Study on the determinants of job
satisfaction
Introduction
In the ever-changing business world, with increasing competition and
continuous demands from the stake-holders, employees are believed to
be the most valuable asset in any organization, of meeting such
uncertain demands. Employees bring the abilities, acquired knowledge
and skills represented by each individual employee. It is, the
employee’s performance which contributes towards attainment of
organizational goals. It is, therefore, imperative to utilize the
employees’ capabilities to the maximum possible extent, in order to
achieve individual and organizational goals. In this context, it has been
argued that, employees’ performance, to a large extent, is influenced
by motivation and job satisfaction (Rao, 2000).
According to Spector (1997), there are certain common facets, which
encompass the concept of job satisfaction: Appreciation,
Communication, Co-workers, Fringe benefits, Job conditions, Nature of
the work, Organization, Personal growth, Policies and procedures,
Promotion opportunities, Recognition, Security, and Supervision.
There are three important dimensions to job satisfaction:
1) Job satisfaction refers to an individual employee’s feeling towards
his/her job. It can only be inferred but not seen.
2) Job satisfaction can also be determined by how well outcomes meet
or exceed expectations. This results into increased commitment in the
fulfilment of formal performance requirements.
3) The terms, job satisfaction and job attitudes are often used
synonymously. Both indicate positive and affirmative orientations of
the individuals towards their job.
The concept of job satisfaction may be defined in several ways.
It may be defined as how content an individual is with his or her job, in
other words, whether or not they like the job or individual aspects or
facets of jobs, such as nature of work or supervision (Spector, 1997).
Hulin and Judge (2003) suggested that the concept of job satisfaction
was the multi-dimensional psychological responses to one’s job in
question.
One of the most popular definitions of job satisfaction has been
proposed by Locke (1976:1304). According to this definition, job
satisfaction as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from
the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences”.
Feldman and Arnold (1983) argued that Job satisfaction was the overall
positive affect (or feelings) that individuals have towards their jobs.
Kreitner and Kinicki (1995) described Job satisfaction is an affective or
emotional response toward various facets of one’s job. This definition
means job satisfaction is not a unitary concept. Davis and Newstrom
(1989) explained Job satisfaction is a set of favorable or unfavorable
feelings with which employees view their work.”
Review of literature
In this section, following aspects of job satisfaction have been
discussed:
A. Job satisfaction and employee performance
B. Models pertaining to job satisfaction
C. Factors that influence job satisfaction
D. Work-related aspects enhancing job satisfaction
E. Major global research findings on job satisfaction
F. Indian automobile industry
G. Major Research findings on job satisfaction in Indian automobile
sector
Each of the above sections are discussed below.
A. Job satisfaction and employee performance
1. Satisfaction and Productivity: Employee productivity is higher in
organizations with more satisfied workers.
2. Satisfaction and Absenteeism: Satisfied employees tend to be less
absentees at work
3. Satisfaction and Turnover: Satisfied employees are happier with the
organization, and thus, tend to quit less in number.
4. Satisfaction and Workplace Deviance: Dissatisfied employees are
more prone towards deviant behavior at the workplace, such as,
substance abuse, stealing at work, undue socializing and tardiness, and
so on.
5. Satisfaction and Organization Citizenship Behaviour(OCBs): Satisfied
employees more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the
normal expectations of their job.
6. Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction: Satisfied workers provide
better customer service, as they are more friendly and responsive.
B. Models pertaining to job satisfaction
The most popular theories pertaining to job satisfaction are stated
below.
Affect theory
As stated earlier, Locke’s (1976) theory is among the most popular one
in this context. According to this theory, satisfaction may be
determined as an inconsistency between the expectation an employee
has in in a job vis –a –vis what he / she receives from job. This theory
also emphasizes on the significance of autonomy in making an
employee satisfied in his/ her job. More the employee values
autonomy, more he/she will be satisfied with greater autonomy he/she
is provided with.
Equity theory
This theory proposes how an individual perceives fairness in regard to
work relationships. The fairness is perceived based on the ration
between the amount of input (things gained) from a relationship
compared to the output (things given). Then this ratio is compared to
the ratio of other individuals (within and outside the organizations).
This, in turn, results into the same individuals’ perception as to whether
or not he / she has an equitable relationship. According to this theory,
an individual employee will be distressed and dissatisfied, if his/her
ration and the same of others are not equitable (Adams, 1965).
