Engineering Surveying 1
Engineering Surveying 1
ON
ENGINEERING SURVEYING 1
(SUG 208)
PREPARED BY
SURV. OLULADE, S. A
EDITED BY
Benjamin I. AJISAFE
OCTOBER, 2019
1
ENGINEERING SURVEYING 1 (SUG 208)
1.0 ENGINEERING SURVEYING
Engineering Surveying is a large scale of survey operation carried out in order to provide
special information for construction purposes. Engineering surveying deals with the
construction of projects like roads, dams, bridges, railway lines, buildings, tunnels etc.
Whatever the project, the role of the surveyor is to render services to the design engineers
that is, to provide information relevant to the design and construction of the project. The
stages of development in any given project may be classified into three; and they are as
follows:
1. Investigation and planning stage
2. Design stage and
3. Construction stage
1. Investigation and planning: At this stage the surveyor and other committee attached
to the project will look for the location of the project and mark out the area of interest.
Then the detailed large scale plan of the area of interest will be produced. The plan
produced will serve as the base map for costing and for both architectural and
structural design of the project.
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2. Design: Based on the large scale map produced by the surveyor, the architects and
structural engineers attached to the project will come out with both architectural and
structural design of the project. The role of surveyor here is to guide the architects
and the engineers on the interpretation of the plan (base map) he has produced.
3. Construction: At this stage the role of the surveyor is to set out the design plans
(large scale plan) produced by both the architects and the structural engineers on the
site for effective construction of the project. Setting out is the reverse of preparation
of a map or plan showing the existing features on the ground. It is the process of
fixing on the ground the details shown on a map or plan.
Since, it is often impossible to set out the whole of the works before construction commences
the accurate positioning of each element independently is highly important and error or
mistakes can be very expensive. It is advisable to check all leading dimensions on the site
before commencing any setting out whatsoever, because dimensions scaled in distorted
drawings or printed plans cannot be the accurate dimensions of the structures represented by
the drawings.
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Normally, the dimensions of individual elements (buildings, roads, bridges etc) will be fully
figured or written on the drawings. The scaled dimensions may be shorter or a little bit
different from the actual figures written on the drawings. As a result of this, it is advisable to
look for any controlling factors that will influence the actual positioning of the element. For
example if space is to be left between two houses for two pre-fabricated garages each 3.5
meters wide, then these houses must be set out 7.0 meters apart against a possible scaled
dimension of 6.5 meters.
The usual practice is to mark key points (e.g. corners of buildings, centre-lines or kerbs of
roads etc) with wooden pegs and a pencil cross mark or a small nail on the top if greater
precision is required. A pipe or nail can be driven into tarmac or asphalt, while it may be
necessary to cut a cross with a cold chisel on stone or concrete.
Much wasted labour can be avoided by establishing permanent reference points (by a peg
surrounded with concrete or by driving a length iron rod or galvanized pipe into the ground)
adjacent to the project site, but secure from damage by excavating machinery or construction
traffic from which the pegs can be re-established quickly and easily if they are lost.
The general procedure in setting out is to establish a main control frame work, usually by
triangulation, traversing or by Global Positioning System (GPS) from which the details can
be set out by means of off – setting, tie lines radiation, intersection etc.
In the case of „route‟ works (railways, roads, waterways, pipe-lines etc) the control
framework is usually a traverse and it is convenient to utilize the main intersecting straights
for this purpose, leaving only the curve to be established by other means.
However, for small sites or when a high precision is not required, chain and tape methods
will often be adequate i.e. the 3:4:5 triangle for setting out right angles and the principle of
equality of diagonals for checking the “squareness” of rectangles can also be employed.
Where greater precision is required, instrumental methods are to be preferred and will
equally be essential if we need to use radiation and intersection method.
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It is important to note that in setting-out a system of coordinates is obviously required e.g.
rectangular coordinates for offsetting methods, and polar coordinates for radiation methods
respectively. Therefore, the methods of surveying for construction process may include;
traversing for establishing horizontal controls, levelling and trig-Heighting for establishing
vertical controls, curve ranging and fixation of details and so on.
At the end of any construction project an As-Built survey operation is necessary to be carried
out so as to ensure that project specifications are met and that any changes to the original
designs or plans are noted.
The main method of surveying for construction is ground surveying method with the use of
Levels, Theodolites, Tapes, and Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) instruments,
Modern survey instruments and computational methods are currently being applied in
engineering surveys. Such instruments include: Global Positioning system (GPS), Total
stations, Glass arc theodolites, Digital theodolites, levels (automatic, tilting and dumpy),
Digital levels, self reducing tachometer, Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) devices, etc.
The use of computer provides faster methods of obtaining computational result of data (that
is data processing) and information presentation.
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CHAPTER TWO
The basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while
minimizing cost and environmental damage.
The above benefits of a good road design can only be achieved if a good and
complete topographical survey of the roadway is done, so as to furnish the design
engineers and architects accurate description of the roadway. This is where the input
of surveyor is needed.
6
Geometric roadway design can be broken into three main parts:
a. Alignment
b. Profile and
c. Cross-section
i. Alignment:- is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and
curves.
ii. Profile:- The profile of the route is a side view or elevation in which the
longitudinal surfaces are highlighted.
iii. Cross-section:- The cross section shows the end view of a section at a point and it is
at right angles to the centre line.
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2.2.1 Reconnaissance: A reconnaissance is a rapid and rough survey in which a thorough
examination of the area through which the proposed survey line is to run, is
conducted to ascertain the best routes and the approximate cost of the project. This is
done with the use of available existing plans and maps, aerial photographs and
satellite imagery of the area of interest. Various possible routes are marked on the
map keeping in mind the general topography of the area. The area under
consideration is examined in detail in order to assess the feasibility and relative merit
of all the possible routes. The route selected is chosen because it satisfies all design
requirements with minimal social, environmental, and financial impact.
2.2.2 Preliminary survey: A preliminary survey is a detailed survey of a narrow belt of the
area through which the proposed line is expected to run. The purpose of such surveys
is to prepare a topographical map of the selected belt of the area. The topographical
plan or map of the selected roadway will be used for the preparation of construction
plans.
The selected belt or strip of land that forms the roadway should be of sufficient
widths to accommodate any unexpected variation in the location of the route. Usually,
the width of the strip is taken as 100-200m for highways and 400-500m for railways.
The width of the strip also depends upon the character of the terrain through which
the route has to pass.
Major survey operations in this stage are: Traversing, detailing and levelling.
Traversing involves angle measurement by theodolite and distances by either tape or
electronic distance measuring (EDM) device. Modern instrument such as total station
can also be used for traversing. Important features such as railway crossing, roads,
streams, power transmission lines are also picked along with traverse.
The longitudinal section and cross-section are also run along the strip; these provide
information about the existing ground levels along the centre line and on both sides of
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the centre line respectively. The preliminary survey should be quite accurate so that
the selection of the final alignment can be made.
2.2.3 Location Survey: This is final staking of centre line and to obtain additional
information necessary to enable design engineer prepare complete plans,
specifications and to estimate the earthwork quantities.
1. Office Location (paper location):- This is the marking of the selected final
alignment including the horizontal curves at the desired locations on the map/plan of
the selected strip. The final alignment may be anywhere in the strip and in most
favourable position. The grade line is also marked with pencil on the profile plan.
2. Field Location:- This is the process of transferring the paper location of the final
alignment of a route to the ground, that is, setting out the paper location on the
ground.
Here, the positions of the various points to be transferred on the ground are scaled off
from the preliminary map/plan. Perpendicular offsets may be taken from the traverse
line. The chainage of the intersections of the line with the traverse may be
ascertained, and if necessary angles and distances may also be used. The angle of
intersection at the intersection of the adjoining tangents produced is carefully
measured. From the degree of curve and angle of intersection, the necessary data are
computed for setting out the simple curves. Stakes are driven at every 30m interval.
All important stations, such as theodolite stations, intersection points, points of
tangencies, and so on are pegged, and their proper references are noted in the field
book. Profile levelling is then run on the located alignment on the field. Then, the
profile is drawn, gradient lines are marked, and vertical curves are shown on the
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profile. The line is now called final location and the map/plan is called final location
map/plan.
The final location map should show all important features in the vicinity of line all
points where pegs are placed, all bench marks, and the boundaries private properties.
The approximate quantities of the earthwork is calculated from the cross- section
drawn from the preliminary map.
1. Railway Survey: The above stages and survey operations for highways are
applicable to railway survey. The width of road bed and right of way are usually less
than for major highways. Lower gradient is allowed for railway.
2. Canal Survey: This is similar to highway except that the gradients are relatively flat
and small differences in elevation are required.
3. Electric Power Line: The required accuracy for surveys of transmission lines is
generally lower than that of highways or rail lines.
