LECTURE NOTE

ON

ENGINEERING SURVEYING 1
(SUG 208)

PREPARED BY
SURV. OLULADE, S. A

EDITED BY
Benjamin I. AJISAFE

OCTOBER, 2019

1
ENGINEERING SURVEYING 1 (SUG 208)
1.0 ENGINEERING SURVEYING
Engineering Surveying is a large scale of survey operation carried out in order to provide
special information for construction purposes. Engineering surveying deals with the
construction of projects like roads, dams, bridges, railway lines, buildings, tunnels etc.

Also, according to Roy, (2008) “Engineering Surveying is defined as those activities

involved in the planning and execution of surveys for the location, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of civil and other engineering projects.

1.1 SCOPE OF ENGINEERING SURVEYING

Scope of Engineering Surveying means what Engineering Surveying covers. Surveying plays
a key role in the development of engineering projects such as hydroelectric schemes,
irrigation projects, alignment of roads, tunnels and transmission lines, the location and
construction of dams, aqueduct (a structure like a bridge that takes water across a valley), the
development of cities, flood control and the development and maintenance of harbours.

Whatever the project, the role of the surveyor is to render services to the design engineers
that is, to provide information relevant to the design and construction of the project. The
stages of development in any given project may be classified into three; and they are as
follows:
1. Investigation and planning stage
2. Design stage and
3. Construction stage

1. Investigation and planning: At this stage the surveyor and other committee attached
to the project will look for the location of the project and mark out the area of interest.
Then the detailed large scale plan of the area of interest will be produced. The plan
produced will serve as the base map for costing and for both architectural and
structural design of the project.

2
2. Design: Based on the large scale map produced by the surveyor, the architects and
structural engineers attached to the project will come out with both architectural and
structural design of the project. The role of surveyor here is to guide the architects
and the engineers on the interpretation of the plan (base map) he has produced.

3. Construction: At this stage the role of the surveyor is to set out the design plans
(large scale plan) produced by both the architects and the structural engineers on the
site for effective construction of the project. Setting out is the reverse of preparation
of a map or plan showing the existing features on the ground. It is the process of
fixing on the ground the details shown on a map or plan.

1.2 TYPES AND SCALES OF PLANS REQUIRED FOR CONSTRUCTIONS

The plans produced for any construction projects must be large scales plan for better and
accurate interpretations.
The allowable drawing scales are as follows:
i. 1: 250 iv. 1: 2,000 vii. 1: 10,000
ii. 1: 500 v. 1: 2,500 viii. 1: 20,000
iii. 1: 1,000 vi. 1: 5,000 ix. 1: 25,000

1.3 GENERAL PROCEDURE OF SETTING OUT OF ENGINEERING WORKS

Setting out of engineering works involves the sitting on the ground of the various elements of
the works in accordance with the dimensioned plans and drawings supplied by the designer.

Since, it is often impossible to set out the whole of the works before construction commences
the accurate positioning of each element independently is highly important and error or
mistakes can be very expensive. It is advisable to check all leading dimensions on the site
before commencing any setting out whatsoever, because dimensions scaled in distorted
drawings or printed plans cannot be the accurate dimensions of the structures represented by
the drawings.

3
Normally, the dimensions of individual elements (buildings, roads, bridges etc) will be fully
figured or written on the drawings. The scaled dimensions may be shorter or a little bit
different from the actual figures written on the drawings. As a result of this, it is advisable to
look for any controlling factors that will influence the actual positioning of the element. For
example if space is to be left between two houses for two pre-fabricated garages each 3.5
meters wide, then these houses must be set out 7.0 meters apart against a possible scaled
dimension of 6.5 meters.

The usual practice is to mark key points (e.g. corners of buildings, centre-lines or kerbs of
roads etc) with wooden pegs and a pencil cross mark or a small nail on the top if greater
precision is required. A pipe or nail can be driven into tarmac or asphalt, while it may be
necessary to cut a cross with a cold chisel on stone or concrete.

Much wasted labour can be avoided by establishing permanent reference points (by a peg
surrounded with concrete or by driving a length iron rod or galvanized pipe into the ground)
adjacent to the project site, but secure from damage by excavating machinery or construction
traffic from which the pegs can be re-established quickly and easily if they are lost.

The general procedure in setting out is to establish a main control frame work, usually by
triangulation, traversing or by Global Positioning System (GPS) from which the details can
be set out by means of off – setting, tie lines radiation, intersection etc.

