21/12/2020

SBEC 4763

Productivity

FACILITATOR
ASSOC. PROF. Sr. DR. WAN YUSOFF WAN MAHMOOD
Email: [email protected]
HP: +60 19 755 8088

Productivity
• Defined as the ratio of output to
input
• Method of determining Productivity
1. Published Literature
a. Estimating Handbooks
b. Manufacturer’s Literature
c. Relevant Textbooks

Productivity
2. Other Methods
a. Post Estimating
b. Work Study (Synthetical
Estimating)
• Elemental synthetical
estimating
• Operational synthetical
estimating

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Productivity
• Construction labour productivity
is affected by many factors
§ Many within some level of
control of the project
participants.
§ Some without influence by
project participants.

Productivity
• Site factor
§ From research standards time are
constant from site to site, what
change are site factor which are a
measure of motivation of the
operatives and the degree of the
efficiency of the management.
§ Site efficiency can be improved by:
• Maximizing the opportunity of all
the work.
• Reduce the idle time.

Productivity
• Site factor
§ Site factor a direct measure of
idle time and must be applied
to basic standard time to give
planning time.
§ Planning time = Basic Standard
Time x site factor

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Factors Effecting Site Productivity

• Design
• Management
• Technology
• Motivation
• Skill and abilities of operatives
• Industrial relation
• Site condition
• Contractual situation

Factors Effecting Site Productivity

• Design
§ Good design lead to simplification,
continuity and making mechanization
feasible which can improve buildibility
and constructibility.
• Management
§ Active process which lead the
construction to a successful and
achieved the pre-determined targets.

Factors Effecting Site Productivity

• Management
§ Site organization structure – shallow
and flexible vs. deep and centralized.
§ Need an essential planning to
achieving higher productivity.
Construction program will helps
management to:
• Identify problem and factor that will
influence productivity and provide
a solution for improvement

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Factors Effecting Site Productivity

• Management
• Provide continuity of works
• Avoid mistake, rework, delay and
disruptions
• Balancing of resources
§ Supervise work-force properly
§ Adopt system of control – discrepancies
between target and actual can be
record, and action taken to correct the
situation.

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Factors Effecting Site Productivity

• Technology
§ Technical innovations can effect
productivity positively or negatively
§ New techniques can change the
way of work of the gang.
§ To increase productivity
successfully, investment is required
- operative required time to
learned.

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Factors Effecting Site Productivity

• Motivation
§ In order for higher productivity to be
achieved, worker must be motivated.
§ It is the most important factor in gaining
high productivity
§ Research has shown that different things
motivate foremen, craftsmen and
apprentices.
§ Management must recognize this and
supply the appropriate motivators in
each case

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Factors Effecting Site Productivity

• Skill and abilities of operatives
§ Skill attainment and development is
essential for achieving higher productivity
§ To aid operatives in acquiring skill training
should be provided for both new recruits
and skilled operatives
§ Repetition is also an aid in the acquisition
of skill and feedback of performance is
needed to help operatives achieve
higher standards of performance.

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Factors Effecting Site Productivity

• Industrial relation
§ Industrial relations can significantly effects
productivity and it is essential that
management keeps its relations with site
personnel at a cordial level.
§ Obviously strikes hill have a dramatic
effect on productivity but work stoppages
because of union meetings, or other
obligations imposed on the firm by
industrial agreements, can cause frequent
disruption and loss of discipline may occur.

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Factors Effecting Site Productivity

• Site condition
§ Site conditions often effects productivity
adversely.
§ Ground conditions not only effects jobs
but also have an indirect effect on other
operations e.g. adverse ground
conditions make material handling and
storage (at ground level) difficult.
§ A well planned site layout, which permits
gangs to work without interference, is an
important prerequisite to achieving high
productivity

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Factors Effecting Site Productivity

• Contractual situation
§ The type of contract can influence the
urgency with which the contractor wishes
to complete the contract.
§ Bonuses for early completion and
liquidated damages can introduce, in an
indirect way, incentives for the contractor
to complete the work on time.
§ This therefore exerts pressure on him to
utilize his resources most efficiently thus
resulting in higher productivity.