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 CURVES
It was noted in the above section that a highway route survey would be initially laid out as a
series of straight lines (tangent). Once the centre line location alignment has been confirmed,
the tangents are joined by circular curves that allow for smooth vehicle operation at the
speeds for which the high way is designed.
Curves can be broadly classified as shown below.
Curves
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30m
30m
15
R
R R Dc/2
Da
Dc
R
(a) (b)
O
According to the chord definition the degree of a curve is equal to the angle subtended at the
centre by a chord of 30m length.
From fig (b)
Sin Dc = 15
2 R
To convert the angle to radian, it has to be multiplied by π/180
Dc X π = 15
2 180 R
Dc = 5400 = 1718.873385
πR R
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It is seen that the arc definition and the chord definition give identical result when the degree
of curve is small.
PI ∆
E
T
T
L A
M
P C PT
B C/2
C90º 90º-∆/2 90º
⁰
R R
Back Tangent
∆/2 Forward Tangent
∆/2
O
0+000
0 Fig. 3.4: The Geometry of a Circular Curve
Where:
PI= Point of Intersection
T = Tangent Length
PC= Point of Curve
PT= Point of Tangent
R= Radius of the Curve
∆= Deflection Angle
E= External Ordinate
M= Mid. Ordinate or Middle Ordinate
C= Long Chord
L= Curve Length
O= Centre of the Circular Curve.
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i. Tangent Length (T) = Distance between beginning of curve that is, point of curve
(PC) and point of intersection (PI). It is also the distance from point of intersection
(PI) to the end of curve (PT).
ii. Point of Curve (PC): This is the point where the circular curve begins.
iii. Point of tangent (PT): This is the point where the curve ends, that is the point where
the curve turns to a tangent.
iv. Point of intersection (PI): This is the point where the two tangents meet.
v. Curve length (L): This is the Arc length from point of curve (PC) to point of tangent
(PT).
vi. Long Chord (C): This is the straight line connecting point of curve (PC) and point of
tangent (PT).
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1. Tangent Length (T) : In triangle PC O PI
PI Tan ∆/2 = T
R
T= R tan ∆/2
T
Therefore, Tangent Length can be computed using
the formula: T = R tan ∆/2
PC
R
∆/2
O
2. Long Chord (C): In triangle PC B O
∆/2
3. Mid Ordinate (M): Considering the figure below and from triangle PC O B
PI
Cos ∆/2 = OB
R
OB = R Cos ∆/2
T But R = AO = AB + OB and
A
M R – OB = AB = M (Mid Ordinate)
PC B Now making AB or M the subject of the formula
M = R- OB
Substituting for the value of OB
R
∆/2 :. M = R – R Cos ∆/2
M = R (1 - Cos ∆/2)
Therefore, Mid Ordinate (M) = R (1 - Cos ∆/2)
O
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4. External (E): Considering the figure below:
PI
AO = R and PI O = R + E
Considering triangle PC PI O
E
T
Cos ∆/2 = R
A
M PI O
PC B Making PIO the subject of the formula
PIO = R
R Cos ∆/2
∆/2
But PIO = R + E
O :. R + E = R
Cos ∆/2
Making E the subject of the formula
E= R - R
Cos ∆/2
E= R 1 - 1
Cos ∆/2
E = R ( Sec ∆/2 – 1)
The sharpness of the Degree of Curve is determined by the choice of the radius (R). Large
radius curves are relatively flat, whereas small radius curves are relatively sharp.
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Many highway agencies use the concept of degree of curve (D) to define the sharpness of the
curve. Degree of curve „D‟ is defined to be that central angle subtended by 100ft or 30m of
arc as I have mentioned earlier.
In railway design „D‟ is defined to be the central angle subtended by 100ft or 30m of chord.
30m
δ
R ∆
R C= 2πR
360
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Relationship between ∆ and R:
∆ = 30
360 2πR
∆ x 2πR = 360 x 30
∆ = 360 x 30 = 10800
2πR 6.283185307R
∆ = 1718.873385 minutes
R
Also δ = 30
∆ L
δ = 30 x ∆
L
Where: δ = Sub arc deflection angle
∆ = Circular curve deflection angle
L = Curve length
30 = Sub arc/ sub chord length.
Chainage is usually expressed as number of full chains and part length of a chain. For
example, a chainage of 4125.5m with 30m chain = 137 full chains + 15.5m = 137 + 15.5.
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Example 1: The centre line of two straights is projected forward to meet at I, the deflection
angle is 30º. If the straights are to be connected by a circular curve of radius 200m, then
calculate:
(a)
i. Curve length (L)
ii. Long chord (C)
iii. External (E)
iv. Middle ordinate
(b) Given that the chainage of I is 2+259.590m. Calculate the chainage of point of curve
(beginning of curve) and the chainage of point of tangent (end of curve).
I ∆ = 30º
E
T
T
L
A
M
C
PC B PT
C/2
R R
∆/2
∆/2
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Solution to the Question:
1. Curve length ( L): The formula for length arc is ∆/360 = L/2πR
L = 104.7197551 = 104.720m
:. Curve length 104.720m
b.) i. Chainage of PC: To get the chainage of point of curve (PC) required, because
Chainage of point of curve (PC) = Chainage of point of Intersection – Tangent Length.
Therefore, from ∆ PC I O
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ii. Chainage of PT
Chainage of PT = Chainage of PBC + curve length (L)
= 2+206.000162 + 104.7197551
= 2+310.719917
Chainage of PT = 2+310.720m
Using the information obtained from the above example, the deflection angle can be
computed or obtained as set out below; using the formula.
δ = 1718.873385 x L Minutes
R
It is good to note that chainages are laid out at equal intervals; hence this should be taken into
consideration.
Suppose our chainage or chainage points are taken at every 25 m interval. If 2 206 is divided
25, we will have 88.24, that is to say we have 88 complete sections.
2 206/25 = 88.24
By multiplying 88 by 25, the chainage at the point of 88 section is 2 200. The remaining
fractional part is 0.24 x 25 = 6. Or by subtracting 2 200 from 2 206 we get 6m.
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The additional length to be added to 6 to make it a complete section is 19. This is where the
next chainage point (a) will be, at chainage 2 + 225.
a. δ = 1718.873385 x L Minutes
R
δ = 1718.873385 x 19 Minutes
200
δ = 163.2929716 Minutes
δ = 163.2929716 = 2.721549526º
60
δ = 2º 43' 17ʺ.58 (First Deflection Angle)
The deflection angle for points b, c, and d are the same, because they have the same arc or
chord length which is 25 m hence they are tagged “Even Deflection Angle” but the last arc
length is different, it is 10.72 and it is tagged “ Last Deflection Angle”.
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At point PT
δ = 1718.873385 x 10.72 Minutes
200
δ = 92.13161344 Minutes
δ = 92.13161344 = 1º.535526891
60
Circular curve deflections (δ) can also be computed the from the deflection angle „∆‟
obtained at the point of intersection (PI) and the curve length (L).
I ∆ = 30º
E
T
T
c
bL A
a ∆/2 M d
C
PC B PT
90º C/2
90º
R R
∆/2
∆/2
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δ = ( arc x (∆/2))/ L
From the above example using the above formula δ = ( arc x (∆/2))/ L
a. At point (a)
δ = ( arc x (∆/2))/ L
b. At point b
δ = ( arc x (∆/2))/ L
δ = 03º.58098622
The deflection angle for points b, c, and d are the same, because they have the same arc or
chord length which is 25 m hence they are tagged “Even Deflection Angle” but the last arc
length is different, it is 10.72 and it is tagged “ Last Deflection Angle”.
At point PT
δ = ( arc x (∆/2))/ L
25
Table 3.1b: Setting out of Deflection Angles
Point Arc/Chord length Chainage Deflection angle (δ) Setting out angle
I ∆
13º 27' 52ʺ.23
2+250
06º 18' 09ʺ.13
2+225
b c
02º 43' 17ʺ.58
a 2+275 d
00º 00' 00ʺ 2+300
PC PT 2+310.72
2+206 90 90º
⁰
R R
∆/2
∆/2
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3.7 CHORD CALCULATIONS
In the previous example, it was determined that the deflection angle for station 2+225 was
020 43' 17ʺ.58, if follows that 2+225 can be located by placing a stake (peg) on the transit
line at 02º 43' 17ʺ.58 and at a distance of 19m (2+225 – 2+260) from PC.
Furthermore, station 2+250 can be located by placing a stake on the transit line at 06º 18'
09ʺ.13 and at a distance of 25m along the arc from the stake locating 2+225. The remaining
stations can be located in a similar manner. However, it must be noted that the distances
measured with a steel tape are not arc distances; they are straight lines known as
SUBCHORDS.
To calculate subchords, the formula C = 2R sin (∆/2) may be used. This formula is for the
special case of the long chord and the total deflection angle (∆/2). The general case can be
stated as follows:
C = 2R sin deflection angle and any subchord can be calculated if its deflection angle is
known. The figure bellow illustrates this further.
