RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the obtained related pieces of literature and studies

concerning the subject matters of this research. This chapter will focus on past

projects related to “Alternative Potable Water Supply Using PLC-Based Portable

Solar Powered Atmospheric Water Extractor”. It also intends to provide further

concepts and background that will serve as a basis for future generations'

studies.

Atmospheric Water

The researchers in “Producing Safe Drinking Water Using an Atmospheric

Water Generator (AWG) in an Urban Environment” discussed that water droplets

form in the atmosphere when water vapor condenses on surfaces with

temperatures lower than dewpoint (Aviv et al., 2020). These water droplets are

also called dew water. This dew water may undergo purification to be classified

as potable water. The advantage of atmospheric water as a water source is that

it does not require substantial water-transport infrastructure, instead of using

harvesting equipment planted in different locations. In another article, “A Review:

Dew Water Collection from Radiative Passive Collectors to Recent

Developments of Active Collectors”, the researchers cited about 14,000 km 3 of

atmospheric water assessed on Earth while there are only 1200 km 3 of

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freshwater. The significant difference of potential extractable water alone is

enough to make atmospheric air an alternative water source. However, there are

only some studies related to atmospheric water extraction.

Relative Humidity in the Philippines

According to the article “Climate of the Philippines” (PAGASA, n.d.), the

climate in the Philippines is described as tropical, experiencing prevalent rains,

high temperatures, and high humidity measurements. Weather scientists and

meteorologists use relative humidity as the primary measure of existing humidity

in the atmosphere. In a study “Measuring Relative Humidity and Dew Point”,

meteorologists define it as the ratio between the air’s current moisture and its

maximum moisture. Relative humidity will be crucial in this study as it will serve

as the water source and dictate dew formation. The increase in the air’s relative

humidity will also lead to an increase in cloud formation. The air molecules are

moving faster and spread farther apart, creating more room for evaporated

moisture. Precipitation will occur when the air reaches 100% relative humidity, as

it cannot hold water anymore. (Noble Research Institute, n.d.)

Since the Philippines has been described previously as a tropical country,

high relative humidity is expected. The following data provided below is from the

Department of Science and Technology – Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical

and Astronomical Services Administration (DOST-PAGASA). The observations

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were regularly collected at specific PAGASA stations at 00:00, 06:00, 12:00, and

18:00 Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) for the primary standard time and

during the intermediate standard time of observations taken 03:00, 09:00, 15:00,

and 21:00 UTC. DOST-PAGASA defined relative humidity (RH) as the ratio of

the actual vapor pressure of the air for the prevailing temperature at the height of

1.25 – 2.00 m aboveground. The calculations were attained from dry-bulb and

wet-bulb temperature readings through psychrometric tables or calculators with

RH readings taken at specific intervals.

The data below came from “ClimDatPh: An Online Platform for Philippine

Climate Data Acquisition”. The following annual RH values are the mean of the

monthly RH values. In 2019, the annual RH in the NAIA weather station was

72%, and it increased to 73.5% in 2020. In PAGASA Science Garden, 72% and

74% annual RH were recorded for 2019 and 2020. Remote provinces like

Tuguegarao have 80% and 81% RH; Casiguran with 86% for both years;

Calapan with 85% and 86%; Dipolog with 77% and 78%; and Hinatuan with 81%

and 84% for 2019 and 2020, respectively. (De Guzman et al., 2020)

Based on the data above, it can be observed that the mean annual RH in

the Philippines from years 2019 and 2020 is hovering above 70%. The

researchers want to use this advantage to provide alternative potable water

sources, especially for people in remote provinces.

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Atmospheric Water Extractors

Typically, there are two types of dew condensers: passive and active dew

condensers. The passive or radiative condensers mainly rely on the physical

processes alone responsible for dew formation to collect atmospheric water

without energy input. However, several factors like relative humidity, wind speed,

and the area’s ambient temperature hinder this, resulting in varying and usually

low water yield per day. In the same study, a yield of 0.3-0.6 L/day was obtained

in 1 m2 of a passive condenser.