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Work Study

• Method Study
• Work Measurement

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Work Study

Method Study Work Measurement

To Improve Methods To Access Human
of Production Effectiveness

Resulting in more Making Possible improved

effectiveness use of Planning and Control
Materials, Manning
Plant and Equipment and as a Basis for Sound
Manpower Incentive Schemes

Higher Productivity

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WORK STUDY

METHOD STUDY WORK MEASUREMENT

Employed to develop and apply Employed to find out how long

an easier and more effective a job should take using the
way of doing a job agreed method

To achieve; To achieve;

§ Better site and work place § Basis of comparison of

layout alternative methods
§ Improved methods § Correct manning level
§ Improved use of; § Output data
§ Realistic labour costing
• men
§ Improved estimating and
• materials
planning
• machines
§ Basic for incentive schemes
§ Improved planning and
control

HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY

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Work Study
• Definition
§ A management service based on those
techniques, particularly Method Study
and Work Measurement, which are used
in the examination of human work in all
Its contexts, and which lead to the
systematic Investigation of all resources
and factors which affect the efficiency
and economy of the situation being
reviewed, In order to effect
Improvement.

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Method Study
• Definition
§ A systematic recording and
critical examination of the factors
and resources involved in existing
and proposed ways of doing
work, as a means of applying
easier and more effective
methods and reducing costs.

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Method Study
• Suitable when the process under
observation is of a repetitive nature,
so that any improvement which are
recommended can be
implemented to make future saving
on time, effort and money.
• To find most effective working in
order to achieve better productivity
and reduced cost.

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Method Study
• Improved efficiency by
getting rid:
§ Unnecessary work
§ Avoidable delay
§ Other form of waste.

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Method Study
• It will be achieve through
improvement of:
§ Workplace layout
§ Working procedure
§ Use of resources (4M)
§ Working environment
§ Design or specification

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Method Study
• This technique aim at doing three (3)
thing:-
§ To reveal and analyze the true
facts concerning the situation
§ To examine those fact critically
§ To develop from the exam of the
facts the best answer possible
under the circumstances.

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Method Study
• The procedure adopted in
the application of Method
Study must be:-
§ Methodical/Systematic
§ Without any pre-conceived
ideas

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Method Study
• This procedure can be classified under
the following headings:- SREDIM
1. Select, identify and define the
problem
2. Collect and record data
3. Analyze and examine data
4. Develop and proposed a new system
5. Install
6. Maintain and monitor

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Method Study
1. Select, identify and define the problem
§ Select the work to be study and list
the objectives in order of priority.
§ Some factors to be considered:
a. Economic consideration –
Economically viable e.g.
bottlenecks activity, movement
of material over long distance,
and operation involving
repetitive work.

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Method Study
1. Select, identify and define the
problem
b. Technical consideration –
adequate technical
knowledge to carry out the
study
c. Human reaction – need a full
consultation and explanation
to the parties involved.

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Method Study
2. Collect and record data
§ To record all the necessary facts
relating to the existing method.
§ The need for records:
a. To visualized activity selected for
investigation
b. To identify all necessary facts of
existing method
c. To assess the effectiveness of the
investigation.

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Method Study
2. Collect and record data
§ The recording techniques – there are
various techniques use for recording but
it differ in term of the type of information
and degree detail they are capable of
recording.
§ The selected techniques must;
a. Serve the purpose
b. Capable of producing full and
accurate record of procedure in the
method under review.

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Method Study
2. Collect and record data
§ Data recording techniques:
a. Outline process chart
b. Flow process chart
c. Flow diagram
d. Travel chart
e. Multiple activity chart
f. String diagram
g. Templates or model
h. Photography

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Method Study
Work sequences are recorded on process
charts by the use of the following symbols.
OPERATION - Indicates the main steps in a process, method or
procedure.
TRANSPORT - Indicates the movement of workers, materials or
equipment from place to place.
PERMANENT STORAGE - Indicates a controlled storage in which
material is received into or issued from a store
TEMPORARY STORAGE OR DELAY - Indicates a delay in the
sequence of events.
INSPECTION - Indicates an Inspection for quality and/or a check for
quantity.

TWO OR MORE EVENTS - When two or acre events take place

together the appropriate symbols may be combined, the
predominant event being indicated by the outer symbol.

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Method Study
a. Outline process chart
§ To record the order in which
process are carried out before
deciding to undertake a more
detail study
§ Only the main operation and
inspection symbol are use with
a brief description on each.

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Method Study
b. Flow process chart
§ This techniques can be useful help
to solve problem the layout such as
those in site workshop areas where
the operation are likely to be
repetitive.
§ Prepare from standard printed
sheet with symbol already
included.

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Method Study
b. Flow process chart
§ The movement of men, material or
equipment are followed through the
process and the symbol are use to
indicate what is happening at
various stage.
§ The distance travel may be shown on
the transport activities and the time
for each element can be given.

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Method Study
c. Flow diagram
§ Can be use in conjunction with a flow
process chart to show where the activity
take place.
§ These diagram most useful to highlight
the travel route and distance where a
process is being undertaken.
§ It’s give more detailed in presentation
and better picture of achievement
because they are drawn to scale.