I ∆ = 30º
E
T
T
A
∆/2 M
C
PC B PT
90º C/2
90º
R R
∆/2
∆/2
O
Fig. 2.7: Chord Calculation
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From triangle PC O B
Let δ represents sub deflection angles
Hence, let δ represents ∆/2, therefore Sin (∆/2) is taken as Sin δ
Now from triangle PC O B
Sin δ = (C/2)/ R (making C the subject of the formula)
(C/2)/ R = Sin δ
(C/2) = R x Sin δ
C = 2 x R x Sin δ
Where C = chord length
R = Radius of the circle.
c. Last Chord
C = 2 x R x Sin δ
C = 2 x 200 x sin 01º 32' 07ʺ.90
C = 10.71872298 m
C = 10.719m
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I ∆ = 30º
E
Arc = 25m T
T Arc = 25m
b
Arc = 19m a c
Chord= 18.993 m Chord= 24.984 m Chord= 24.984 m
PC C PT
B C/2
2+206 90º 90º
R R
∆/2
∆/2
O
Fig. 3.8: Curve arcs and chords
If these chord distances are used, the curve layout can proceed without error. In the cases of
short distances (as above) and in the case of flat (large radius) curves, the arcs and chords can
often appear to be equal. If more decimal places are introduced into the calculation, the
marginal difference between arc and chord will become evident.
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∆/2 angle will fall over the PT mark. If this does not occur, the T computations and the field
measurements are then repeated.
I ∆
T T
E
A P
y
B C/2 PT
PC D C
90º x
R
R
∆
O
Fig. 3.8: Offsets from Long Chord
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If PC PT = C
PC B and B PT = C/2
From triangle PC B O
R2 = OB2 + (C/2)2
C/2
PC B OB2 + (C/2)2 = R2
OB2 = R2 - (C/2)2
OB = √ R2 - (C/2)2
R To get the value of „y‟ at any distance „x‟ from B
and considering triangle APO from the above
triangle (fig. 2.8), AO = R and AP = x.
O R² = AP² + PO² (substituting for the value of AP)
R² = x² + PO² (making x the subject of the formula)
x² = R² - PO²
Now making PO the subject of the formula
PO² = R² - x²
PO = √ R² - x²
But PO = PB + BO and PB = y
:. (PB + BO) = √ R² - x²
(y + BO) = √ R² - x² ( making y the subject of the formula)
y = √ R² - x² - BO
But BO = √ R2 - (C/2)2 (substituting for the value of BO)
:. y = √ R² - x² - √ R2 - (C/2)2
Dividing the long chord into on even number of parts, points on the curve can be obtained
with corresponding value of x.
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ii. Offsets from the tangents: Curves can also be set out by measuring offsets from the
tangents. The offsets from the tangent can be either radial or perpendicular to the
tangent.
B ∆
a. Radial offset
y
x
p
T1 T2
90º 90º
⁰
R R
∆/2
O C
A OQ = R + y
:. (R + y) 2 = R2 + x2
R + y = √R2 + x2
y = √ (R2 + x2) - R
32
b. Perpendicular offset
B ∆
Q
y
x P
T2
T1
P'
R R
A C
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3.8.2 INSTRUMENTAL METHODS
In this method a tape is used for making linear measurements and a theodolite is used for
making angular measurements.
After the confirmation of ∆/2 (deflection angle), PI, BC and EC. The theodolite is, if
possible, left at BC and zeroed and sighted in on PI, the δ1 angle will then be turned, thus
directing the telescope to point „a‟ and clamp the horizontal plate. Then the from BC the
length of the first subchord is measured to locate point a on the curve.
After the establishment of point „a‟ from BC, the δ2 will also be turned to forms the direction
of „b‟, then the second subchord length is measured to from „a‟ to locate „b‟ following the
above procedure the other δ angles (δ3, δ4 .) are turned and subchord length for each δ angle
are measured to located other points.
At the end final δ angle will be equal to ∆/2 and once it is turned one should be able to see
EC from BC.
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PI ∆
δ2 δ3
δ1
b c
a
PT
PC B
R R
∆
O
Fig. 2.11 Setting out of Curve using theodolite and tape
35
theodolite is expensive and it is rarely practicable to have two theodolite available on
a job.
PI ∆
b c
a
PT
PC
90º
R R
∆
O
Fig. 2.11b: Setting out of curve using two theodolite
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i. Point of intersection of tangents not visible.
B ∆
M α β N
T2
T1
90º
R R
A C
∆
O
Fig. 2.12: Point of Intersection Problem
Similarly BN = MN = BN = MNSinα
Sinα Sinθ Sinθ
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5. Calculate MT1 and NT2
i.e. MT1 = BT1 – BM and
NT2 = BT2 – BN
6. Thus T1 and T2 can be located from M and N respectively and the curve can be
plotted from T1.
B ∆
δc (Δ/2 – δa)
δb
(Δ/2 – δb)
δa b c (Δ/2 – δc)
a
T2
T1
90º
R R
A C
Δ/2
∆
O
Fig. 3.12b: Inaccessible Initial Tangent Point Problem
38
iii. Final tangent point not accessible
1. Two points M and N are selected on BC which are accessible. By measuring MQ and
QN and if MQN is made a right angle then MN = MO2+ QN2
2. BT2 is known and BM is measured, hence MT2 is known
3. T2N then is equal to MN – MT2
B ∆
T2
T1
90º
Q N
R R
A C
∆
O
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iv. Line of Sight being obstructed (Moving instrument up on the curve)
I ∆
c'
δ3 δ3
c δ4
c'' b c'''
δ2 a d
x
δ1
T2
T1
90º
R R
A C
∆
O
1. If point „a‟, „b‟ and „c‟ are visible from T1 but „d‟ is not.
2. Shift the instrument to „c‟ and set the reading of instrument to zero.
3. Bisect T1, and then plunge the telescope so that cc'' is obtained.
4. The direction of „cd‟ is then obtained by measuring clockwise δ4 = δ3 + x as
originally obtained.
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 SECTIONING
In engineering surveying we often consider a route (road, sewer pipeline, channel etc) from
three district perspective:
(i) Plan view
(ii) Profile and
(iii) Cross section
1. THE PLAN VIEW: The plan view of the route location is the same as if we were in
an aircraft looking straight down on the roadway
2. THE PROFILE: The profile of the route is a side view or elevation in which the
longitudinal surfaces are highlighted (e.g. surface of road, top and bottom of pipelines, etc.)
3. THE CROSS SECTION: The cross section shows the end view of a section at a
point and it is at right angles to the centre line.
These three views taken together define the route in X, Y, and Z coordinates.
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a. Running levels along and perpendicular to the centre line so that changes in height
can be recorded.
b. Horizontal distance measurement along and perpendicular to the centre line to define
the relative positions of the points at which levels were taken.
After bush clearing and removal of top soil, the centre line will be set out using theodolite
and chain, theodolite and EDM or total station. Regular interval of say 25m or 30m is pegged
out along the centre line, starting from zero chainage at the beginning of the line to the end.
The levelling operation commences along the centre line of the proposed road way, levelling
start from an established bench mark and it may be closed back on the same bench mark or
on another bench mark.
Levels are taken on top and bottom of pegs placed at regular interval as stated above along
the centre line and at critical points where there is a sudden change of levels, and at the
beginning or end of curve.
The aim of profile levelling is to enable the plotting of elevation of points along the centre
line.
It is not essential to put the instrument along the centre line. For safety it can be placed any
where off the centre line and also to allow large number of readings to be taken.
After the field observations, reduction of the field book and the computations, the next thing
is plotting of the profile or longitudinal section. To show the distortions of the ground
42
clearly, the elevations or heights are plotted on a much large scale after taking a suitable
datum that can clearly and conveniently depict the longitudinal section of the road.
After the plotting of profile or longitudinal section, it is necessary to have a smooth surface.
This smooth surface is known as grade line it is selected on various considerations like:
i. Minimum amount of cutting and filling of earth work.
ii. Balancing the cut and fill and
iii. Keeping the slope within allowable limit.
a. The staffman holds the staff on the peg at the beginning of the section and a backsight
is taken and booked, noting in the remarks column that this point has zero chainage,
being the start of the line.
43
b. The staffman then follows the line of the tape and depending on the accuracy and
detail required, would hold the staff and call out the chainage of the following:
i. Every marked change of slope
ii. Every feature crossing the section line, e.g. property boundaries, fences,
hedges, power and telephone lines, railway lines etc.
iii. Edges of banks and, if possible, the beds or bottoms of streams, ditches,
ponds, etc.
iv. The back edge of pavements, the top and bottom of kerbs and section line on
the centre line of any existing road crossing.
v. The underside of bridges, using the staff inverted.
vi. The end of each tape length or regular interval of say 20 or 30m as required.