From the “A Review: Dew Water Collection from Radiative Passive

Collectors to Recent Developments of Active Collectors”, the other type of dew

condenser, the active dew condenser, or the so-called atmospheric water

extractors or generators (AWE/AWG), works by converting water vapor into liquid

water, primarily condensation. The relatively moist air’s temperature is brought

down below its dew point, causing the formation of the liquid droplets, which are

then collected. The main advantage of AWEs is their ability to produce water in

dry air and low temperatures, therefore the ability to operate in a broader range

of weather conditions compared to passive condenser-based extractors. The

other benefit is that it has a higher yield of potential potable water, reaching up to

5000L/day. (Khalil et al., 2015)

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In this study, the researchers will employ an active condenser-based

atmospheric water extractor, wherein a condenser will be used to decrease the

temperature of the collected air to start the water droplets’ formation.

Portable Atmospheric Water Extractors

Portable devices were invented to make life easier and bring it in wherever

the user wants. There have been several inventions that provide the benefits of

having access to an alternative handheld device. One of the essential needs that

may be provided is water. It is one of the most basic human needs. The

researchers want to give an alternative way to obtain potable water by creating a

portable prototype to produce alternative water sources.

According to the study Atmospheric Water Generation Research

(Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.), AWGs produce potable water from

surrounding air. It serves as an alternative way to produce potable water and a

solution during shortages, contamination events, and other issues resulting in a

lack of drinking water. The generators range from home-based units, which can

produce 1 to 20 liters per day, to commercial-scale units ranging from 1,000 to

over 10,000 liters per day, depending on the air temperature and humidity.

Most AWG uses a process called dehumidification. From the research

Portable Drinking Water Generator (Gopakumar, 2016), this method pertains to

extracting water vapor in the air to produce water. If the air is cooled at the same
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time it is extracted, it is called cooling dehumidification. However, it is heating

dehumidification if the air is heated when it is extracted. The researcher also

classified two distinctive ways dehumidifiers remove water vapor from the air:

refrigerant and desiccant. Refrigerant dehumidification has a fan and works the

same as the refrigerator. At the same time, desiccant humidification uses a

unique humidity-absorbing material that is open to the atmosphere to absorb

water vapor.

In the study “Dehumidification of Atmospheric Air for Water Production”

(Vinay et al., 2018), a cooling AWG has a compressor that circulates the

refrigerant through a condenser and an evaporator coil to cool the air

surrounding it. The water condenses when the air temperature decreases up to

its dew point, and then a controlled-speed fan pushes the filtered air over the coil.

When it is passed into a holding tank, the water produced will undergo a

purification and filtration system to make it potable. 

The study was conducted in India, and the water production was checked

during the morning, noon and night. The running time was kept constant to 10

minutes. At midnight, the temperature was 27.5°C with 51% humidity from the

air, and they were able to produce 21mL of water. By 6 A.M., the temperature

decreased to 23.5°C while the humid air rose to 64%, producing 31.8mL of

water. At noon, the temperature went up to 30.5°C making the humidity decrease
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to 55% and the water produced to 18mL. The data ended at 9 P.M., with a

temperature of 29°C, humidity at 45%, and 22.4mL of water produced. From this

study, the relationship between air temperature and humidity is seen to be

inversely proportional. As the temperature decreases, the humidity of air

increases, and more water is produced. 

The researchers in “Experimental Investigations on a Portable

Atmospheric Water Generator for Maritime Rescue” created and tested a

portable solar-photovoltaic atmospheric water generator to provide fresh water to

people in distress tropical seas or garrison soldiers on a small island. (Du et al.,

2020)

The completed water production of their research is 460mL/h as the best

production rate. Moreover, the water generated may be as high as 5.52 liters per

day, with an energy usage of fewer than 200 watts. The researcher achieved the

said amount of water with a temperature of 27°C and relative humidity of 92%.

The testing is conducted every one hour. For the first testing, the water

production rate is much lower than the following testing. From time to time, the

water production rate even goes higher until it reaches the high value produced.

It means that the device needed to 'start up' before it could run stably. 

For the process of the device, the air path was pointed at the sea surface

to generate the natural water evaporator. Sodium chloride (NaCl) solution was
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used to simulate saltwater easily. To determine the absolute water content of

airflow and the water removal rate, relative humidity, and temperature sensors

are positioned at the intake and exit of airflow, respectively (primary tank &

secondary tank). The condensed water in the catchment slot will go into the

primary water tank, then be pumped to the secondary water tank using ultrafilter

to eliminate impurities before being used when the intake valve is turned on.