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Method Study
d. Travel chart
§ Show the travel of man from and to places.

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Method Study
e. Multiple activity chart
§ Useful aid for studying a process which is
being undertaken by two or more individual.
§ Accurate recording for maximum number of
gang operative 4-6.
§ To check correct gang/plant balance.
§ Prepare in a series of bar chart against a
time scale after studying and recording the
activities of each member of the gang
under observation.

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Method Study
f. String diagram
§ Very useful in solving problem of
movement
Procedure:
1. Layout is to first drawn to scale a plan
of the area under consideration with
the work place.
2. All change of direction denote by pin
3. String is then tied around the string
point and passed from pin to pin
showing movement in correct
sequences.

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Method Study
Procedure:
4. Men, material or machines
can be denoted by different
colour string.
5. If string are measured, we
can get the distance.

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Method Study

g. Templates or model
§ Templates or model are prepare
to the same scale as the site
plan.
§ Room, component to be place
in the most economic or
convenient layout position.

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Method Study
h. Photography
§ Two (2) method
1. Micromotion Photography
2. Memomotion Photography
Micromotion Photography
a. The recording of an activity by
cine photography at normal or
slow motion speed for film
analysis

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Method Study
h. Photography
Memomotion Photography
a. A form of time lapse photography
which records activity by a cine
camera adapted to take pictures
with longer intervals between
frames than normal. The time
interval between frames usually lies
between half a second and four
seconds.

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Method Study
h. Photography
Memomotion Photography
b. Memomotion photography is the
cheapest form and that usually
adopted in the construction
industry. With more recent
advances in technology
memomotion photography has
now been extended to include
video tape recordings,

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Method Study

• Photography
Memomotion Photography
c. Film is taken at intervals and
then usually viewed at normal
speed. This enables several
hours recording to be viewed
quite quickly.

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Method Study
3. Analyze and examine data
§ Objective: To determine the true reason
underlying each event and to draw up a
systematic list of all possible improvement for
later development into new and improved
method.
§ The whole examination procedure required
exhaustive collaboration with everyone in a
position in order to get more information.
§ Recording techniques used should be chosen
so that all the essential fact concerning the
process are exposed for this thorough
examination.

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Method Study
3. Analyze and examine data
§ In practice after the examination start,
there are more information required. This
needs further consultation/ make
additional record.
Approach
§ Results normally influenced by the attitude
of mind of the work study officer but a few
point should be borne in mind:
1. Fact should be examine as they are
not as they appear to be or should be.

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Method Study
3. Analyze and examine data
Approach
2. Preconceived idea which will influenced the
interpretation of fact should be avoided.
3. All aspects of the problem must be examine
logically and no answer are given until it has
been proved correct.
4. Hasty judgement must be avoided
5. Detail must be persistent and close attention
6. Experiment resulting from hunches should be
avoided.

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Method Study
3. Analyze and examine data
Approach
7. New method should not be considered
until all the undesirable features of the
existing method have been exposed
by systematic examination.
Examination procedure
§ Examination achieved by means of two
set of detailed questions
1. Primary question: To indicate the fact
and the reason underlying them.

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Method Study
• Analyze and examine data
Examination procedure
2. Secondary question: to indicate the
alternative and consequently the means
of improvement.
§ The question ask under five (5) heading which
inquire into:
a. The purpose of the operation
b. The place where it is carried out
c. The sequence of the activity
d. The person performing the activity
e. The mean by which it is carried out.

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PRIMARY QUESTIONS
(ANALYSE AND EXAMINE)
THE PRESENT FACTS

Purpose WHAT IS ACHIEVED? WHY IS IT NECESSARY?

(WHAT) The true reason why the job is necessary
should be uncovered

Place WHERE IS IT DONE? WHY THERE?

(WHERE) Locate, giving distances from preceding Is It because it is inter-related to another
and succeeding activities activity?

Sequence WHEN IS IT DONE? WHY THEN?

(WHEN) What are the previous and subsequent State the reason for the present
activities and the time factors involved sequence

Person WHO DOES IT? WHY THAT PERSON?

(WHO) State grade of person e.g. skilled or Give reason for choice
unskilled

Means HOW IS IT DONE? WHY THAT WAY?

(HOW) Give relevant details of men, materials Investigate reasons for each detail
and equipment

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SECONDARY QUESTIONS
(DEVELOP AND PROPOSE)
ALTERNATIVE PROPOSALS

Purpose WHAT ELSE COULD BE DONE? WHAT SHOULD BE DONE?