These intermediate sights are observed and booked. The chainage called out by the
staffman each time is recorded in the remarks column of the field book against the
appropriate level reading.
c. After completing all observations along one tape length, the tape will be pulled
forward along the line as before again and the same process continues, the leveller
noting each time, the continuous chainage from the start of the section line.
d. The level must be moved forward to a more convenient position after a time and the
leveller will signal the need for a change point. The staffman will then choose a stable
change point preferably on the line, but off it if necessary. After observing the
foresight the instrument is moved forward to another suitable position, a backsight is
taken to the change point, and the whole process continues as before.
iv. Field Checks: After some distance has been covered foresight is taken on to a
permanent change point or Temporary Benchmark (T.B.M.) ready for the start of the
observations on to the next part of the section line. The levelling work so far
considered has now to be checked. This can be done in one of the three ways below:
44
a. By closing the level circuit back on to the starting benchmark: The difference
between the final sums of the backsights and foresights will indicate the accuracy
of the work.
b. By closing the levels on to another nearer benchmark: The observed difference
in height between the two benchmarks is then compared with the known
difference.
NOTE: A misclosure between the two benchmarks may indicate a disturbance of one of them
and may not necessarily be due to any error in the levelling observations.
c. By using Double Chainage Points: In this method the field book is ruled with two
backsight columns and two foresight columns. At each set-up the height of
instrument (H.I) is thus determined twice, the one observation checking the other.
This method is similar to running a closed circuit back to the starting benchmark,
but with one set of instrument position only. The does not form a reliable check
for two reasons:
i. The difference between the two foresight readings can be retained in
the leveller‟s mind and deliberately or inadvertently applied to the
following backsight readings. This will record a consistency which
does not actually exist.
ii. A settlement of the instrument between the pair of backsight readings
and the pair of foresight reading will still show an apparent check on
the readings despite a real loss of accuracy.
v. Plotting the Profile: Once the field observation have been taken and checked and
the field book reduced, the profile drawing can be prepared as follows:
a. Draw a datum line chosen to plot about 5m below the lowest reduced level
on the profile and being a multiple of 5m above datum. This line must be
clearly marked, e.g. datum line 35m.
45
b. Scale off the chainages of the points at which the levels were observed
along the datum line to a suitable scale and tabulate them. This horizontal
scale must also be noted on the drawing and in presentation work usually
includes a scale bar.
c. Erect ordinates (perpendiculars) at these points and scale off the reduced
level of each and tabulate them. To make the irregularities of the ground
more obvious the vertical scale is usually larger than the horizontal scale.
This provides a vertical exaggeration of the profile. The vertical scale is
usually five to ten times greater than the horizontal, the greater
exaggeration being used on flatter land. The vertical scale must be noted
on the drawing, even if it is the same as the horizontal scale. Again in
presentation work, a scale bar is usually included.
d. Join each point of reduced level plotted with a continuous line. This line
must not be a curve like of slope, so the slope should be even between
these points. The points are therefore joined with a series of straight lines,
although in presentation work this line may be draw freehand over a
lightly ruled pencil line. The resulting slight unevenness sometimes tends
to improve the appearance of the drawing.
e. Represent on the profile the features which intersected the line on the
ground. Include descriptive notes, e.g. street names, property designations,
etc.
46
Finished
Level
Formation
Level
DATUM LEVEL
100.000M
111.300110.920 0+125
111.300 111.190 0+075
112.270113.580 0+225
111.900110.530 0+200
REDUCED
LEVELS
FORMATION
LEVELS
1.310
2.680
0.270
1.030
0.610
CUT
0.380
1.740
1.270
1.370
FILL
vi. Working Profile: This consists of the original profile or longitudinal section with
the position of the new work level on it, their relation to existing ground level and any
other information which may be needed during construction. This information is
recorded as follows:
a. New work is represented by two parallel lines. The lower indicates the level to which
the earth is to be worked, i.e. the formation level, and the upper indicates the level of
the finished construction i.e. the finished level.
b. The gradients of the formation level are clearly recorded as shown in the above
figure.
c. The formation level at each point are calculated and tabulated as shown in the figure
above.
d. Where formation level is above the ground level the difference between the two
levels represents fill. Conversely, where formation level is below the ground level, the
47
difference between the two levels represent cut. The cuts and fills at each point may
be obtained by subtracting the formation levels from the profile levels; these
differences are also tabulated in the above figure so as to assist the setting out on site.
Their tabulation also helps to prevent errors from arising in setting out.
e. The positions of new works, bridges, culverts, etc. are shown with a reference to the
drawing, which gives details of their construction.
vii. Fair Drawing: The profile drawings may be finished off as follows:
a. For professional and commercial purposes: The drawings are simply finished
in black ink only on tracing paper, tracing linen or plastic sheets so that copy
prints may be obtained easily.
b. For presentation work and practical examinations: Before the 1930s the
practice of providing copy prints from transparencies was established and
working drawings were well presented and drawn on good quality paper using
coloured inks and washes. A convention of colours was develop for the
preparation of profiles and these can with advantage, be maintained in this
type of drawing today. These colour convention is as follows:
i. Ordinates: thin blue lines
ii. Ground and datum lines: black (sometimes the ground line is verged in
burnt sienna (brown pigment or dark reddish brown) along its underside).
iii. Tabulated chainages and reduced levels: black.
iv. Formation level line and gradients: red.
v. Finished level line: blue.
vi. Tabulated formation levels and depths of cut: red.
vii. Heights of fill: blue.
viii. Horizontal and vertical scales, scale bars, notes and titles: black.
48
line. For laying a pipeline or sewer line only longitudinal section is adequate because the
width of the line is small. In the case of roads and railways apart from longitudinal section,
cross sections at right angles to the centre line of the alignment are required at some regular
intervals. This is necessary to know the topography of the area which will be required for the
roads and railways and also to compute the volume of cut and fill for the construction work.
And they must extent beyond the limit of proposed construction so that the full character of
the whole area is known.
ii. Setting Out: Cross Sections are set out normal i.e. at right angles to the longitudinal
section, the right angle being judged by eye for narrow strips such as roads and
railways. Where the cross sections needed are long, such as for reservoirs, motorways
intersections, etc., or where special accuracy is needed, then they must be set out using
a theodolite, a level with horizontal circle or an optical square. If cross sections are
taken other than at right angles to the longitudinal section usually needed along a
valley or a ridge intersecting the centre line at an angle, then this angle must be
measured so that its position may also be shown in the plan view.
iii. Methods of Cross Sectioning: The field work is basically similar to that of
observing longitudinal sections. Levels are observed at changes of slope and their
positions are fixed by measuring their distances from the longitudinal section line.
Cross-sections are usually observed using the following equipment:
49
a. A level, tape and staff are the most usual instruments.
b. On steep ground, to save frequent re-positioning of the instrument, it may be
more convenient to use a theodolite, tape and staff.
c. Alternatively, where less accuracy is needed, such as on preliminary or pre-
contract works, then a hand level, tape and staff or ranging rod may be used
instead of the more accurate level.
d. A clinometer, tape and ranging rod may be used on steep ground instead of a
theodolite.
NOTE: The hand level or clinometer is seldom used today because final routes of
construction projects can generally be chosen with greater precision from aerial
photographs. Also modern theodolites and levels are now so light and easy to
manipulate that special hand instruments are seldom required.
iv Cross-Sectioning with a level: When a level is used the cross sectioning may be done
at the same time as the main profile. Alternatively, it may be carried out at the second
stage of the work, the level‟s height being fixed and checked at each set-up by a
backsight and foresight to previously heighted pegs on the longitudinal section.
a. The level is set up and a backsight observed or the height of instrument (H.I)
measured. The staffman follows the line of the previously pegged cross
section, or is guided forward at right angles by an assistant, who remains on
the main section controlling the tape. The staffman retains the zero end of the
tape and holds the staff and tape end at each change of slope. The assistant on
the main section then calls out the measured distance to each staff position to
the leveller.
b. On flat ground it may be possible to observe all the levels on one cross-
section from a single set-up before moving on to the next. This makes
booking easier and helps to prevent errors. However, where the ground slope
50
is greater it may be necessary to move the instrument several times before all
the levels on one section can be observed.
iv. Cross-Sectioning with a theodolite: On steep ground, to save having to move a level
several times to cover the whole slope of the cross-section, a theodolite may be used
instead.
a. The theodolite is set up over the previously levelled centre line peg. Its height
of collimation above the peg is measured, which is equivalent to a backsight
in levelling. By orienting along the centre line an accurate right angle can be
turned off for cross-section. The chainage of the centre line peg is noted to
define the particular cross-section being observed.
c. Staff intersections are read off as before and the distances to staff position are
taped. The tape should be held horizontally. If this is not possible the tape may
be held along the line of sight, the zero end of the tape being held against the
staff at the approximate height of the reading and the distance read off at the
51
instrument against the horizontal axis. These lengths are reduced to the
horizontal using the same recorded angle of slope in the formula “S = L cos Ѳ.
vi. Cross-Sectioning Field notes: The field observations are booked in the same
way whichever instrument is used, except that with the theodolite the vertical
angle must be noted each time. Booking may take one of the two forms below:
a. The sketch section: with the readings noted thereon as illustrated in the figure
below. This is usually adopted where the cross-sections are to be scale drawn,
only without a record of reduced levels.