On the other hand, the device consists of some components that need a

power supply, and these are the following: compressor, the pump, and the

blower with a rated power of 196W, 8W, and 40W, respectively. When the AC is

required for power consumption, a DC-AC converter may be used. The power

supply system comprises two foldable solar PV panels (150W each) and two 12V

100Ah lithium batteries. The two solar panels are mounted on two sides and

maybe spread out when used or folded to save space. The prototype measures 1

meter in height, 0.8 meters in length, and 0.6 meters in width. The ABS shell is

cuboid in shape and has side and top holes. The air path, made up of a

retractable aluminum cylinder, is attached to the side aperture, with the other end

pointing downwards near the sea’s surface.

In an award given by CES 2020 to “Product Solar Genny by Watergen”

(Watergen, 2020), an existing Solar-Powered AWG was selected as CES 2020

Innovation Awards Honoree in the category Sustainability, Eco-Design & Smart

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Energy. The product is based on Watergen's initial device, Genny, which is an at-

home water appliance. According to “Genny Water Treatment” (Watergen, 2019),

this device undergoes six stages: Removal of Particulate Matter, Water creation,

Filtration and Mineralization, Safety or Purification, Water Maintenance, and

Certification. The innovation uses renewable energy, specifically solar, suitable

for remote areas where electricity is a challenge. The article “Solar-powered

GENNY Pulls Clean Water from the Air” discussed that the humid air is drawn

and passed through a filter at the back and exits the front. Using four 23-foot or

7-meter solar panels, a 9 kWh of energy per day can produce 13 liters with

temperatures ranging 15 to 40°C, and relative humidity of more than 25%.

(Engadget, 2020)

Other Existing Atmospheric Water Extractors

Other research on water extraction from the atmosphere exists, and

almost all studies employ Arduino as the central controller of the prototype. In a

webpage entitled “What Does Arduino Mean?” (Techopedia, n.d.), Arduino is

defined as an open-source and easy-to-use programming tool used for writing

code and uploading it to an Arduino board. This board can accept inputs from

various sensors like light, proximity, or even an air quality sensor and then turn it

into a specific output like turning on lights or activating a motor. Arduino is often

used because it is (1) ready to use, (2) featuring a massive collection of open-

sourced codes, and it is (3) relatively cheap.

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In a study named “A Smart Embedded System for Humid Air

Condensation and Water Harvesting”, the researchers used Arduino UNO in the

real-time automation of the condensation chamber’s temperature, wherein it was

utilized to measure the inlet ambient air temperature (AAT) and relative humidity

(RH) which dictated the corresponding dew point at the given time. Arduino

UNO’s were also used to control the Peltier heat sinks, which serve as the

cooling system in the prototype. The prototype’s LCD screen is also connected to

the Arduino through Serial Data Line (SDA) and Serial Clock Line (SCL), wherein

the RH, AAT, chamber temperature, outlet air humidity, current dew point, and

system efficiency are displayed.

Programmable Logic Controllers

What is PLC?

An article “What is a PLC?” (Advanced Micro Controllers Inc., n.d.) states

that a Programmable Logic Controller or PLC is a digital computer used in the

industry to provide automation in several processes. A PLC can continuously

monitor the state of different input devices and apply decision-making in

accordance with the needs of the client or engineer to modify the action of output

devices. PLCs are known to be flexible and robust because of their ability to be

used in different sectors of the industry.

PLC Application in the Industrial Sector

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Critical infrastructure such as water supply systems mainly uses electronic

control systems, and it includes several elements such as PLC, actuators,

sensors, and networking devices. One of the PLCs’ responsibilities was to collect

data from its input, then based on the memory programmed will decide what

outcome it must produce. After deciding, PLC will then send the command to the

output devices such as valves, pumps, or motors to execute it.

PLC made automation easy, creating various technologies that will help

achieve safe and comfortable living for everyone. PLCs in industries ensure low-

cost, safe, fast computational abilities and have small physical size good for

business owners who want secure programming for their systems. The

advancement of technology develops the way of living and the progress and

expansion of low-cost computers like PLCs. For that reason, several control

techniques were created, making processes for numerous water treatments

satisfy the standard for potable water.

Since water is crucial to human survival, big corporations began creating

businesses to distribute drinking water to the public. Hence, manual labor was a

substantial part of manufacturing and distributing water to consumers in the past.