(WHAT) Consider modification and elimination Give long term and short term proposals

Place WHERE ELSE COULD IT BE DONE? WHERE SHOULD IT BE DONE?

(WHERE) Can the working areas be combined or Consider provision of necessary services
reduced?

Sequence WHEN ELSE COULD IT BE DONE? WHEN SHOULD IT BE DONE?

(WHEN) Could it be done earlier or later? Will this effect other activities

Person WHO ELSE COULD DO IT? WHO SHOULD DO IT?

(WHO) Work Measurement may assist in
making this decision

Means HOW ELSE COULD IT BE DONE? HOW SHOULD IT BE DONE?

(HOW) Investigate all the alternatives Consider operative safety and working
conditions

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Method Study
3. Analyze and examine data
Examination procedure
§ Both primary and secondary question
are ask for each aspect before
passing on the next.
§ Obviously if the detail questioning by
both primary and secondary question
does not establish a purpose of an
operation, no need to waste time
inquiring into any other aspect of it.

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Method Study
3. Analyze and examine data
Examination procedure
§ The primary question fill in the background
of events and establish whether existing
procedure are based on sound reasoning.
§ They should clearly indicate any part of the
work which is unnecessary or inefficient in
respect of place, sequence, person or
means.
§ The aims of the secondary question is to
establish suitable alternative to existing or
previously proposed method.

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Method Study
3. Analyze and examine data
Examination procedure
§ When each of the question is applied to
any event it may suggest a number of
possibilities.
§ The answer of the question will indicate a
line a long which a new method of the
overall process should be develop.
§ The decision cannot be made at this stage
and further inquiries have to be made
when developing the new method.

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Method Study
• Analyze and examine data
Examination procedure
§ To obtain answer to these secondary
question, the following consideration are
important:
1. When the purpose of the activity is
challenged, the main object is to see
whether it can be eliminate entirely.
2. If the activity proves to be essential, then
the object must be to see whether it can
be modified by changing it or combined
it with other activities

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Method Study
3. Analyze and examine data
Examination procedure
a. Separating/redistributing the
works
b. combine/change place,
sequence, person.
3. Finally, when the ‘means’ of doing
job are being considered, attention
is given to see how an activity can
be simplified.

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Method Study
4. Develop and proposed a new system
§ Examination of the existing method provides
a comprehensive statement of what is being
done at present and showing in which
direction improvement may be made.
§ With the result of examination as a guide,
work study officer next process to:-
1. Develop the improved method
2. Taking into account those factor listed
under contingent consideration
3. Seek advice from any sources which may
help

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
Scope of improvement
1. Layout and design of work place: To
reduce the proportion of time spent on
handling materials and ineffective
movement of workers within the normal
operation cycles.
2. Working procedure: Change in the way in
which operations are planned and in
which work are initiated and progressed;
The manner in which materials are
ordered, received and stored.

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
Scope of improvement
3. Use of material, plant and labour:
Improved the utilization of firm’s
resources, e.g. use of a cheaper
material or more economic method
of using existing material; or even the
means of completely eliminating
certain operation and the material
required for them.

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
Scope of improvement
4. Design/ Specification of end product:
Using preferred materials and of
standardization of products or
components to facilitate filling and
closure, or to enable the use of standard
containers for internal or external
transport.

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
Scope of improvement
5. Working environment: To determine to
what extent and in which directions
improvements will yield a most
satisfactory return. Heating, ventilating,
noise level and personal comfort all have
limit between which working condition
are most satisfactory, and these can vary
according to the type of work being
done.

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
Chart of the improved method
§ When the improved method has been
finally evolved, it is constructed in the chart
form.
§ This is subjected, activity to activity, to the
same analysis as that applied to record
the existing method.
§ This ensure that the improved method is a
logical one which will withstand any future
analysis that may be made.

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
Submitting the proposals
§ When an improved method has been
worked out, the method can be
submitted to higher management.
§ It is essential to get a wide support
from the departments concerned
before the new method is submitted.

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
Submitting the proposals
§ The submitted proposal must clearly stated:
1. Expected benefits from the new
method, and how it is to achieve these
benefits.
2. Saving anticipated
3. Estimated cost of installing and
operating the new scheme.
4. Everything which is affected by the
proposal.

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
The reports
§ Many organization have their own
procedure for writing reports but there a
number of specific points to consider.
§ The report should always commence with a
summary which should show with utmost
brevity:-
1. Recommendations
2. Reasons for recommendations
3. Results expected from recommendation.