Two-factor theory (Motivator-Hygiene factor theory)
This theory is a well-known theory, which attempts to explain
satisfaction and motivation in the workplace. According to this theory,
satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by different factors. These
factors are called motivators and hygiene factors, respectively.
Motivators are the internal drives that motivate individuals to attain
personal and organizational goals. Motivators encourage employees to
attain performance goals, and provide job satisfaction. Examples of
motivators include, aspects, such as, achievement in work, recognition,
promotion opportunities. Hygiene factors are the factors, which
prevent dissatisfaction. Employees tend to become dissatisfied, if the
hygiene actors are not present sufficiently at the work place. These
factors include external aspects, such pay, company policies,
supervisory practices, and other working conditions.
A study on employee job satisfaction with special reference to the
Indian automobile industry
C. Factors that influence job satisfaction
The factors which are responsible in influencing job satisfaction, may be
categorized into two:
(a) Environmental factors and (b) Individual factors.
They are as stated below.
(a) Environmental factors : There are several environmental factors,
which may influence job satisfaction.They are as follows:
• Communication over-load and under-load communication over-
load and commmunication under-load may affect level of
individual’s job satisfaction. Individuals may experience
communication overload when too many information or too
complicated information are shared in a short period of time. This
may lead to failure in processing the information and inability to
achieve the optimal utilization of such information to complete a
given task (Farace, et al , 1977). On the contrary, individuals may
face communication under- load, when insufficient information is
provided with them. This too may lead to sub-optimal
performance. In either case, the individual employee will
experience low level of job satisfaction.
• Superior-subordinate communication – The way in which
subordinates perceive a supervisor’s behavior, can positively or
negatively influence job satisfaction. The aspects of behaviour
include aspects, such as, facial expression, eye contact, vocal
expression, and overall body language (Burgoon et al, 1996).
Interestingly, the pattern and style of non-verbal communication
of the supervisors are perceived as more crucial to their
subordinates, in deciding whether the communication is
favourable or otherwise. Employees experience higher level of job
satisfaction, if the supervisor uses non-verbal immediacy,
friendliness, and open communication.
• Recognition – Employee recognition is a significant organizational
strategy, which acts as a catalyst in enhancing level of job
satisfaction. More an employee gets recognition for his/her
achievement at work, more he/she will be satisfied and motivated
to perform. This, in turn, lead to higher employee retention and
better management of talent pipeline.
(b) Individual factors: There are several individual factors, which may
influence job satisfaction.
They are as follows:
• Emotion – Moods and emotions are related to overall job
satisfaction. Frequency of experiencing net positive emotion will
be a better predictor of overall job satisfaction than will intensity
of positive emotion when it is experienced (Fisher, 2000).
Interestingly, study revealed that suppression of unpleasant
emotions leads to lower level of job satisfaction and the
magnification of pleasant emotions leads to increased job
satisfaction (Cote & Morgan, 2002).
• Personality - There are two personality factors, which have close
relationship with job satisfaction: alienation and locus of control.
Employees, with more internal locus of control and are less
alienated, experience higher job satisfaction, job involvement and
organizational commitment (Bruk-Lee et al, 2009).
• Psychological well-being (PWB) - PWB is a concept which explains
the overall effectiveness of an individual’s “psychological
functioning” as to primary facades of an individual’s life: work,
family, community, etc (Wright & Cropanzano, 2000). Studies
revealed that it plays a significant role in causing job satisfaction
(Baptiste, 2008; Robertson et al 2012).
D. Work-related aspects enhancing job satisfaction
1. Policies of Compensation and Benefit: This is most important variable
for employee
satisfaction. Compensation can be described as the amount of reward
that, a worker expects from the job. Employees should be satisfied with
competitive salary packages and they should be satisfied. Following
points may be delineated under this category:
• Salaries or wages
• Bonus
• Incentives such as medical allowance, educational
allowance, HRA etc.
2. Job security: Job security is the assurance of current employment
provided by the management. Employees with a high level of job
security perceive the workplace as more safe and comfortable place to
work. Certain affected by a worker’s performance, success of the
business and the current economic environment. Following points
come under this category:
• Facility of transfer
• Accessible / reasonable target
• Leaves
3. Working conditions: good and comfortable working condition is a
significant factor which enhances job satisfaction. It provides a feeling
ofsafety, comfort and motivation. On the contrary, poor working
condition brings out a fear of bad health in employees. The more
comfortable the working environment is more productive will be the
employees.