However, nowadays, automation plays a significant role in developing multiple

manufacturing systems as it aids in mass production, reduces human errors, and

provides low-cost labor. As specified in the study “Automation in Drinking Water

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Purification, Distribution & Theft Identification Using PLC and HMI” (Shah &

Vagdoda, 2017), PLC is of great help in automating systems since it lessens

human intervention and ensures proper distribution.

With the use of PLC, an intelligent automated system can be developed.

The PLC automation occurs when valves open and close accordingly as PLC

calculated the sensor's differences in flow rate. If any deviation from the setpoint

occurs in the system, the controller would assume it as leakage or theft in the

piping that will shut off the valves automatically. chlorin

Another excellent example of a PLC-based control system occurs at

industrial water plants. As stated in the “Development of a Programmable Logic

Controller Based Control System for a Water Plant” (Abdelrahman, 2021), the

procedure starts with controlling and monitoring the water sucking pumps to

provide raw water directly to the S stream. The operation of the designed system

will begin when water starts to fill the vessel as level sensors are placed to

monitor the changes inside. Using a PLC, two sensors are linked to raw water

and will start to pump by using signals from the control unit, the process valves of

the washing filter will open and close automatically. As the level sensors operate,

the sand filter will proceed to filtrate the water. Flow rate and water turbidity will

detect if the water is filtered right and only add chemicals if it does not meet the

standard requirements.
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In addition, the primary purpose of the research was to create a program

to automate and control the process operation of filtration and, at the same time,

also to manage the production process and increase its effectiveness to the best

possible level while also having only little to no use of excess chemicals. As a

result, a newly designed control system was created. The design is composed of

a sucking pump directly installed to raw material. The newly created design of the

system acquires results that prove its reliability and applicability.

PLC for Home-based Application

Besides, PLCs are not only limited to industrial operations but also home-

based applications. Multiple appliances were made automated for everyone’s

convenience such that several devices at home were improved and made

environment friendly. Some applications even help consumers be less

susceptible to illness. An example of such an application is an air purifier that

may reduce the user's chances of inhaling harmful chemicals from indoor

environments, neutralize unpleasant odors, and prevent acquiring airborne

diseases.

To further improve the current air purifier, a study named “An Air

Circulation Purifying System” based on PLC was conducted (Chen et al., 2018),

where the researchers analyzed several factors such as wind resistance, filtration

speed, the volume of clean air, and testing net filters to find which is the best for
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indoor and outdoor applications. Based on the result, the researchers designed a

system using Siemens S7-200 series PLC programming software, wherein a

program that can automatically change and replace the filter was designed.

Furthermore, the only available purifying systems are only used for indoor

purposes. With that, indoor and outdoor air circulation does not improve under

the current air purifiers available in the market. The two most common filters

used were activated carbon filters and high-voltage electrostatic. Activated

carbon filters impure air, as the efficiency lasts for a short amount of time. The

filters must be replaced after contaminants have filled the bonding sites, while

high-voltage electrostatic filters were used to seize dust and small particles of air

but only filter dust and not harmful gasses. Both the filters need to be regularly

cleaned and replaced so that they can function to their fullest. Not complying with

the maintenance of purifying could lead to a secondary type of pollution.

PLCs Protection Against System Attackers

PLCs nowadays are of great importance in developing operating systems,

especially in the manufacturing sector. It offers numerous advantages that help

create advanced technology that may serve as a path to a new era of innovation.

As its role became vital, the responsibilities of PLCs increased. While

advancements in technology allow operators to manage process operations

online, various attackers will still advantage such availability. 

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Such attacks can be detected on the PLC memory, as stated in the

study “Implementation and Detection of Novel Attacks to the PLC Memory of a

Clean Water Supply System” (Durazno et al., 2018). The research proposes a

novel attack vector for modifying PLC memory. It will affect the values of sensors,

including the water flow meter or the operation of actuators such as pumps. The

proposed vector would also modify and manipulate control variables placed on

the PLC’s memory or reprogram decision-making rules. The study results show

the successful implementation of the proposed novel vector, including the

credibility of detecting such threats.  