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
The reports
§ When summary is included, it provide a
convenient opportunity for outlining the
purpose of the study and its conclusion
and proposals.
§ The report itself, which should be clearly
written and self-supporting, should
generally follow the order of presentation
given above.

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
The reports
§ When summary is included, it provide a
convenient opportunity for outlining the
purpose of the study and its conclusion
and proposals.
§ The report itself, which should be clearly
written and self-supporting, should
generally follow the order of presentation
given above.

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Method Study
5. Develop and proposed a new system
Typical form of reports
1. Summary
2. Summary of recommendation
3. introduction
4. Acknowledgement
5. The existing situation
6. The work study approach to the existing
situation
7. Extraction and evaluation of relevant factors
8. Recommendations
9. Implications for management

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Method Study
• Install
§ Installation will require the active support
of everyone concerned.
§ These required an adequate
preparation, which includes finding
alternative work for any workers who
may be displaced as a result of the new
method.
§ Operating instructions covering every
detail of the new method need to issued.

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Method Study
• Install
§Established a good working relationship at all
levels, so that all who have take part in the
discussions leading to the improvements can
feel that they have themselves contributed to
the scheme.
§Hence, the new method can now be installed
in the knowledge that people have
confidence in it, and will support it.
§The installation should be made in two stages:-
a. Preparation
b. installation

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Method Study
• Install
Preparation
§ Detailed preparation must be made
before the actual installation take
place. This preparation can be broken
down into three stages:-
1. Plan
2. Arrange
3. rehearse

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Method Study
• Install
Preparation
Plan
§ A general programme for the installation should
be drawn up:-
a. One person only should have responsibility
during installation of the method, and all
should know who that person is.
b. If the installation is to take place in stages,
and they have not already been announced
before preparation of the report, actual date
should be fixed for each stage.

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Method Study
• Install
Preparation
Plan
c. Copies of any time-table drawn up to cover
the installation should be brought into line
with the date selected for each stage.
Arrange
§ The necessary detailed arrangements should be
made:-
a. Check all layouts in detail to ensure that all
the necessary plant, tools and equipment
are available, and the services are laid on.

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Method Study
• Install
Preparation
Arrange
b. Arrange for the running of old stocks
and the building-up of necessary new
stocks of materials in advance of the
installation.
c. Check the availability and continuity of
all supplies and services.
d. Set up any additional or new clerical
record which may be required for
purposes of control and comparison.

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Method Study
• Install
Preparation
Arrange
e. If changes in hours of working are
involved, e.g. from day to shift work –
make sure that warning is given to
auxiliary services such as transport,
canteens, etc.
f. Select the number and ability of
workers for the new method carefully.
g. Provide the necessary training

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Method Study
• Install
Preparation
Arrange
h. Anticipate wage and payment
problems and settle them in
advance
i. Advice every one concerned of
the plans and time-table for the
installation.

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Method Study
• Install
Preparation
Rehearsal
§ It is frequently beneficial to give the improved
method a trial run:-
a. The rehearsal should usually take place while
the old method is still operating, may have to
be conducted outside normal working hours.
b. Ensure that all inspections have been
allowed for, so that proper quality standards
will be maintained.
c. All departments affected by the change
should be represented at the rehearsal.

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Method Study
• Install
Installation
§ When all detailed preparations have
been made and a successful rehearsal
has been held, the actual installation can
take place.
§ When the head of the departments
concerned are satisfied that the new
method is running smoothly, and are
prepared to accept it as a ongoing
concern, the installation can be
considered complete.

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Method Study
• Maintain and monitor
§ After an improved method has been
installed and is operating satisfactory, it does
not necessarily follow that its benefits can be
maintained without further effort.
§ The conditions are liable to change from
time to time, and this may mean that some
of the assumptions upon which the improved
method was built up are no longer valid.
§ Hence, the method should be reviewed at
intervals to make allowances for any
changes.

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Method Study
• Maintain and monitor
§ Changes can arise from three main
sources:-
1. There can be deliberate and discernible
alterations and improvements to method
for good reason.
2. Changes may take place as a result of
suggestion schemes.
3. Minor innovations may be introduced by
the worker or by immediate supervision.

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Method Study
• Maintain and monitor
§ Where changes in method are introduced
deliberately by management, the work study
officer must be notified in advance so that he
can make the necessary allowances for the
effect which they will have on the operation of
the method.
§ A further aspect which should be noted in the
periodic review of the method is the long-term
reaction to the improvement, both on the part
of the workers using the method and on the
part of other section who were affected by the
changes when they were made.