Ground Level
0 10.50 25.00
25.00 13.20
52
vii. Cross-Sectional Plotting: Unlike longitudinal sections the horizontal and vertical
scales of cross-sections are usually the same. They are plotted without vertical
exaggeration as this is more convenient for showing new work and for volume
calculation.
53
computed, the levels are taken at regular intervals as this simplifies the volume calculations.
The actual spacing will depend on the nature of the ground and the type of construction, but
regular spacing of 20 and 30m are usual. Additional level observations are also made
between the regular intervals at important features such as on existing roads, bed of streams,
etc., and at marked changes of slope.
As levelling observations for sections are usually taken of rough ground it is impractical to
observe the staff to three decimal places. Staff readings to the nearest centimetre are therefore
taken, although in more accurate work readings on change points and hard flat surfaces, such
as manhole cover may be observed to millimetres.
54
In construction projects good frame work of horizontal and vertical controls are very
important. It is the duty of the surveyor to orient all his work with the existing frame work of
horizontal and vertical controls within the vicinity of the project site. It is also recommended
that adequate number of supplementary bench marks (vertical controls) and horizontal
control based on local coordinate system, should be established along or very close to the
project site. This will give room for convenient and efficient use of those controls by the
construction personnel‟s.
2.5cm
1.5cm
1.25m
2. The next thing is rough cut stakes. These are to be provided so that the contractor can
undertake “rough cut” grading operations.
These stakes are set
i. Along the project centre line 15m interval.
55
ii. At the beginning and end of all horizontal curves
iii. At any other grade or alignment transition.
The stakes are 2.5cm x 5.0cm x 45cm. On the stakes are marked C or E indicating cut
or fill.
5.0cm
2.5cm
3. Next is the slope stakes. This is to guide the contractor in marking final excavations
and embankments. Slope stakes are driven at the slope intercepts (intersections of the
original ground and each side slope) or off set of short distances, e.g. grade slope
stakes are set at point that have the same ground and grade elevation.
56
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 AREA CALCULATION
5.1 METHODS OF MEASURING AREA
There are so many methods of area computation. Some of the methods are:
1. Geometric methods: This is when the area is divided into a number of triangles,
rectangles or trapeziums.
2. By taken offsets from a straight line
3. Double meridian distances methods
4. Coordinates method
5. The use of planimeter: When the plan or map of an area is available, however
irregular it may be, planimeter can be run over the enclosing lines to compute the area
of the plot.
c
a
h
C N A
b
From the above triangle (Δ) ABC, the area of the triangle is:
Area = ½ x base x height
Area = ½ x b x h
:. Area = ½ bh
Considering Δ ABN
Sin A = h/c
57
:. h = c sin A
But Area = ½ x b x h
Substituting for the value of „h‟
Area = ½ x b x c sin A
:. Area = ½ bc sin A
Using the same triangle, but now let the perpendicular line BN be projected from line BA
to reach C.
B
N
c
a h
A
C b
58
B
a N c
C b A
Therefore, area of the triangle ABC can be computed using the following formulae:
Area of Δ (ABC) = ½ bc sin A or ½ ac sin B and/or ½ ab sin C.
In a situation where perpendicularity is not set out and angles are not measured or given,
but the length of all the sides are given, the above formulae cannot be used but Hero‟s
formula will be appropriate.
The area of a triangle whose sides are known but angles are not given can be computed by
the formula below, known as Hero‟s formula.
Area = S (S-a) (S – b) (S– c) (This is Hero‟s formula)
59
b. Area of a Rectangle:
A L B
A
D C
c. Area of a Trapezium:
a
A B
h h
D E F C
b
60
Example:
a
A B
h h
x x
D E F C
b
From the above figure, AB// DC, and AB= a = 7m and DC = b = 13m. If the distance
between the parallel sides is 4m; and DE = FC = x. Find:
a. The perimeter of the trapezium
b. The area of the trapezium.
Solution:
If AB//DC and DE = FC and AE = BF =h.
Therefore, angle D = angle C, hence, the trapezium is an isosceles trapezium. Based on the
above facts Δ AED and Δ BCF are equal.
Also AB = EF = a = 7m
DE = FC = x
DC = DE + EF + FC = 13m
:. DC = x + EF + x
DC = 2x + EF = 13
:.2x + EF = 13
2x = 13 – EF
But EF = 7 ( from the above figure)
:. 2x = 13 – 7
2x = 6
61
x = 6/2 = 3
:. x =3m
a. The Perimeter of the trapezium
The perimeter of the trapezium is now equal to:
Perimeter = AB + BC + CD + DA
But BC = DA from the above figure and they are not known, hence they have to be
computed.
x
D E
From the above triangle,
DA² = x² + h²
DA = √x² + h²
DA = √3² + 4² = √9 + 16
DA = √25 =5
:.DA = 5
From the above DA= BC, therefore BC = 5 = DA
62
Now Area = ½ (7 +13) x 4
Area = ½(20) x 4 = 10 x 4
Area = 40m²
:. The area of the trapezium = 40m²
m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m6 m7 m8 m9
d d d d d d d d d
L
63
= L (m1+ m2 + m3+ m4+ m5+ m6+ m7+ m8+ m9)
n
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
d d d d d d d d
L
If 01,02…..08 are the ordinates to the boundary from the base line.
Average ordinate = 01 + 02 + 03 + 04 + 05 + 06 + 07 + 08
8
And area = average ordinate x length (L)
01 + 02 + 03 + 04 + 05 + 06 + 07 + 0` x L
8
3. Trapezoidal rule
The area can also be computed by applying the trapezoidal rule which is obtained by
considering each part as a trapezium and then adding the parts areas together.
64
Therefore, considering the figure above, the area is
A = 01+ 02d + 02+03d + 03+04d + 04+05d + 05+06d + 06+07d + 07+ 08d
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= d (01 + 08) + (02 + 03 + 04 + 05 + 06 + 07)
2
If the intervals are not equal the areas of the trapeziums have to be computed separately and
added together.
4. Simpson’s rule
In the rules stated above the irregular boundary consists of a number of straight lines. If the
boundary is curved, it can be approximated as a series of straight lines. Alternatively,
Simpson‟s rule is applied which assumes that the short lengths of boundaries between the
ordinate are parabolic arcs.
I
E
H
D
G
F
02 03
01
A B C
d d
65
b. Area DEFG
= 2/3 x area of enclosing parallelogram.
FHEIDG
= 2/3 x (2d) (EG)
= 2 x (2d) x 02 – 03 + 01
3 2
Note that: 03 + 01 = GB ≠ EB
2
EB = 02
66
= d(301 + 303 + 402 – 203 - 201 )
3
= d (01 + 03 + 402)
3
:. The total area of the two segments = d (01 + 03 + 402) OR d (01 + 402 + 03)
3 3
A = d {(01 + 402+ 03) + (03 + 404 + 05) + (05 + 406 + 07)+...+ (0n -1 + 40n + 0n + 1}
3
Since we are taking 2 segments at a time, the number of segments should always be even and
the number of ordinates odd for Simpson‟s rule to be applicable.
To get the area by Simpson‟s rule; the rule is, add the first and last ordinates to four times the
even ordinates and two times the odd ordinates and multiply the sum by one third of the
common interval.
The accuracy of Simpson‟s rule is more than that of the trapezoidal rule for curved
boundaries.
67
5.1.3 AREA OF A CLOSED TRAVERSE
The corrected latitude and departure of a line is known after the adjustment of the traverse.
These are utilized in computing the area of the closed traverse for which four methods are
available.
i. Meridian distance method
ii. Double meridian distance method
iii. Double parallel distance method
iv. Departure and total latitude method.
1. Meridian distance method
The meridian distance of a line is the perpendicular distance from the line‟s midpoint
to a reference meridian (North- South line).
D
C
Meridian distance of BC Departure of CD
G H
B Latitude of BC
Meridian distance Departure of BC
E of AB F
Latitude of AB
A
Departure of A B
68
Mathematically, meridian distance of BC is equal to meridian distance of AB plus half of the
departure of AB plus half of the departure of BC.