Summing up, the automation of water systems by using PLC eliminates

human error by providing accurate measurements. Since it is automated, there

will be a reduction in human intervention. The researchers will then prototype a

portable air to a potable water system to help consumers acquire drinking water

wherever they are. The study intends to make human life simple, water-saving,

time-saving, and electricity-saving. 

Solar Panels

What is a Solar Panel?

In an article entitled “Solar Panel” (Energy Education, 2020), a solar panel is

expounded as a component of a photovoltaic cell. It is made up of a string of

photovoltaic cells, which are arranged in a panel. The solar cells have silicon and
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phosphorus (that provides a positive charge) and boron (that provides a negative

charge). Solar energy is harvested through the solar panel and converted into electricity

that may be used to power up appliances and the like. Using a solar panel as a source

of electricity is a practical way of using an existing type of renewable energy. Moreover,

installing solar panels is costly at first, but harvesting solar energy is free so that the

savings will be more significant in the long run. In this research, solar panels will be

utilized as a power source for the atmospheric water extractor.

Working Principle of Solar Panels

In the same article Solar Panel (Energy Education, 2020), it is discussed

that solar panels are used to mount several individual solar cells allowing their

distinct properties to be utilized to generate electricity. Each cell from the panel

absorbs photons from the Sun, and then the photovoltaic effect will take place

where the photons absorbed are converted into electric current. The electric

current produced will go through an inverter to convert the direct current into an

alternating current. These principles are known as the photovoltaic system.

According to How Do Solar Panel Work? (Mr. Solar.com, n.d.), the alternating

current converted from direct current may be used to power loads in homes or

commercial buildings, oil and gas flow monitoring, Remote Terminal Unit (RTU),

Supervision Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA), and many more. 

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Solar Powered Water Purifiers

According to a thesis entitled “Solar Energy Based Water Purification

System” (Acadpub, 2018), it is found that using sunlight as a renewable source of

energy provided pollution-free and cost-effective operation. The researchers

used solar energy, a renewable, abundant, and inexpensive source, enabling the

purifier to work even if the power goes out because solar energy can be stored.

This purifier can be utilized in regions with no electricity, such as isolated and

rural areas. It can also be employed in areas where natural calamities occur.

Another thesis, “Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Water Purifier” (IJREAM,

2017), argued that creating and implementing a solar-powered RO unit will

benefit rural people and a cost-effective distributing technique for drinking water

from drinking brackish water sources in disadvantaged and remote locations.

Solar panels, which power up the RO unit, are an upfront capital investment that

can be written off throughout the unit's lifetime. According to “Solar Water

Disinfection” (CTCN, 2016), solar radiation has been an excellent technique for

cleansing contaminated water. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation damages the production

of DNA links in microbes, rendering them incapable of reproducing and so

harmless. The World Health Organization lists solar disinfection as some of the

most promising and accessible technologies for household water treatment.

“How Solar Powered Water Purification Works” stated that solar distillation

is another successful technology for water filtration that, in comparison to SODIS,

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requires a considerably broader scale of implementation. The solar energy

collector, distillation system, and solar water disinfection system are the three

components. This is supported by another article, “All You Need to Know About

Solar Powered Water Purification.”. All solid contaminants are removed from the

water before it is vaporized and then condensed for collection. Solar distillation is

a highly efficient technology for turning seawater into potable water (RITE

WATER, 2020).

Preliminary Air Filter

An air filter is defined in “Design and Fabrication of Economical Air Filter”

as a device with a porous structure consisting of several layers of fibrous yet

permeable materials, which aids in trapping dust particles, pollen, and other

foreign particles in the ambient air. Various air filters exist, and they differ on their

capabilities of air filtration, dictated by the size of particle that they can entrap.

Examples of air filtering materials are cotton, absorbent cloth, filter cloth, and the

fibrous filters, which are the (1) Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Filters

(HVAC), (2) High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA), and (3) Ultra-Low Particulate

Air (ULPA) filters. (Bhava et al., 2015)

The researchers will use a panel HEPA filter to serve as the preliminary air

filter in this study. In a presentation entitled Air Filtration (Rudnick, n.d.), HEPA

filters are characterized as throwaway, pleated, and having a fibrous filter in a

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rigid frame. HEPA filters are composed of a paper-like mat of glass fibers made

perpendicular to the designated airflow. An organic binder is added for additional

structural strength. When the foreign particles come in contact with glass fibers,

they attach and adhere firmly. A separate article, “Understanding Your HEPA

Filter”, states that a HEPA filter is replaced when it loses efficiency or reaches its

final recommended pressure drop. (Camfil, n.d.)