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Method Study
• Maintain and monitor
§ Finally, when method are review an
excellent opportunity exists for making the
organization “method-conscious”.
§ When the benefits to be obtained from
method study are fully appreciated it can
be applied on a much wider scale within
organization, with the active support and
co-operation of all concerned.

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Work Measurement
• Definition
§ The application of techniques
designed to establish the time taken
for a qualified worker to carry out a
specific task at a defined level of
performance.

§ It’s employed to find out how long a

job should take using the agreed
method.

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Work Measurement
• Objectives
1. To assist in method study by comparison
of time for alternative method, and for
allocating labour to jobs in proportion
to the work involved so that the labour
on a job is properly balanced.
2. To enables realistic schedule of work to
be prepared by relating reasonable
accurate assessments of human work
to plant capacity.

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Work Measurement
• Objectives
3. As a basis of realistic and fair incentive
schemes
4. To assist in the organization of labour by
enabling a daily comparison to be
made between actual time and target
time.
5. As a basis for labour budgeting and
budgetary control system.
6. To enable estimates to be prepared of
future labour requirement and cost.

94

Work Measurement Techniques

• Time Study
• Activity Sampling
§ Field Activity Count
§ Random Observation Studies
• Synthesis from standard and synthetic data
• Analytical estimating
• Foreman Delay Survey
Each of them play a different role in making
result of work study available to management.

95

Time Study
• "Time Study is a systematic analyzed record
of a job as it was done, processed so as to
establish a standard time for that job.“

• BS 3138:1992 define time study as a work

measurement technique designed to
establish the time for a qualified worker to
carry out specified elements under specified
conditions at a defined rate of working,
recorded by direct observation of the times,
using a time measuring device and the
ratings for Individual elements.

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Time Study Procedure

• Equipment needed in order to execute a
Time Study
1. Stop-watch (usually graduated in
decimal minutes) or an accurate wrist-
watch.
2. Clipboard and pre-prepared time
sheets.
3. Calculator.
4. Measuring devices to measure output
achieved during the study.
5. Pencil/rubber/eraser

97

Time Study Procedure

• General Time Study procedure
a. Maintain, via the foreman, friendly relations with
operatives and note and record their opinions.
b. Trade Unions may need to be consulted.
c. Maintain a position which allows all operatives
to be viewed simultaneously without being too
close.
d. Maintain concentration throughout the study.
e. Record as much additional Information as
possible.
f. Do not record operatives by name but by
trade.

98

Time Study Methodology

• Time Study methodology - to establish a
standard time
1. Define the job.
2. Break the job down into elements and
decide break-points.
3. Record the elements in order of execution.
4. Record the time.
5. Determine the appropriate rate of working.
6. Calculate the basic time.
7. Calculate the standard time

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Time Study Methodology

1. Define the job.
• Select the work to be measured.
§ What job?
§ What method?
§ What equipment?
§ E.g. - concrete
• When it starts and finished.

100

Time Study Methodology

2. Break the job down into elements and
decide break points
• Elements: Collect component,
measure, cut fix, etc.
• Break points: The point between the
completion of one element and the
starting of another.
• Example: Consider a crane using a
skip to pour concrete.

101

Time Study Methodology

Break-points Element
1. Skip arrives at concrete
wagon a. Concrete pour into skip

2. Skip leaves concrete wagon

b. Concrete travel to slab

3. Skip arrives at slab

c. Concrete pour into slab

4. Skip leaves slab

d. concrete skip return to
concrete wagon

5. Skip arrives at concrete

wagon

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Time Study Methodology

3. Record the elements in order of
execution, on the time study
recording sheet.
E.g.
• Concrete pour into skip
• Concrete travel to slab
• Concrete pour into slab
• concrete skip return to concrete
wagon

103

Time Study Methodology

4. Record the time.
• Timing is best carried out using a stop watch.
• Two (2) method of recording the time can be
used:-
a. Fly back timing/ repetitive
§ The watch is start at the beginning of each
element in the task. It’s stopped ad returned
to zero at the end of the element.
§ Therefore, each element is given a separate
time.
§ These are added together to give the total
time.

104

Time Study Methodology

b. Continuous timing method/ elapsed timing/
cumulative timing
§ The watch start at the beginning on the first
element and not stopped until the whole
study is complete
§ As each element is completed the time that
has elapsed since the start of the first element
is recorded.
• For each of these method, the starting and
finishing time should be recorded separately by
another clock. This give a check against the
recording time.

