Section 1 obligation of scientists, besides

Introduction to Science, studying the nature of the

Technology and Society universe, is to explain the possible
Science uses and application of such
 Science comes from the Latin scientific knowledge.
word “scientia”, meaning
“knowledge”. It refers to a Along this line, Wolpert made it clear
systematic and methodological that science is not the same as
activity of building and technology. Scientists are not
organizing knowledge about how responsible for the application of
the universe behaves through
knowledge in technology. He further
observation,
experimentation or both. explained that discoveries may be
 According to the famous explained that the very nature of science
American science historian, is that it is not possible to predict
John Heilbron (2003, p vii), scientific discoveries and how these
“Modern science is a discovery as discoveries may be applied.
well as invention”.
 He considered science as a While scientists are responsible for
discovery of regularity in nature, the reliable conduct of scientific inquiry
enough for natural phenomena to and its honest interpretation and
be described by principles and
dissemination, technological application
laws. He explained that science
required invention to devise of science are influenced by other sectors
techniques, abstractions, sch as politics and governance, religions
apparatuses, and organizations to and business. With this distinction, one
describe these natural can surmise the need for the study of
regularities and their law-like various ways in which science and
descriptions. technology act and are enacted in
society. This is a particularly timely and
Technology
 It is the application of knowledge, relevant concern because of the
laws, and principles to produce advancements in science and technology
services, materials, tools, and today.
machines aimed at solving real-
world problems. It comes from Nowadays, advancements in science and
the Greek word “techne”, technology have become pervasive. They
meaning ‘art, skill, or cunning of are manifested in the activities that
hand.’ humans pursue and the tools they use
everyday. The beauty of this is that an
Wolpert (2005) made an advancements builds upon itself. As
interesting comparison between science such, humans today
and technology that is helpful in the
study of their interaction with society. In live more productive and more
his landmark paper, “The Medawar exciting lives than their predecessors.
Lecture 1998: Is Science Dangerous ? With the way things go, it could be
expected that this generation’s children,
Wolpert explained that reliable and the children of their children have
scientific knowledge has no moral or the chance to lead even better lives than
ethical value. It is meant simply to this generation already does.
explain how nature and the
universe work and that the
 However, the dynamism and Science, Technology, and
immensity of scientific and technological Society (STS) – is a relatively young
progress also pose challenges and filed that combines previously
drawbacks to the way humans live. independent and older disciplines, such
as the history of science, philosophy of
The introduction of machines science and sociology of science.
tremendously cut the need for human
workforce and gave rise to questions As an academic field, STS, according
about whether machines will eventually to Harvard University’s Kennedy School
replace humans. (2018), traces its roots from the interwar
period and the start of the Cold War. It
The inventions of drugs that cured was during this period when historians
the previously incurable diseases and scientists found interest in the
introduced new strains of bacteria and interconnections of scientific knowledge,
viruses that are resistant to the very technological systems, and society. The
same drugs that one fought them- take rise of STS as an academic field resulted
an antibiotic resistant strain of from the recognition hat man schools
gonorrhea as an example. today do not really prepare students to
The rise of social media drastically respond critically, reflectively, and
changed the way humans communicate, proactively to the challenges posed by
interact, and share information; science and technology in the
however, this tends to put people’s contemporary world.