Potable Water Quality

In an article “Potable Water” (Water Education Foundation, n.d.), water

coming from surface and ground sources needs to be treated to levels to meet

the state and federal standards for consumption, thus making it potable. Based

on the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017 (Department of

Health, 2017), the following are criteria to be followed as standards for drinking-

water quality: (1) The water must be clear and not possess unwanted odor, taste,

and color. It must also be free from any form of contaminants, be it physical or

chemical. (2) The water quality must be measured in the following quantities:

microbiological, physical, chemical, and radiological constituents. (3) The

parameters of drinking-water quality shall be classified as mandatory, primary,

and secondary. Furthermore, the following are standards for water sampling and

examination: (1) A new water source shall undergo initial testing while existing

water sources shall undergo periodic testing wherein the mentioned parameters

above shall be measured. (2) The minimum number of water samples that will
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undergo sampling and testing shall be dictated by the source and the mode of

distribution of the drinking-water supply. (3) The water sampling shall follow the

standards set by the DOH. (4). Certified sampling personnel is the only one

allowed to conduct the water sampling. (5) All collected water samples shall be

examined only by DOH-Accredited Laboratories. The examination shall follow the

guide based on the “22nd edition (2012) of the Standard Methods for the

Examination of Water and Water and Wastewater” unless suggested otherwise in

the Manual of Operations. (6) The radiological quality of the sampled water shall

be done by the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI). The water samples

shall be referred to the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute for radiological

quantity testing. Lastly, the following are standards used for other methods of

distribution of drinking water: (1) Drinking water sourced from refilling stations,

portable tanks, vending machines, and other bulk water supplies shall undergo

both initial and periodic testing where the same constituents mentioned above

are quantified. (2) All standard values of the mandatory parameters above shall

apply to water coming from refilling stations and vending machines except for the

typical values of pH and total dissolved solids (TDS). The water’s pH value shall

range from 5-7 while the TDS levels shall not exceed ten mg/L to validate the

efficiency of the reverse osmosis or distillation process employed. (3) Water

sourced from portable tanks shall have a chlorine residual of not less than 0.5

mg/L but shall not exceed 1.50 mg/L at the point of delivery. (4) The bulk water
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supply’s chlorine residual level shall remain between 0.3 mg/L to 1.5 mg/L;

chlorine dioxide residual between 0.2 mg/L to 0.4 mg/L before distribution. (5) All

alternative water sources like not limited to water-refilling stations, vending

machines, and other bulk water supplies shall follow the standard minimum of

samples to be obtained and also with the frequency of sampling requirements. 

Water Purification

According to Drinking Water (WHO, 2019), safe and readily available

water is necessary for public health. With that being said, having clean water is

crucial to be able to be healthy. Furthermore, water purification must be practiced

to improve water quality, thus sanitizing water for safe and potable water. Water

purification, as defined in “Water Purification”, is the removal of unwanted

chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids, and other foreign

materials from contaminated water to produce water with varying purposes.

Producing potable water is the most common water purification application, but it

can also be applied in medical, pharmacological, chemical, and industrial

applications. (Ecologix Environmental System, n.d.)

In addition, it is stated in the article “Water Purification” (Anderberg, 2021)

that water purification makes water potable by deactivating harmful pathogens,

but it does not eliminate contaminants. Filtration must be done first to filter dirty
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water before undergoing purification. Purification may be done through boiling,

applying UV light, and using a chemical agent.

The article “Water Purification” (Scrotch et al., 2018) discusses the

process of water purification. The first process is pretreatment, where biological

contaminants, chemicals, and other materials are removed from the water.

Screening is part of the process to remove large debris in surface water, then the

addition of chemicals will control the growth of bacteria. Next in line is the

preconditioning in which sodium carbonate is added to treat water with high

mineral content, thus removing calcium carbonate. Perchlorinating will be the

next step where chlorine will be applied to the raw water to remove high

concentrations of natural organic matter. However, there are downsides because

scientists argue that the organic matter reacts to chlorine and may result in

disinfection byproducts (DBP), resulting in health problems, particularly in the

digestive system. After the pretreatment, a series of treatments will be done.