In the case of „route‟ works (railways, roads, waterways, pipe-lines etc) the control
framework is usually a traverse and it is convenient to utilize the main intersecting straights
for this purpose, leaving only the curve to be established by other means.

However, for small sites or when a high precision is not required, chain and tape methods
will often be adequate i.e. the 3:4:5 triangle for setting out right angles and the principle of
equality of diagonals for checking the “squareness” of rectangles can also be employed.
Where greater precision is required, instrumental methods are to be preferred and will
equally be essential if we need to use radiation and intersection method.

4
It is important to note that in setting-out a system of coordinates is obviously required e.g.
rectangular coordinates for offsetting methods, and polar coordinates for radiation methods
respectively. Therefore, the methods of surveying for construction process may include;
traversing for establishing horizontal controls, levelling and trig-Heighting for establishing
vertical controls, curve ranging and fixation of details and so on.

At the end of any construction project an As-Built survey operation is necessary to be carried
out so as to ensure that project specifications are met and that any changes to the original
designs or plans are noted.

Examples of engineering surveys whereby photogrammetry method can be employed are:

reconnaissance and investigation, contouring, route design, etc.

The main method of surveying for construction is ground surveying method with the use of
Levels, Theodolites, Tapes, and Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) instruments,

Modern survey instruments and computational methods are currently being applied in
engineering surveys. Such instruments include: Global Positioning system (GPS), Total
stations, Glass arc theodolites, Digital theodolites, levels (automatic, tilting and dumpy),
Digital levels, self reducing tachometer, Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) devices, etc.
The use of computer provides faster methods of obtaining computational result of data (that
is data processing) and information presentation.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROUTES

The geometric design of roadways is the branch of highway engineering concerned
with the positioning of the physical elements of the roadway according to standards
and constraints.

The basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while
minimizing cost and environmental damage.

Geometric design also affects an emerging fifth objective called livability or

comfortability. This comfortability can only be achieved if the design of the road is
done in such a way to foster broader community goals, including the provision of
access to employment, schools, businesses and residences. And also, to accommodate
a range of travel modes such as: walking, bicycling, transit and automobiles and
minimizing fuel use, emissions and environmental damage.

The above benefits of a good road design can only be achieved if a good and
complete topographical survey of the roadway is done, so as to furnish the design
engineers and architects accurate description of the roadway. This is where the input
of surveyor is needed.

2.1 DESIGN STANDARDS

Roads are designed in conjunction with design guidelines and standards. These are
adopted by state and national authorities. Design guidelines take into account: speed,
vehicle type, road, grade (slope), view obstructions, and stopping distance. With
proper application of guidelines, along with good engineering judgement, an engineer
can design a roadway that is comfortable, safe and appealing to the eye.

6
 Geometric roadway design can be broken into three main parts:
a. Alignment
b. Profile and
c. Cross-section

i. Alignment:- is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and
curves.
ii. Profile:- The profile of the route is a side view or elevation in which the
longitudinal surfaces are highlighted.
iii. Cross-section:- The cross section shows the end view of a section at a point and it is
at right angles to the centre line.

2.2 ROUTE SURVEYING

The term route surveying, in a general sense, may be used for the surveys carried out
along a comparatively (reasonably) narrow strip of territory (land) for the location,
design and construction of any route of transportation such as highway, railways,
canals, sewers, water lines power lines, telegraph lines, telephone lines, cableways,
belt conveyors, and similar routes. In other words, route surveying can be defined as
survey operations required to established horizontal and vertical alignment of
transportation facilities. Route surveying is conducted for the purpose of selecting
the best route between two termini or end stations, and to establish the horizontal and
vertical alignments of the selected route.

A comprehensive route survey operation consists of the following:

i reconnaissance
ii. preliminary survey
iii. location survey and
iv. construction survey.

7
2.2.1 Reconnaissance: A reconnaissance is a rapid and rough survey in which a thorough
examination of the area through which the proposed survey line is to run, is
conducted to ascertain the best routes and the approximate cost of the project. This is
done with the use of available existing plans and maps, aerial photographs and
satellite imagery of the area of interest. Various possible routes are marked on the
map keeping in mind the general topography of the area. The area under
consideration is examined in detail in order to assess the feasibility and relative merit
of all the possible routes. The route selected is chosen because it satisfies all design
requirements with minimal social, environmental, and financial impact.

2.2.2 Preliminary survey: A preliminary survey is a detailed survey of a narrow belt of the
area through which the proposed line is expected to run. The purpose of such surveys
is to prepare a topographical map of the selected belt of the area. The topographical
plan or map of the selected roadway will be used for the preparation of construction
plans.