privacy at risk. In general, STS applies methods
Indeed, science and technology have drawn from history, philosophy, and
served a predominantly double-edge sociology to study the nature of science
function. and technology and ultimately judge
their value and place in society. As an
“We live in a society absolutely interdisciplinary field, the emergence of
dependent on science and technology STS was a result of questions about
and yet have cleverly arranged things so science and technology’s dynamic
that no one understands science and interaction with various aspects of
technology. That’s a clear prescription society and wad thus viewed as a socially
for disaster”. – Carl Sagan, America embedded enterprise. Thus, as the
Scientist quoted in Tom’s Head’s book. Kennedy School effectively encapsulates,
As problems in science and STS seeks to bridge the gap between two
technology continue to rise and become traditionally exclusive cultures –
more observable, the need to pay humanities (interpretive) and natural
attention to their interactions with sciences (rational) – so that humas will
various aspects of human life, e,g,, be able to better confront the moral,
social , political, and economic, becomes ethical, and existential dilemmas
ever more necessary. How the different brought by the continued developments
aspects of society shape and influence in science and technology.
the progression and further development The John J. Reilly Center for Science,
of science and technology is the area of Technology, and Values of the University
concern of a relative new academic of Notre Dame is responsible for listing
discipline called Science, Technology, the ten emerging ethical dilemmas and
and Society. policy issues in science and technology
every year. Below is the list for 2018:
 1. Helix – a digital app store the way humans view science and
designed to read genomes. its impact on society: the
2. BlessU-2 and Pepper – first Copernican, Darwinian and
Freudan revolutions.
robot priest and monk
3. Emotion-Sensing Facial
Recognition – a software being
developed to assess your reactions
to anything such as shopping and
playing games.
4. Ransomware – a way of holding
data hostage through hacking and
requiring a ransom to be paid.
5. Textalyzer – a device that
analyzes whether a driver was Jean Sylvain Bailley (1976 in
using his or her phone during an Cohen, 1976)
 These scientific revolutions
accident.
involved a two staged-process of
6. Social Credit System – a sweeping away the old and
system of scoring citizens through establishing the new.
their actions by placing them  In understanding intellectual
under constant surveillance. revolutions, it is worth nothing
7. Google clips – a hands-free that these revolutions are, in
camera that lets the user capture themselves, paradigm shifts.
every moment effortlessly.  These shifts resulted from a
renewed and enlightened of how
8. Sentencing Software – a
the universe
mysterious algorithm designed to behaves and
aid courts in sentencing decisions. functions.
9. Friendbot – an app that stored  They challenged
the deceased’s digital footprint so long-held views
one can still “chat” with them. about the nature
10. Citizen App- an app that notifies of the Jean
Sylvain Bailley
users of ongoing crimes or major
universe. Thus,
events in a specific area. these revolutions
were often met the huge
Intellectual Revolution that define
resistance and controversy.
Society
Copernican Revolution
Intellectual Revolution that define
 It refers to the
Society
16th century
 In science and technology,
paradigm shift
intellectual revolutions refers to
after the Polish
the series of events that led to the
mathematician
emergence of modern science and
and
the progress of scientific thinking
astronomer
across critical periods in history.
Nicolaus
 Although there are many Copernicus.
intellectual revolutions, this
 Formulated
section focuses on three of the
the
most important ones that altered
heliocentric
 theory model of the universe, all creation was unthinkable.
Earth and planets revolve around Copernicus faced persecution
the Sun at the center of the from the church because of this.
Universe.
 At the same time, the belief was
that the Earth was the center of
the Solar System based on the
geocentric model of Nicolaus
Copernicus Ptolemy.