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Time Study Methodology

5. Determine the appropriate rate of working.
• Each of us work at a different speed on a
particular job.
• Difference occur because there are different in
the level of:
§ Skill
§ Confidence
§ Organizational ability
§ Physical endurance
§ Motivation
§ Concentration
§ emotional

106

Time Study Methodology

• Some of these factor will be relatively
constant e.g. organizational ability.
• Some improve over time e.g. skill
• Some may decline e.g. physical
endurance
• Other may be vary daily e.g. confidence
and emotional state.
• Observer must determine whether the
person is working above or below the
average speed.

107

Time Study Methodology

• The ability to ascertain rate of working
come from experience but work study
specialists are given some training.
Hence, work measured should be
undertaken by a trained observer.
• The average rate of working is given the
datum of 100.
• Slow worker are given rating from 100
down to 50
• Fast worker rating from 100 up to 125.

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Time Study Methodology

British Standard give a rating scales as below:-

109

Time Study Methodology

110

Time Study Methodology

• To best assess the rate at which
an operative is working the
following should be considered:-
§ Skill
§ Speed
§ Effectiveness
• Example of the assessment using
this attributes as below.

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Time Study Methodology

112

Time Study Methodology

• The speed of working is

entered on the time study
sheet immediately after the
recording the activity and
before noting the time.

113

Time Study Methodology

6. Calculate the basic time.
• Basic Time - The time for carrying out an
element of work or an operation at a
standard rating.
• Recording on site are now complete
• We now start the calculation stage.
• First calculation is to convert the time
actually taken on site, the elapsed time,
into one that taken into account the
rate of working

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Time Study Methodology

• We have already established that the standard
performance of the average rate of working as
100. If the working rate is faster than average ,
then the higher number than 100 is recorded. If
lower, then a smaller number than 100 is use.
• A simple formula is used to convert the observed
elapsed times into basic time.

Basic Time = Observed Time X Observed Rating

Standard Rating

115

Time Study Methodology

Example:
• A particular element of a task is
observed and the time taken by two
different operatives, each undertaking
the element, are recorded. One is
working at a faster rate than the other.
It would be reasonable to expect the
faster working operatives to take a
shorter period of time to complete the
element than the time taken by other
operatives.

116

Time Study Methodology

• Therefore operative 1’s data would read:
§ Observed time for element = 1.2Min

§ Rating = 110

Basic Time = 1.2 x 110

100

= 1.32Min.

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Time Study Methodology

• Operatives 2’s data would read.
§ Observed time for element = 1.47 Min.

§ Rating = 90

Basic Time = 1.47 x 90

100

= 1.32 Min.

118

Time Study Methodology

• The objects of using the formula
to convert all combination of
observed time and rating to the
time that would be appropriate
if the work was undertaken at
the average or normal rate of
working.

119

Time Study Methodology

7. Calculate the standard time
• It usual, during the actual on site
study to exclude idle time and
relaxation period.
• The basic time calculated from
the observed time and observed
rating do not therefore take into
account relaxation time.

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Time Study Methodology

• Standard Time: The total time in
which a task should be completed
at a standard performance, i.e.
Basic times plus Contingency
allowance plus Relaxation
allowance (see later section on
Relaxation Allowances)

121

Time Study Methodology

• Standard Performance: The rate of
output which qualified workers can
achieve without over-exertion as
an average over the working day
or shift provided that they adhere
to the specified method and
provided that they are motivated
to apply themselves to work, this is
represented by 100 on the BS scale

122

Time Study Methodology

• Relaxation Allowances is a
systematic analysis of those factors
involved in an element which would
necessitate compensating relaxation
if the operative were to maintain a
consistent rate of working over a
long period of time

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Time Study Methodology

• Relaxation Allowances will provide a
qualified worker with a general opportunity
to:-
§ Recover from the effort of carrying out
specified work under specified
conditions (fatigue allowance)
§ Allow attention to personal needs, and
§ Recover (rarely) from adverse
environmental conditions

124

Time Study Methodology

• The accurate assessment of relaxation
time required judgment and experience
and it’s will depend on the nature of the
work and other factors.
• However many standard text on work
measurement publish allowances. The
relaxation allowances tabulated below
may be taken as a guide to those
appropriate to the construction Industry

125

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Time Study Methodology

• A Contingency Allowance is an allowance
for hold-ups, normal in the course of the
day, which unavoidably interrupt the flow of
work, but which cannot be accurately
determined,
For example:-
§ Receiving instructions
§ Maintenance of machines and tools
§ Unexpected site conditions such as bad
weather, high winds, unexpected ground
conditions

127

128

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Limitation of the Use of Time Study

• Circumstances change frequently
from task to task including the level
of skill and expertise of the
operation.
• Lack of repetition element.
• Problems in defining small elements
of work
• It is difficult to record a lot of
information at one time.