The selected belt or strip of land that forms the roadway should be of sufficient
widths to accommodate any unexpected variation in the location of the route. Usually,
the width of the strip is taken as 100-200m for highways and 400-500m for railways.
The width of the strip also depends upon the character of the terrain through which
the route has to pass.

Major survey operations in this stage are: Traversing, detailing and levelling.
Traversing involves angle measurement by theodolite and distances by either tape or
electronic distance measuring (EDM) device. Modern instrument such as total station
can also be used for traversing. Important features such as railway crossing, roads,
streams, power transmission lines are also picked along with traverse.

The longitudinal section and cross-section are also run along the strip; these provide
information about the existing ground levels along the centre line and on both sides of

8
 the centre line respectively. The preliminary survey should be quite accurate so that
the selection of the final alignment can be made.

2.2.3 Location Survey: This is final staking of centre line and to obtain additional
information necessary to enable design engineer prepare complete plans,
specifications and to estimate the earthwork quantities.

Location survey is carried out in two stages:

i. Office location (paper location) and
ii. Field location

1. Office Location (paper location):- This is the marking of the selected final
alignment including the horizontal curves at the desired locations on the map/plan of
the selected strip. The final alignment may be anywhere in the strip and in most
favourable position. The grade line is also marked with pencil on the profile plan.

2. Field Location:- This is the process of transferring the paper location of the final
alignment of a route to the ground, that is, setting out the paper location on the
ground.

Here, the positions of the various points to be transferred on the ground are scaled off
from the preliminary map/plan. Perpendicular offsets may be taken from the traverse
line. The chainage of the intersections of the line with the traverse may be
ascertained, and if necessary angles and distances may also be used. The angle of
intersection at the intersection of the adjoining tangents produced is carefully
measured. From the degree of curve and angle of intersection, the necessary data are
computed for setting out the simple curves. Stakes are driven at every 30m interval.
All important stations, such as theodolite stations, intersection points, points of
tangencies, and so on are pegged, and their proper references are noted in the field
book. Profile levelling is then run on the located alignment on the field. Then, the
profile is drawn, gradient lines are marked, and vertical curves are shown on the

9
 profile. The line is now called final location and the map/plan is called final location
map/plan.

The final location map should show all important features in the vicinity of line all
points where pegs are placed, all bench marks, and the boundaries private properties.
The approximate quantities of the earthwork is calculated from the cross- section
drawn from the preliminary map.

2.2.4 Construction Survey:- The purpose of the construction survey is to re-establish

points, lines and grades on the ground for construction of the project. It is essentially
setting out the details of the route on the ground. Setting out of culverts, bridges,
drainages, and so on are also included.

2.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS, RAILWAYS,

CANALS AND ELECTRIC POWER LINE

1. Railway Survey: The above stages and survey operations for highways are
applicable to railway survey. The width of road bed and right of way are usually less
than for major highways. Lower gradient is allowed for railway.

2. Canal Survey: This is similar to highway except that the gradients are relatively flat
and small differences in elevation are required.

3. Electric Power Line: The required accuracy for surveys of transmission lines is
generally lower than that of highways or rail lines.

10
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 CURVES
It was noted in the above section that a highway route survey would be initially laid out as a
series of straight lines (tangent). Once the centre line location alignment has been confirmed,
the tangents are joined by circular curves that allow for smooth vehicle operation at the
speeds for which the high way is designed.
Curves can be broadly classified as shown below.

Curves

Horizontal curve Vertical curve

Circular Transition Combined

Cubic Spiral Lemniscate

Simple Compound Reverse Cubic parabola Clothoid

FIG. 2.2 Classification of Curves

3.3.1 DESIGNATION OF A CURVE

A curve can be designated either in terms of radius (R) or the degree of a curve. The degree
of a curve (D) is defined as the angle subtended at the centre by an arc or chord of standard
length which is usually the length of a chain. Arc definition is generally used in highway
practice and the chord definition in railway practice.

3.3.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RADIUS AND DEGREE OF A CURVE

According to arc definition the degree of a curve is equal to the angle subtended at the centre
by an arc of 30m.

