog-
knowledge of the language they learned via nize the potential contributions that students
others throughout their lives to direct lessons can make when designing curricula and class
that will facilitate their students' understand- activities to serve student needs. This is evident
ing of new concepts. As new initiates of a in Vygotsky's zone of proximal development.
culture, the learning process for young students which as not liMited to a one-way teachencen-
begins at the concrete level where teachers and tered approach towards teaching and curricula
more competent peers use language to describe development. For example, studies completed
the objects and subjects in their setting to the by researchers, such as Rogoff (1989), who
fanner. After these new initiates team how to used the Vygolsky an approach indicated that
associate concrete objects, such as a table, with young children not only influence one anoth-
Vygotsky's Theory.../ 139
or but influence the adults who are in tum in a novel group composed of students who
attempting to socialize them (Tudge, 1990). developed new ideas. Students benefit by
Vygotsky says peerscornprise those who are working in small groups with peers which
equally competent and those who are more means they can exchange feedback, ask each
competent. Vygotsky recommended a social other queries, and explain their strategies. Stu-
context where a more competent child would dents likewise benefit because they can clarify
be paired with a less competent one, so that their thinking, discuss misconceptions, and
the former can elevate the lattcr's competence. are rarely remain sitting and waiting for an
T h i s social context promotes sustained instructor. Students develop better skills of
achievement for less competent students and cooperation, communication, exploration, and
thereby produces cognitive growth. Vygot- conceptual development.
sky's d o m a i n of peer interactions
acknowledged the importance of problem solv- Co nc lu s io n
ing towards cognitive growth. Th is analysis of revealed a connection
Vygtosky believed that peers arrive at a between Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and
common understanding by socially negotiating constructivisln's current teaching strategies and
meaning via problem-solving activities. At the curricula. Conceptual parallels were evident in
micro classroom level, peers interact with each the following components; holism or net-
other and adults to satisfy these needs. Vygot- working, pragmatism or socially negotiated
sky uses the problem-solving notion to meaning making, experientialism, collectivism,
distinguish between a student's actual devel- adults and more competent peers as learning
opment level and immediate potential for facilitators, the social and historical dimen-
development within that domain. When a peer sions of learning, problem solving, and active
collaborates with a more competent peer or learning participation .
adult, he states that the distance between a stu- Vygtosky addresses the main query as to
dent`s actual development level of how students learn, by asking how do students
problem-solving and the level of this potential construct meaning. Intrinsic to Vygotsky's
for development through problem solving sociocultural theory is the notion that social
determines his zone of proximal development. experiences shape the ways that students think
Social interactions letween peers elicit dif- and interpret their world. This individual stu-
ferent perspectives about a problem. I n this dent cognition occurs in a social situation, arid
cooperative, small group-format, students work is inseparable which corresponds with the inte-
in collective groups to solve problems. Teach- grated nature of holism and the focus of
ers guide students to collectively devise sociocultural theory. To guide student loam-
methods to solve problems, while each child ing, Vygotsky employed the Gestalt concept
explains his thinking and simultaneously builds of netwoddng which is equivalent to the holis-
on the thinking of others. Students also devel- tic concept of the thematic web. To conduct
op interdependence by holding each student in this activity, teachers should seek to determine
a group responsible for the others. This occurs how students as individuals describe and iden-
when students work together on a single work- tify themselves arid their world through their
sheet and then sign it when they are done to own caring experiences. To do this, Vygot-
show that they both agree with and understand sky noted that individuals interact with one
all the work on it. After handing in their work, another in social situations to socially negoti-
teachers ask students to explain their groups's ate meaning. To team, he emphasized the
thinking or each of them to represent the group importance of problem solving in this process,
140/Education Vol. 117 No. 1
Iaramillo, James A. (1996). How do first-gcncraticm
which was reflected in his notion of learning Mexican high school students and thief teacher iner-
by doing. Secondly, Vygotsky believed that act to make .sense of algebra and geometry in a
peers achieve common understanding by soda]- United States bilingual classroom. In the Proceed-
ings of the National Asrocrhzion of Hispanic and
ly negotiating meaning via problem solving Latino Studies (NAHLS). Mcnrcheafi. Kentucky:
activities. Vygotsky's stress upon experiential Mclrehead State University.
learning W33 further expressed in the role of a Kohl, H. (l9'76). The craft of teaching. In H. Kohl's (ed)
teacher RS a facilitator of this phenomena. The On teaching. Schocken. pp. 29-53.
nature of the adult role is evident in his zone Rogoii (1984). In LC. Moll. (ed.) Vygotsky and educa-
of proximal development. Vygotsky discussed nbn: Instrucdunal impiicathmx and applacationx 4
how adults use language to inculcate their cul- .roeiohismrical psychology. New York, NY: Cam-
bridge University Press.
ture's social values and beliefs to children, he
Tudge, J. (1990). Vygolsky, the zone of proximal :level-
stressed that this tool is vital toward encnltnr-
opment and peer collabol action: implications for
ation. Although he emphasized the need to have chsnoom practice. In L.C. Moll, (ed.) Wgonsky and
adults guide students into adulthood, he also education: Instructional implications and applica-
lions ofsociohinorica! psychology. New York, NY:
acknowledged the influence that peers have
Cambridge University lH1u;§.
One one another as they construct meaning.
Vygotsky, LS. ([1933] 1978). in L.C_ Moll, (ed.) Vygol-
sky and education: Insfrudional implicarimzs and
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Footnotes
'According to Dr. Kansy, (who is a German Multicul-
Diaz. R.M.. Neal, CJ., & Amaya W.M. (1990). The tural Educator) the most accurate translations of
social origins of self-regulation. In L.C. Moll (ed.) Vygolsky's works were translated from Russian to
Vygotsky and education: Instmczinnal implications German (personal Observation, May II, 1995). lr Ls"
and applications qfsncinhistorica! psychology. New a shame ! can 's read German or Rwsim!
York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
2Some neo-cngnitivists classify constructivism as a mud-
Erickson, F. (1986). Qualirazéve methods in rest/:rch am ern extension of cognitivistic theory. while some
feafhing. Washington, DC: US Dcpanmem of Eds neo-behaviorists (such as Freeman, 1994) classify
cat:->n. conslxuctivism as a separate theory of learning. lu
arldition to borrowing from Piaget's theory, I believe
Gallimofe, R., & Thorp, R. (1990). Teaching Mind in that constnxctivism borrows from the theories of
society: Teaching, schooling, and literate discourse. Geslaltism and symbolism.
In LC. Moll, (ed.) Vygotsky and educaiibw: Instruc-
r`um¢zl implications a d application.: of An association with a physical tangible object as
sociohinurical psyehdogy. New York, NY: Cam- opposed to in abstract intangible concept.
bridge University Press.