Similarly, meridian distance of CD is equal to the meridian distance of BC plus half of the
departure of BC plus half of the departure of CD. Thus the meridian distance of any line is
equal to the meridian distance of the preceding line plus half of the departure of the
preceding line plus half of the departure of the line itself. To apply this rule, the sign of the
departure should be considered. Eastern departure being positive, and western departure
negative. Similarly, latitude is positive towards north and negative towards south.
D
O
J I
N C
L K
H G
A
E F
M B
AM = Latitude of AB
EF = Meridian distance of AB
MN = Latitude of BC
HG = Meridian distance of BC
ON = Latitude of CD
IJ = Meridian Distance of CD
69
Area ABCD = - AMB + NMBC + ONCD – OAD
= ((-AM) x EF) + (NM x HG) + (ON x JI) + ((-OA) x LK)
Here all the departures are positive as A, the most westerly station has been chosen as origin.
As regards sign of latitude, from the direction of arrows it is clear that latitude of AB and DA
point downwards i.e. towards south and hence they are negative.
Symbolically A = Σ (L x Md)
Where L = latitude and
Md = Meridian distance.
The following are the rules for computing DMDs for a closed traverse.
i. The DMD of the first line is equal to the departure of the first line. If the first line is
chosen as the one that begins at the western most corner, negative DMDs can be
avoided.
ii. The DMD of each succeeding line is equal to the DMD of the previous line plus the
departure of the previous line plus the departure of the line itself.
iii. The DMD of the last line of a balanced closed traverse is equal to the departure of the
line but with opposite sign.
It has already been shown that:
Area ABCD = (-AM) x EF + NM x HG + JI x ON + LK x (-OA)
This can be rewritten as:
2 ABCD = {(-AM) x 2EF + NM x 2HG + ON x 2JI + (-OA) x 2LK)}
2 ABCD={(-AM) x DMDAB + NM x DMDBC + ON x DMDCD + (-OA) x DMD DA}
2ABCD = Σ (L x DMD)
ABCD = ½ ((Σ(L x DMD)).
70
Here summation of products of DMD and latitudes of lines of a closed traverse with
proper sign gives twice the area of the traverse. If the traverse is covered clockwise,
the area will be negative, if counter clockwise, the area will be positive.
L3 f C
L2 L2
Reference Meridian
A b e c
Reference Station
- L1
DAB
DBC
B
71
Area of the closed traverse ABCD
A = ABb + Bbc + DecC + ADe – CcB
= ½ (-L1) DAB + ½ (-L1) DBC + ½ (L2 + L3) (-DCD) + ½ (L3) (-DDA) – ½ L2(-DBC)
72
5. COORDINATES METHOD
In this method independent coordinates of the points are used in the computation of
areas.
y
D (XD, YD)
A
(XA, YA)
C (XC, YC)
x
B (XB, YB)
Fig. 5.4a Coordinates method illustration
To avoid negative sign, the origin O is chosen at the most southerly and westerly
point.
73
Further illustrations on Coordinate Method
N
Nc C (Nc, Ec)
Nd D (Nd, Ed)
Nb B
(Nb, Eb)
Na
A
(Na, Ea)
E
Eb Ea Ec Ed
A = {(Ea + Ed)/2} (Nd – Na) + {(Ed + Ec)/2} (Nc – Nd) – {(Ea + Eb)/2} (Nb – Na)
– {(Eb + Ec)/2} (Nc – Nb)
Multiply both sides by 2
2A = (Ea + Ed) (Nd – Na) + (Ed + Ec) (Nc – Nd) – (Ea + Eb) (Nb – Na) – (Eb + Ec) (Nc –
Nb)
2A= EaNd – EaNa + EdNd – EdNa + EdNc – EdNd + EcNc – EcNd
- (Ea Nb – EaNa + EbNb – EbNa) - (EbNc – EbNb + EcNc – EcNb)
74
2A = EaNd – EdNa + EdNc – EcNd – EaNb + EbNa – EbNc + EcNb.
Re grouping
2A = Na (Eb – Ed) + Nb (Ec - Ea) + Nc (Ed – Eb) + Nd (Ea – Ec)
Or
2A = (NaEb – NaEd) + (NbEc – NbEa) + (NcEd – NcEb) + (NdEa – NdEc)
Which is the same thing as:
Na Ea
Nb Eb
Nc Ec
Nd Ed
Na Ea
Here two sums of products should be taken.
1. Products of all adjacent terms taken down to the right i.e.
NaEb + NbEc + NcEd + NdEa ……………………….(1)
2. Products of all adjacent terms up to the right.
NaEd + NdEc + NcEb + NbEa…………………………(2)
Subtract (1) from (2) or (2) from (1) to get 2 Area.
The traverse area is equal to half the absolute value of the difference between these
two sums. In applying this procedure it is to be observed that the first coordinate listed must
be repeated at the end of the list.
75
Tracing point
Pole arm
Tracing arm
Measuring or
. integrating unit
Pole block
(heavy weight)
1 0 9
2
Primary drum 8
3
4 7
5 6 Disc spindle
Integrating disc
Vernier
Fig. 5.5b The integrating unit.
1. Pole Block or Anchor: It is a heavy block. This is fixed on the plan by a fine retaining
pin called the anchor point.
2. Pole Arm or Anchor arm: This is a bar whose one end is pivoted about the pole block
and the other end about the integrating unit.
3. Tracing arm: This may be either fixed or variable in length. Its one end is attached to
the integrating unit while the other end carries the tracing point or optical tracer.
4. The Integrating unit or measuring unit: It consists of a hardened steel integrating disc
carried on pivots. The disc spindle is connected to a primary drum or roller which is
76
divided into 100 parts. By means of a vernier, readings up to 1/1000th of a revolution
of the roller is obtained. The roller is so designed that when it completes one
revolution, another disc connected with the roller shows one dimension. This disc is
divided into ten divisions. The disc, therefore completes one revolution after every 10
revolutions of the roller. The reading of a planimeter is in 4 digits. If the readings is
say, 3456 it shows:
(i) 3 on the disc indicating 3 full rotations of the roller,
(ii) 45 on the roller which means out of 100 divisions roller has moved through 45
divisions.
(iii) 6 indicates the vernier reading of the roller which is in thousandth.
The planimeter when placed over a plan or map whose area is to be measured rests on three
points:
(i) Anchor point
(ii) Drum or roller, and
(iii) Tracing point or tracer.
The area is measured by moving down the tracer over the outline of the plan or map in a
clockwise direction. The area is then obtained as:
A = M (F.R – I.R ± I0N ± C)
Where:
M= Multiplying constant or planimeter constant and is equal to the area per revolution of
the roller. This value is marked on the tracing arm.
F.R. = Final reading
I.R. = Initial reading
N= Number of full revolutions of the disc. As one revolution of the disc is 10 units. It is
multiplied by 10 in the above expression. Plus sign is to be used when the rotation is
clockwise and minus sign when anticlockwise.
C= Constant of the instrument usually marked on the tracing arm just above the scale
divisions. The constant when multiplied by M gives the zero circle. It is to be added
77
when the anchor point is within the circle and is taken to be zero when the anchor
point is outside the circle.
While using a planimeter the following points should be observed:
1. The tracer point should be guided by a triangle or straight edge though usually it is
steered free hand.
2. The anchor point should preferably be placed outside the traverse as this will avoid
the additive constant C.
3. The movement of the disc should be carefully watched and clockwise or
anticlockwise rotation of the zero mark of the disc against the index mark should be
noted.
4. The tracing point should always be moved clockwise.
5. Since area obtained by planimeter is not necessarily an exact value, it is a good
practice to trace a figure several times and take an average of the results thus
obtained. It is also desirable to trace the figure one or more times in the opposite
directions and average these values also. The different values should agree within a
limit of 2 to 5 units.
The length of the tracing arm of the planimeter can be adjusted and accordingly value of M
will vary. Since the bar setting may not be perfect it is best to check the planimeter constant
by running over the perimeter of a carefully laid out square 5cm on a side with diagonals
7.07cm. The area should be 25cm2. If the difference in reading is say 100,
1 unit = 25cm2 = 0.25cm2
100
If the observed difference in reading is 1125, area is 0.25 x 1125 = 281.25cm2.
If the scale of the map is 1cm = 100m
Then
1cm2 = 100 x 100m2
:. The Area = 281.25 x 104m2
The planimeter is useful in measuring irregular areas. It is often used in measuring cross-
sectional areas of high ways and in computing areas of property surveys.
78
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 EARTHWORK QUANTITIES
Earthwork operations involve the determination of the volume of materials that should be
excavated or embarked on any engineering project in order to bring the ground surface to a
pre-determined grade (formation level).
Earthwork operation is one of the basic operations in route survey and data for the
calculation of earthwork quantities can be obtained from:
i. Cross sections taken by field surveyor or photogrammetric method.
ii. Contour maps product by field survey or photogrammetric method.
iii. Spot heights.