11
 30m

30m
15

R
R R Dc/2
Da
Dc
R
(a) (b)
O

Fig. 3.1 Degree of a Curve

From fig (a)

Da = L
360 2πR
Da x 2πR = L x 360 making Da the subject of the formula
Da = L x 360 = 1718.873385
2πR R

According to the chord definition the degree of a curve is equal to the angle subtended at the
centre by a chord of 30m length.
From fig (b)
Sin Dc = 15
2 R
To convert the angle to radian, it has to be multiplied by π/180

For small angle Sin Dc ≈ Dc radian. Therefore,

2 2

Dc X π = 15
2 180 R

Make Dc the subject of the formula

Dcπ = 15R → Dc = 360 X 15
360 R πR

Dc = 5400 = 1718.873385
πR R

12
 It is seen that the arc definition and the chord definition give identical result when the degree
of curve is small.

3.3.3 ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CURVE

PI ∆

90º - ∆/2 90º - ∆/2

E
T
T

L A
M
P C PT
B C/2
C90º 90º-∆/2 90º
⁰

R R
Back Tangent
∆/2 Forward Tangent
∆/2

O
0+000
0 Fig. 3.4: The Geometry of a Circular Curve
Where:
PI= Point of Intersection
T = Tangent Length
PC= Point of Curve
PT= Point of Tangent
R= Radius of the Curve
∆= Deflection Angle
E= External Ordinate
M= Mid. Ordinate or Middle Ordinate
C= Long Chord
L= Curve Length
O= Centre of the Circular Curve.

13
 i. Tangent Length (T) = Distance between beginning of curve that is, point of curve
(PC) and point of intersection (PI). It is also the distance from point of intersection
(PI) to the end of curve (PT).

ii. Point of Curve (PC): This is the point where the circular curve begins.

iii. Point of tangent (PT): This is the point where the curve ends, that is the point where
the curve turns to a tangent.

iv. Point of intersection (PI): This is the point where the two tangents meet.

v. Curve length (L): This is the Arc length from point of curve (PC) to point of tangent
(PT).

vi. Long Chord (C): This is the straight line connecting point of curve (PC) and point of
tangent (PT).

vii. O = Centre of the circle

viii. M = Mid-ordinate or middle ordinate
ix. R = Radius of the circle
x. ∆ = Deflection angle
xi. E = External distance or External Ordinate

3.3.4 GEOMETRY OF THE CIRCLE

From the above fig. 2.4 the line OPI, joining the centre of the curve to PI, effectively bisects
all related lines and angles.

14
 1. Tangent Length (T) : In triangle PC O PI
PI Tan ∆/2 = T
R
T= R tan ∆/2
T
Therefore, Tangent Length can be computed using
the formula: T = R tan ∆/2

PC

R
∆/2

O
2. Long Chord (C): In triangle PC B O

PC B Sin ∆/2 = C/2

C/2
R
C/2 = R Sin ∆/2
C = 2R Sin ∆/2
R
Therefore, Long Chord (C) = 2R Sin ∆/2

∆/2

3. Mid Ordinate (M): Considering the figure below and from triangle PC O B
PI
Cos ∆/2 = OB
R
OB = R Cos ∆/2
T But R = AO = AB + OB and
A
M R – OB = AB = M (Mid Ordinate)
PC B Now making AB or M the subject of the formula
M = R- OB
Substituting for the value of OB
R
∆/2 :. M = R – R Cos ∆/2
M = R (1 - Cos ∆/2)
Therefore, Mid Ordinate (M) = R (1 - Cos ∆/2)
O

15
 4. External (E): Considering the figure below:
PI
AO = R and PI O = R + E
Considering triangle PC PI O
E
T
Cos ∆/2 = R
A
M PI O
PC B Making PIO the subject of the formula
PIO = R
R Cos ∆/2
∆/2
But PIO = R + E

O :. R + E = R
Cos ∆/2
Making E the subject of the formula
E= R - R
Cos ∆/2
E= R 1 - 1
Cos ∆/2

E = R ( Sec ∆/2 – 1)

5. Curve Length (L): This is computed from the formula below:

L = ∆
2πR 360
Making L the subject of the formula
L = 2πR x ∆
360
Where: L = Curve Length
R = Radius of the Circular Curve
∆ = Deflection Angle
:. Curve Length (L) = 2πR x ∆ = πR x ∆
360 180

3.4 THE DEGREE OF CURVE (D)

The sharpness of the Degree of Curve is determined by the choice of the radius (R). Large
radius curves are relatively flat, whereas small radius curves are relatively sharp.

16
Many highway agencies use the concept of degree of curve (D) to define the sharpness of the
curve. Degree of curve „D‟ is defined to be that central angle subtended by 100ft or 30m of
arc as I have mentioned earlier.
In railway design „D‟ is defined to be the central angle subtended by 100ft or 30m of chord.