Copernican Revolution
 Copernicus introduces the
heliocentric model in a 40-page
outline entitled
Commentariolus.
 He formalized his model in the Copernican Revolution
publication of his treatise, De  Moreover, although far more
Revolutionibus Orbium sensible than the Ptolemaic
Coelestium (The Revolution of model, which as early as the 13th
Celestia Spheres) in 1543. century had been criticized for its
 In his model, Copernicus shortcomings, the Copernican
repositioned the Earth from the model also had multiple
center of the solar system and inadequacies that were later filled
introduced the idea that the in by the astronomers who
Earth rotates on its own axis. The participated in the revolution.
model illustrated the Earth along  Nonetheless,
with other heavenly bodies, to be despite problems
rotating around the sun. with the model
and the
persecution of the
Church, the
heliocentric
model was soon
accepted by other
scientist of the
time, most
profoundly by Galileo Galilei.

Ptolemy Model
Copernican Revolution
 The idea that the Sun is at the
center of the universe instead of
the earth proved to be unsettling
to many when Copernicus first
introduced his model.
 In fact, the heliocentric model
was met with huge resistance,
primarily from the Church,
accusing Copernicus of heresy. Copernican Revolution
 At the time, the idea that it was  The contribution of the
not the Earth, and, by extension, Copernican Revolution is far-
not man, that was at the center of reaching. It served as a catalyst to
 sway scientific thinking away
from age long views about the
position of the Earth relative to
an enlightened understanding of
the universe.
 This marked beginning of the
modern astronomy. Although
very slowly, the heliocentric
model eventually caught among
other astronomers who further
refined the model and
contributed to the recognition of Charles Darwin
heliocentrism.
Copernican Revolution
 This was capped off by Isaac
Newton’s work a century later.
 Thus, the Copernicus
Revolution marked a turning
point in the study of
cosmology and astronomy
making it a truly important Darwinian Revolution
intellectual revolution.  Benefitted from earlier revolution
especially those in the 16th and
17th centuries, such that it was
guided by confidence in human
reason’s ability to explain
phenomena in the universe.
 For his part, Darwin gathered
evidence pointing to what is now
Darwinian Revolution known as natural selection, an
 Charles Darwin- English evolutionary
naturalist, geologist, and biologist process by
is credited for stirring another which
important intellectual revolution organisms,
on the mi-19th century. including
 His treatise on the science of humans,
evolution, On the Origin of inherit,
Species, was published in 1859 develop and
and began a revolution that adapt traits
brought humanity to a new era of that favored
survival and
reproduction.

Darwinian
Revolution
 The place of the Darwinian
Revolution in modern science
cannot be underestimated. Through
intellectual discovery. Darwinian Revolution, the
development of organism and the
origin of the unique forms of life
and humanity could be rationalized
by a lawful system or an orderly
 process of change underpinned by  Freud suggested that humans are
laws of nature. inherently pleasure-seeking
individuals.
Freudan Revolution  These notions were particularly
 Sigmund Freud – Austrian caught in the
neurologist, is credited for stirring crossfire of
20th century intellectual revolution whether
named after him, the Freudan Freud’s
Revolution.
 Psychoanalysis as a school of
thought in psychology is at the
center of this revolution.
 He developed psychoanalysis – a
scientific method of understanding
inner and unconscious conflicts
embedded within one’s personality,
springing from free associations,
dreams, and fantasies of the psychoanalysis fit in the
individual. Psychosexual Development
scientific study of the brain and
Personality Components mind.
1. Id0-pleasure – if not  Scientists working on a biological
constrained by reality, it seeks approach in studying human
immediate gratification, behavior criticized
satisfaction of own need. psychoanalysis for lack of vitality
2. Ego-reality – satisfying the id’s and bordering on being
desires in many ways that will unscientific as a theory.
realistically bring pleasure rather
than pain; practicality
3. Superego-morality –
represents internalized ideas and
provides standards for judgement
and for future aspirations; inner
voice or conscience.

Freudan Revolution
 Particularly, the notion that all
human are destined to exhibit
Oedipus and Electra
complexes (i.e., sexual desire
towards the parent of the
opposite sex and exclusion of the
parent of the same sex) did not
seem to be supported by
empirical data.
  Psychoanalytic concepts  In the
of psychosexual same vein,
development, libido, and ego it
were met with both support and appeared
resistance from many scholars. to critics
that
 psychoanalysis, then, was more of
an ideological stance than a
scientific one.
 Amidts controversy, Freud’s
psychoanalysis is widely credited
for dominating
psychotherapeutic practice in the
early 20th century.
 Psychodynamic therapies that
treat a myriad of psychological
disorders still remain largely
informed by Freud’s work on
psychoanalysis.

3 main Psychodynamic Treatment

1. Free Association – Express
anything
2. Word Association – Response to
stimulus word
3. Dream Analysis – Investigating
the symbolism in dreams