6.2 VOLUMES
Surveyors are often required to compute volumes of earthwork either in cut or fill when
planning a highway system. To compute stockpiles of coal, gravel or other materials,
knowledge of volume computation is required. There are basically three methods for this:
i. Cross section method
79
ii. Unit area or borrow pit method
iii. Contour area method.
b Design profile
he
S
C 1
Existing ground hr
profile
b/2 + Sc b/2 + Sc
Existing ground
Fig. 6.1 Cross Section of existing ground profile. profile
1. LEVEL SECTION
Before volume can be calculated area need to be calculated first. The general formula that is
being used for this kind of area computation is coordinate method. It is as stated below:
A = ½ {X1 (Y2 – Yn) + X2 (Y3 – Y1) + X3 (Y4 – Y2) +…+ Xn (Y1 – Yn – 1)}
Or
80
A = ½ {Y1 (X2 – Xn) + Y2 (X3-X1) + Y3 (X4 – X2) + …+ Yn (X1-Xn-1)}
A D
1 h 1
n n
B C
nh b/2 b/2 nh
b
:.A = ½ {h (-b/2 – (b/2 + nh)) + 0 (b/2 – (-b/2 + nh)) + 0 (b/2 + nh) – (-b/2)) + h (-(b/2 + nh) – (b/2))}
81
A= ½ {2h (-b – nh)
A = h (-b – nh)
:. A = -h (b + nh)
w1
C
1
D m
E w2
1 h1
h n
h2 1
n
A B
b/2 b/2
82
Similarly w2 = (b/2 + nh) m/(m + n)
83
3. TWO LEVEL SECTION IN FILLING
b/2 b/2
A B
n
1
n h1
1 h
h2 C
D
1 w1
m
E
w2
84
4. SIDE HILL TWO LEVEL SECTION
m
1
1 h1
n1
n2h2 Cutting
D
H F h K
A
mh C B
Filling
n2
1 n1h1
h2
b/2 b/2
G
w2 w1
w2 = n2h2 + b/2
85
mh2 = n2h2 + b/2 – mh
h2 (m - n2) = b/2 – mh
h2 = (b/2 – mh) /m – n2
w2 = n2h2 + b/2
Substitute for the value of h2 in the above equation:
w2 = n2 {( b/2 – mh) /m – n2} + b/2
.
w2 = {n2 (b/2 – mh) + b/2(m – n2)}/ m- n2
w2 = (mb/2 – mhn2)/ m – n2
w2 = m(b/2 – hn2)/ m – n2
w2 = m (b/2 – n2h)
(m – n2)
h1 = 1 (w1 – b/2)
n1
86
Area of cutting = ½ x (b/2 + mh)²
m – n1
w1 = m (b/2 – n1h)
(m – n2)
Area = ½ x 1 n1 ( mh + b/2)²
n1 m - n1
Area = ½ x ( mh + b/2)²
m - n1
:. Area = ½ . (b/2 + mh)²/ m – n1
87
1. THREE LEVEL SECTION
Here at least three levels are required to define the ground slope. The shapes in cutting and
filling are shown below.
w1 m1 C
1
D
m2
1
E w2 1
h1
h n
1
h2
n
A b/2 F B
b/2
b
or h1 = = w1 + h
m1
Substitute for the value of h1
w1 = b/2 + n w1 + h
m1
w1 m1 – n = b/2 + nh
m1
88
w1 = m1 (b/2 + nh)
m1 – n
h1 = h + w1/ m1
h2 = h – w2 / m2
Hence, if h and slopes m1, m2 and n are given h1, h2, w1 and w2 can be computed and hence
the area.
Point x y
A -b/2 0
B b/2 0
C w1 h1
D 0 h
E -w2 h2
89
6. MULTILEVEL SECTION
C
E D
F
h2 h h3 h4
h1
A w2 w3 B
b/2 b/2
w1 w4
The above figure shows a multilevel section where more than three levels are required to
define the transverse slope of the ground. For a multilevel section the coordinate method
of determining area is convenient. And this has already been explained in other sections
above.
A1
A0
90
The volume by Average End Area is given by:
V = ½ (A0 + A1) x L
:. V = Average end areas x length between the sections.
2. Prismoidal Formula
Volume „V‟ = Am x L, where L is the length between the first and last section.
If we have a series of sectional areas A1, A2, …, An at an equal interval of D, by end area
methods:
Volume between A1 and A2 = A1 + A2 * D
2
Between A2 and A3 = A2 + A3 * D
2
Between An – 1 and An = An - 1 + An * D
2
91
5. Prismoidal Rules for Computing Volumes
V = L (A0 + 4M + A1)
6
If three consecutive sections A1, A2, and A3 are taken at interval of D. L = 2D, and the
formula becomes:
V1 = 2D (A1 + 4A2 + A3)
6
In other words, the Prismoidal formula states that the total volume is:
V= Interval between the sections x (Area of the first section + Last section) +
3
To use the Prismoidal rule the number of sections must be odd. If the number of sections is
even the Prismoidal formula cannot be applied to the last two sections and the last two
sections should be treated separately. Either the Trapezoidal rule or the End Area formula
should be applied to compute the volume of the remaining segment. If Prismoidal rule is to
be applied, the area of the middle (mid.) section should be computed separately and then the
formula should be applied.
Also, it is to be noted that, the volume obtained by Trapezoidal rule is always greater than the
volume obtained by the Prismoidal rule.
92
6. PRISMOIDAL CORRECTION OR PRISMODIAL EXCESS
This is the difference between the volumes computed by the Trapezoidal rule and the
Prismoidal rule. As the volume calculated by Trapezoidal rule is greater than that calculated
by the Prismoidal formula, the correction is negative. When volume is computed using
Trapezoidal rule or End area formula, the Prismoidal correction is applied.
Correction (CP) = Volume by the Trapezoidal rule – Volume by the Prismoidal rule.
CP = D (First Area + Last Area) – 2 times (Sum of Even Areas) + 2 times (Sum of Odd Areas)
6
93
7. VOLUME FROM SPOT HEIGHTS/ LEVELS
When the area of excavation is square, rectangular or consists of a number of vertical sides,
as in the case of foundation of a water tank, underground reservoir, etc. the volume can be
computed by taking levels of number of points along a grid. The difference between the
formation level and the existing level of the ground will give the height of fill or cut at the
corresponding points. The accuracy depends on the density of the levels taken and the
method used for the computation of the volume.
a b f
a
d c e
94
Similarly, the volume of the next square bcef is:
V = A (Ʃ h1 + 2Ʃ h2 + 3Ʃ h3 + 4Ʃ h4)
4
Where:
Ʃ h1 = sum of depth used once
Ʃ h2 = sum of depth used twice
Ʃ h3 = sum of depth used thrice
Ʃ h4 = sum of depth used four times
This is the maximum number of times a vertical height can occur.
If the area of interest is divided into a number of triangles, the volume “V” will be that of
triangular prism i.e.
V = ha + hb + hc x A
3
If all the triangular areas are equal the volume can be computed using the formula below:
V = A (Ʃ h )
3
V = A (Ʃ h1 + 2Ʃ h2 + 3Ʃ h3 + … + 8Ʃ h8)
3
Where:
Ʃ h1 = sum of depth used once
95
Ʃ h2 = sum of depth used twice
Ʃ h3 = sum of depth used thrice
:
:
Ʃ h8 = sum of depth used eight times
The contour plan can be utilized for computing the volume of the earthwork between
different contour lines.
The accuracy of volume computed from contour lines depend on the accuracy with which the
contours have been determined and plotted. This method is very useful where very large
volumes are involved and in the preliminary stage of route project, for making initial cost
estimate comparison of alternative route and selection of the best route.
A5
A4
A3
A2
A1
150 m
125 m
100 m
75 m
50 m
96
Area can be measured from a map or plan by planimeter or any other method and the volume
can be computed using End Area method.
V = d A1 + 0 + A1 + A2 + A2 + A3 + A3 + A4 + A4 + A5
2 2 2 2 2
Basically, there are four different methods of volume calculation from contour plan.
i. By cross sections
ii. By equal depth contours
iii. By horizontal planes and
iv. By reservoir problem (when the finished surface is a level surface).
97
Fig. 6.11 (a) Volume from Cross Section.
Fill
Fill
In this method the contours of the finished or graded surface are drawn over the contour map
at the same interval as that of the contours. The original contour may be plotted with firm
lines, and the contour of the proposed surface plotted with dotted lines. At the intersection of
full line contour with a dash line contour, depths of cutting or filling can be determined. By
joining the points of equal cut and fill a set of lines are obtained. These lines are the
horizontal projection of lines cut from the existing surface by planes parallel to the finished
98
surface. The irregular areas bounded by these lines are obtained by planimeter. The volume
between any two successive areas is determined by multiplying the average of two areas by
the depth between them.