Following these points come under this category:
• Feeling safe and comfort in working environment
• Tools and equipment
• Working methods
• Security guards and parking facility
• Well ventilated with good light fans and air- conditioning
• Neat and clean office place, rest area and washrooms.
4. Relationship with superior authority: with it, while comparing their
pay packets with those of the outsiders, who are working in the same
industry. A sense of satisfaction is felt by individual employees in
attaining fair, equitable, and, appropriate reward. A good working
relationship with your supervisor is essential since, at every stage, you
need his or her professional input, constructive criticism, and general
understanding. The following points come under this category:
• Relationship with immediate supervisor
• Communication between employees and senior management
• Treatment to employee.
.
E. Major global research findings on job satisfaction
Following are some of the major findings on job satisfaction at the work
place, worldwide.
1. A study, conducted among nurses in Australia (Savery, 1989)
revealed that the job satisfaction level of the nurses was influenced
most by interesting and challenging work. , Salary was ranked as a very
low satisfier.
2. Burke and MacDermid (1999) proposed six variables of workaholic
patterns: Workaholics, Enthusiastic Workaholics, Work Enthusiastic,
Unengaged Workers, Relaxed Workers and Disenchanted Workers.
According to this study, the job satisfaction level and career satisfaction
level was much more prevalent in Enthusiastic Workaholics.
3. Researches also confirmed the role of environmental design of an
organization in job satisfaction (Melvin, 1993).
4. A study, conducted by Singh & Jain (2013), argued that employees’
job satisfaction had an impact on their performance and retention.
5. Tietjen & Myers (1998), advocated that job satisfaction would be
maximum when an employee would be satisfied with the nature of
his/her work itself, and not the hygiene factors.
Objectives of the study
To study the determinants of job satisfaction.
Interpretation and discussion
I am frequently asked how to interpret scores on the Job Satisfaction
Survey (JSS). The JSS assesses job satisfaction on a continuum from low
(dissatisfied) to high (satisfied). There are no specific cut scores that
determine whether an individual is satisfied or dissatisfied, in other
words, we cannot confidently conclude that there is a particular score
that is the dividing line between satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Where
there is a need to draw conclusions about satisfaction versus
dissatisfaction for samples or individuals, two approaches can be used.
The normative approach would compare the target
person/sample to the norms for the sample. My website provides
norms for several different groups. One can reference the norms and
describe given individuals/samples as being more satisfied, dissatisfied,
or about the same as the norms. These norms are limited in three ways.
First, there are a small number of occupations and organizations
represented. Second, the norms are not from representative samples,
but rather are an accumulation of mostly convenience samples people
send me. In other words, they are a convenience sample of
convenience samples. Third, the norms are mainly from North
America—Canada and the U.S. Mean levels of job satisfaction varies
across countries, so one should not assume these norms are
representative of other countries, particularly those that are culturally
dissimilar from North America.
The absolute approach picks some logical, if arbitrary cut scores to
represent dissatisfaction versus satisfaction. Given the JSS uses 6-point
agree-disagree response choices, we can assume that agreement with
positively-worded items and disagreement with negatively-worded
items would represent satisfaction, whereas disagreement with
positive-worded items, and agreement with negative-worded items
represents dissatisfaction. For the 4-item subscales, as well as the 36-
item total score, this means that scores with a mean item response
(after reverse scoring the negatively-worded items) of 4 or more
represents satisfaction, whereas mean responses of 3 or less represents
dissatisfaction. Mean scores between 3 and 4 are ambivalence.
Translated into the summed scores, for the 4-item subscales with a
range from 4 to 24, scores of 4 to 12 are dissatisfied, 16 to 24 are
satisfied, and between 12 and 16 are ambivalent. For the 36-item total
where possible scores range from 36 to 216, the ranges are 36 to 108
for dissatisfaction, 144 to 216 for satisfaction, and between 108 and
144 for ambivalent.
Reference
1. Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment,
causes and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
2. ^ a b Hulin, C. L., & Judge, T. A. (2003). Job attitUdes. In W. C.
Borman, D. R. ligen, & R. J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of
psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 255-
276). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