First, coagulation will be done to which chemicals have been added that cause

the tiny particles in water to clump together. Next, the water will undergo

flocculation, where water is mixed with large paddles that have much larger

clumps (or “floc”) that eventually settle at the bottom of the tank. After the

suspended particles have settled at the bottom, the water will now leave the

flocculation basin and enter a sedimentation basin. The remaining particles and

sludges are filtered and treated. Then filtration will be done to remove other
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remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc. Lastly, disinfection will be done

to remove harmful pathogens by adding disinfecting chemicals. Chlorine is a

chemical agent usually used to disinfect, which has danger in the environment

and human beings. As a result, the use of ultraviolet radiation or hydrogen

peroxide is considered as an alternative. After all the process, the water treated

may now be distributed to households. 

In the same article, it may be concluded that water purification is crucial to

provide clean potable water by removing the concentration of contaminants such

as parasites, bacteria, algae, and the like. It also conforms to medical,

pharmacological, chemical, and industrial applications for clean and potable

water.

Water Filtration

From the book “Advances in Technical Nonwovens” (Kellie, 2016), the

process of reducing the concentration of particulate pollution, including

suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, and fungi, as well as

other unacceptable foreign contaminants, produce safe and clean water for

drinking, medical, and pharmaceutical applications are called water filtration.

According to the article entitled “How to Filter and Purify

Water” (Anderberg, 2021), the use of cloth or mesh net (sieve) may filter some

bacteria as the water flows through the cloth or mesh net. Filters work to get rid
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of water impurities but are not entirely effective in making the water potable.

Although it is filtered water is not entirely effective in making the water potable,

based on the research “Water Filtration” (Jacobsen, 2019), the filtered water may

be immediately consumed because it is ensured that it has the best flavor, unlike

purification that may alter its taste due to the chemicals added. Many filtration

systems may be used to filter impurities from water.

One of the commonly used filtration systems is sediment filtration. The

article “Sediment Filter for Well Water and More” (ESP Water Products, n.d.)

stated that sediment filters are designed to filter and capture sand, silt, dirt, and

rust from water. A sediment filter removes the particulates, thus protecting the

succeeding filtration system from being damaged.

Based on the article “Carbon Filters” (ESP Water Products, n.d.), carbon

is a commonly used medium in filtering water. Almost all filtration system uses

carbon filtration in filtering water. A carbon filter is made by grinding a carbon

source like bituminous coal, peat, and the most common coconut shells. Carbon

filters remove contaminants by adsorption – where contaminants are attracted to

the surface of the activated carbon. Carbon filters also function as a catalyst to

alter the chemical composition of some contaminants. 

Another filtering process is the use of reverse osmosis that utilizes a semi-

permeable membrane to filter out contaminants. As discussed in “What is a

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Reverse Osmosis System and How Does it Work?” (Woodard, 2020), a prefilter

is used in a reverse osmosis system for the removal of sediments and chlorine.

The prefiltered water is passed through a semi-permeable membrane to remove

dissolved solids. After the water exits the reverse osmosis membrane, it goes

through a postfilter to enhance the drinking water before it is consumed. The

number of prefilters and post-filters determine the stages of a reverse osmosis

system. In this research, the researchers will utilize sediment filtration, carbon

filtration, and a reverse osmosis process to filter the water, making it potable.

Ultraviolet Disinfection

In the article “Pros and Cons of UV Water Filtration” (Apec Water, n.d.), it

is found that the most effective water disinfection method is ultraviolet water

purification. UV rays kill harmful pathogens in the water and terminate

microorganisms that may cause illnesses by attacking their genetic core. 99.99%

of harmful microorganisms in a UV system are destroyed without chemical

addition and taste and odor alteration. This purification is usually combined with

other filtration systems such as reverse osmosis and carbon block filters. It is

stated in the journal “UV Radiation” (Edstrom Industries, n.d.) that the UV rays

must strike the cell of the microorganism in order for it to be killed. UV energy

enters the outer cell membrane, passes through the cell body, and disturbs its

DNA to prevent reproduction. UV treatment does not alter water chemically.

Furthermore, dissolved organics, inorganics, or particles in the water cannot be

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removed by UV disinfection, but the water is sterilized, thus killing the harmful

microorganisms.