130

Activity Sampling
• Activity Sampling: is a technique in which
a number of successive observations are
made, over a period of time, of a group
of men and/or machines.
• Each observation records what is
happening at that precise instant.
• The percentage of observations recorded
for each activity or delay is a measure of
the percentage of time during which that
activity or delay occurs.

131

Activity Sampling
• Accurate information is essential to sound
decision making and successful problem
solving.
• In a simple case it may be comparatively
easy to collect the necessary data and
gain the true impression of what is taking
place but as situation increase in size and
complexity this become more difficult.

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Activity Sampling
• Activity sampling is a techniques through
which information can be obtain not
only quickly and economically but to
predetermined limit of accuracy.
• It is particularly appropriate where work
consists a varied operation involving
group of men, machines or process.

133

Activity Sampling
• Basis
§ Activity sampling is mathematical in
its nature, being closely associated
with the theory of probability.
§ The concept is based on the fact
that a small number of chance
occurrences tend to form the same
distribution pattern as that created
by a large number.

134

Activity Sampling
• Basis
§ Because of this, a look at a portion does
give some indication as to what the whole is
really like.
§ It is important to understand that in activity
sampling observation must be
instantaneous and moreover the recorder
must note precisely what is happening at
that moment when the observation are
made and must not be influence by what
has just been done or what is about to take
place.

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Advantages of Activity Sampling

(Compared to Time Study)
1. One person may observe many men and/or
machines.
2. It is applicable and appropriate to non-
repetitive, non-cyclical activities, where it would
be difficult to obtain reliable Time Study data.
3. Interruptions can be tolerated.
4. It is more likely to obtain true operative
performance because, unlike Time Study, the
operative does not feel under continuous
scrutiny.
5. Simpler and so less demanding of the observer.

136

Disadvantages of Activity Sampling

(Compared to Time Study)
• It is not suited to the study of
single operatives or short cycle
jobs.
• There is a lack of detailed
information.
• Deviations from established
methods are unlikely to be noted.

137

Method of Activity Sampling

• Activity Sampling may be carried out at three
different levels.
§ Field Activity Counts - to determine the
overall activity of a site.
§ Random Observation Studies - to
determine the activity/inactivity of
individual operatives,
§ Rated Activity Sampling - to determine
output standards. An alternative method
which may be used is known as work
Measurement Sampling.

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Method of Activity Sampling

1. Field Activity Counts
• To determine the overall activity of a
site.
Used
• To check on the degree of supervision
of operatives on site.
• Where there is a labour problem and
the productivity is less than was
estimated or experienced in past
project.

139

Method of Activity Sampling

1. Field Activity Counts
Steps
a. Used 2 nos. small mechanical
counter
b. Observed the site – active or
inactive. Percentage observation
min 90%.
c. Record on sheets.
d. Draw a chart.

140

Method of Activity Sampling

1. Field Activity Counts
• Better conduct over a whole week
periods for the best result.
• Study undertaken in early stage of a
contract , hence, all the
recommendation can be
implemented.
• This is a clearer method of illustrating
how efficient the site is being run.

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142

Method of Activity Sampling

2. Random Observation Study

• To determine the activity/inactivity
of individual operative.
• An extension of field activity
count.
Used
• To check on the activity of a gang
of workers

143

Method of Activity Sampling

2. Random Observation Study
Limitation
§ Limit to gang up to six individual
because the difficulty in studying a
greater number simultaneously.
• Recording data used to analyze the
operation undertaken by each gang
number.

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Method of Activity Sampling

2. Random Observation Study

• The percentage of each
operation can also be
compare with other operation
in the process.

145

146

Method of Activity Sampling

3. Rated Activity Sampling
• To determine output standards. An
alternative method which may be
used is known as work Measurement
Sampling.

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Synthesis from Standard Data

• To obtain duration/ time for doing a
job.
• Data obtain from records which are
retained by the work study
department of previous time study
known as synthetic data.
• There are 2 type of synthetic data:
§ Standard time
§ Element time

148

Synthesis from Standard Data

• Standard time: Time taken to hang a door/
fix a lock, lay 1000 bricks (allowance being
added for relaxation time, standard
allowance and contingencies).
• Element time: time taken to do an
element of work. E.g.
§ Mark a hole on steel,
§ Drill a hole,
§ Attach bolt to steel.

149

Analytical Estimating
(Assessment from Experience)
• To calculate standard time for non-
repetitive process/ jobs
• To expensive/ time consuming to carry
out time studies for a one-off job
• No sufficient record from synthetic
data.
• Analytical estimating undertaken by
experience person on tasks.

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151

152

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