104
104
103
103
102
102
101
101
100
100
In this method, the volume of earth work is computed by taking horizontal sections on the
contour plan. If the existing contours are plotted as firm lines, the proposed formation
surfaces may be shown by dotted lines. The volume can be computed by the following steps:
a. All the points where dotted lines and the firm lines intersect are the points of cut
and fill. All these points shall be joined to give a curve.
99
b. If within these curves, the original ground surface is at a higher level than the
proposed grade surface and as such the excavation of the ground is necessary i.e. cut
is necessary.
c. Similarly, outside these lines fill is necessary.
d. The amount of cut or fill at each section is plotted and from the hatched figure
areas of cut A1, A3, A5, and fill A2, A4, A6 can be computed.
e. The amount of the earthwork between two successive contours can be computed
using the Average End Area method. The Pyramidal formula should be applied for
the end sections.
Ground surface
• 100
A1 •
• •
• 99
A2 A3 Cut Fill
• 98
• •
A5
Fill A4
•
A6 97
Fig. 6.13 Volume from Horizontal Section
96
100
4. Capacity of a Reservoir
Two general methods are used for computing the reservoir volume:
i. By taking horizontal sections and
ii. By taking vertical sections
In the first method the whole area under each contour line is computed. Let them be A1, A2,
…, An. If Trapezoidal rule is applied the volume is:
V = h A1 + An + A2 + A3 + … + An-1
2
Where:
h = contour interval.
If necessary, Prismoidal formula can also be applied.
The second method is applied when the reservoir is regular in shape. From the contour map
dimensions of the vertical cross sections are obtained. The volume is the calculated from the
cross sectional areas.
101
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 SETTING OUT OF STRUCTURES
In every country construction is a major activity and setting out, therefore, becomes an
important work for the surveyors. Normally, surveying involves preparation of maps or plans
showing the existing features of the ground; while setting out is the reverse of the process. It
is the fixing on ground the details shown on a map or plan.
Setting out is the operation required for the correct positioning of works on the ground and
their dimensional control during erection or construction of the work or structures.
Various construction works such as buildings, pipelines, rail roads, high ways, and bridges
are set out in strict compliance with the engineering design and plan data.
The surveyor should have a clear idea of his task in mind and should provide adequate
checks for every work preferably with different methods. The surveyor should also bear the
following facts in mind.
i. Accuracy required
ii. Data available and required
iii. Instrument available
iv. Time available.
The importance of a good framework for horizontal and vertical control in a project area
cannot be overemphasized. It is important for the surveyor in charge of a project to describe
and reference all major horizontal control monuments.
102
For large projects, it is common engineering practice to establish a rectangular grid system.
Usually such a system is based on a local coordinate system.
Depending on the size and complexity of the project, the survey crew should arrive on site
one day or several days prior to the commencement of construction. The first on-site job for
construction surveyor is to relocate the horizontal and vertical controls used in the
preliminary survey. Usually, a number of months, and sometimes even years, have passed
between the preliminary survey, the project design based on the preliminary survey and the
budget decision to award a contract for construction.
It may be necessary to re-establish the horizontal and vertical controls in the area of proposed
construction if they might have been removed or displaced. If this is the case, extreme
caution is advised, as the design plans are based on the original survey fabric, and any
deviation from the original controls could well lead to serious problems in construction. If
the original controls (or most of it) still exist in the field, it is customary to check and verify
all linear and angular dimensions that could directly affect the project.
The same rigorous approach is required for vertical controls. If local benchmarks have been
destroyed (as is often the case), the benchmarks must be re-established accurately. Key
existing elevations shown on design drawings (e.g. connecting invert elevations for gravity
flow sewers, or connecting beam seat elevations on concrete structures) must be resurveyed
to ensure that:
i. The original elevation shown on the plan was correct, and
ii. The new and original vertical controls are in fact, both referenced to the same vertical
datum.
Once the original control has been re-established or verified, the control must be extended
over the construction site to suit the purposes of each specific project.
103
7.2 ACCURACY AND MISTAKES
In construction surveys all field measurements and calculations are suspect until they have
been verified by independent means or by repeated checks.
Unlike other forms of surveying, construction surveying is often associated with speed of
operation. Once a contract has been awarded, the contractor may wish to commence
construction immediately. A hurried surveyor is more likely to make mistakes in
measurements and calculations, and thus even more vigilance than normal is required.
104
C
21’ 1710
B 87
0
30.01m
28.51m 06’
D
EXISTING ROAD 410 03’
30’
34.46m
26.00m
A
2170
40.97m
2980
E
27’
105
Once the property or boundary lines are established, then the building is located according to
the plan, with all corner marked in the field.
Stakes may be set initially at the exact building corners as a visual check on positioning of
the structure but these points are lost as soon as excavation begins. Hence batter boards are
necessary. It is usually set 1 to 2m from each and of the intersecting building lines.
Corner stakes and batter board points are checked by measuring diagonals for comparison
with each other and their computed values. Benchmarks beyond the construction area are
required to control elevations.
After erection of batter boards, excavation of structure‟s footings or basement can begin.
Staking out a building can be quickened by taking minimum instrument set ups and staking
many points from a single setup of the instrument. Final building dimensions, however,
should be checked by tapes.
106
B C
b q
c
PROPOSED
BUILDING
a d
k
A D
l m
107
7.5 CHECKS ON SETTING OUT
Checks are made on setting out works using various methods. The checks provided depend
on the type of work; the nature of terrain, the time available and instruments that are
available.
To align in a new point, check of alignment is made by measuring the angle on the straight
line which should be 180º ± 20″ for the point established. By traversing, a fresh traverse is
run from different control but of the same origin to the newly established point to check the
accuracy of the point.
Similarly for heights, flying levelling can be carried out from a different bench mark to check
the heights previously got.
108
CHAPTER EIGHT
As-Built Surveys are the kind of survey operations carried out in order to document the
precise final locations and layouts of engineering works and record any design changes
that may have been incorporated into the construction.
OR
A finished structure seldom corresponds exactly to the original plans in every detail.
Unexpected, usually unforeseeable difficulties often make variations from the plans
necessary or, occasionally, variations may occur accidentally that are economically
unfeasible to correct. The purpose of an AS-BUILT SURVEY is to record these variations.
The as-built survey should begin as soon as it becomes feasible: meaning that the actual
horizontal and vertical locations of features in the completed structure should be determined
as soon as the features are erected.
Unlike many land surveys, done before buildings or other improvements are added to the
land or after these additions are complete, as-built surveys are utilized during the middle of a
construction project. As requested by many industries, as-built shows improvements to the
land, as they appeared at a particular point with time.
As-built surveys are conducted several times throughout the duration of a construction
project. Their frequency and the number of surveys undertaken depend on the scope of the
construction project. The purpose of an as-built survey is to verify to local and state boards
that the construction work authorized has been completed according to the same
specifications set during the planning stage and shown in the site plan. The as-built survey is
most often used to show the building inspector that a project under construction is
conforming with zoning regulations. As-built surveys may be required for nearly every type
of land project, from roads and trails to utility improvements and building construction.
109
Accurate as-builts are important not only as a bureaucratic measure, it is a type of survey that
shows exactly what has been completed to date, a useful tool in adjusting the schedule of a
large construction project. An as-built survey provides an important tool to manage the
building as it is under construction and after it has been completed. As such, they may be
requested by the project supervisor or others who are interested in the completion of the
project. They may be used to document what has been completed by a specific date or work
out payments to contractors. Often they are used to verify the floor plan and evacuation
plans, utility and cabling plans, or other subsequent steps in the building process.
Unlike many other land survey types, as-built surveys are often three-dimensional, rather
than flat maps and it is also known as “field verification of an-existing conditions”. This kind
of surveys has proven invaluable to those in many different positions responsible for the
space in question. It can also provide the basis for reconciling the drawings and other site
plan information against actual field conditions and the work that has been completed to date.
Upon completion of a project, it is essential that a final plan be drawn showing the actual
details of construction. The final plan, known as the “as-built drawing”, is usually quite
similar to the design plan, with the exception that revisions are made to reflect changes in
design that invariably occur during the construction process. Design changes result from
problems that become apparent only after construction is under way. It is difficult, especially
on complex projects, to plan for every eventuality that may be encountered; however, if the
preliminary surveyor and the designer have both done their jobs well, the design plan and the
as-built plan are usually quite similar.
i. It is a type of survey that shows exactly what has been completed to date; therefore it
is a useful tool in adjusting the schedule of a large construction project.
ii. It is a useful tool in managing the building that is under construction and after it has
been completed.
110
iii. It can be used to document what has been completed by a specific date or work out
payments to contractors.
iv. It can also provide the basis for reconciling the drawings and other site plans
information against actual field conditions and the work that has been completed to
date.
111