30m

δ
R ∆
R C= 2πR

360

Fig. 2.5: The Degree of Curve Illustration

Where: C = The Circumference of the Circle

∆ and δ = The Degree of the Curve
R = Radius of the Circle.

17
Relationship between ∆ and R:
∆ = 30
360 2πR
∆ x 2πR = 360 x 30
∆ = 360 x 30 = 10800
2πR 6.283185307R

∆ = 1718.873385 minutes
R

Also δ = 30
∆ L

δ = 30 x ∆
L
Where: δ = Sub arc deflection angle
∆ = Circular curve deflection angle
L = Curve length
30 = Sub arc/ sub chord length.

3.5 CHAINAGE OF TANGENT POINTS: The chainage of intersection point (IP) is

generally known:

Chainage of PC = chainage of IP – T (Tangent length)

Chainage of PT = Chainage of PC + Curve length (L)
= Chainage of PC + (πR∆ / 180º)

Chainage is usually expressed as number of full chains and part length of a chain. For
example, a chainage of 4125.5m with 30m chain = 137 full chains + 15.5m = 137 + 15.5.

To avoid confusion length of the chain should be clearly specified.

18
Example 1: The centre line of two straights is projected forward to meet at I, the deflection
angle is 30º. If the straights are to be connected by a circular curve of radius 200m, then
calculate:
(a)
i. Curve length (L)
ii. Long chord (C)
iii. External (E)
iv. Middle ordinate
(b) Given that the chainage of I is 2+259.590m. Calculate the chainage of point of curve
(beginning of curve) and the chainage of point of tangent (end of curve).

I ∆ = 30º

E
T
T

L
A
M
C
PC B PT
C/2

R R
∆/2
∆/2

Given: Radius (R) = 200m

Deflection angle (∆) = 30º
Chainage of intersection point (I) = 2+259.590m
π = 3.141592654

19
Solution to the Question:
1. Curve length ( L): The formula for length arc is ∆/360 = L/2πR

Where: L = Curve Length or length of the arc

R = Radius of the Circular curve
∆ = Deflection Angle
Making L the subject of the formula
L = (30 x 2 πR)/360

L = 104.7197551 = 104.720m
:. Curve length 104.720m

2. Long Chord (C):

From ∆ PC,O,B
∆=30º, therefore, ∆/2 =30/2 = 15º
C/2 B
PC Sin 15º = (C/2)/R
Making C the subject of the formula
C= 2 x R x Sin 15º
C = 2 x 200 x Sin 15º
R
C = 103.527618 m
∆/2 :. Long Chord (C) = 103.528 m

3. External (E): From ∆ PC I O, AO = R (radius of the circular curve),

I IO- AO = E (External)
Cos (∆/2) = R/ IO
Making IO the subject of the formula
T E
IO = R/ Cos (∆/2) (Remember ∆/2= 15º)
A IO = 200/ Cos 15º
M IO = 207.0552361 m
PC B
Remember also that:
E (External) = IO – R
R :. E = 207.0552361 – 200
∆/2
E = 07.0552361 m
OI - ∆A = E (External)
:. E (External) = 07.055 m
O
20
 4. Mid Ordinate: From the figure below Mid ordinate (M) = AB = AO – BO and AO =
R = 200 m. Therefore, to get the value of M, the value of BO is required.

I Therefore, from triangle PC I O

Cos (∆/2) = BO/ R (making BO the subject of the formula)

T
BO = R x Cos (∆/2)
A
M BO = 200 x Cos 15º
PC B
BO = 193.1851653 m
Now Mid Ordinate (M) = AO – BO
R
∆/2 M = 200 - 193.1851653
M = 6.814834742 m
O :. Mid Ordinate (M) = 6.815 m

b.) i. Chainage of PC: To get the chainage of point of curve (PC) required, because
Chainage of point of curve (PC) = Chainage of point of Intersection – Tangent Length.
Therefore, from ∆ PC I O

I Tan (∆/2) = T/R (Making T the subject of the formula)

T = R tan (∆/2)
T T = 200 tan 15º
A T = 53.58983849 m
M
PC B :.Tangent Length (T) = 53.590 m
Chainage of point of Intersection = 2 + 259.590 m
R Chainage of point of curve (PC) = Chainage of point of
∆/2
Intersection – Tangent Length.
O Chainage of point of curve (PC) = 2 259.590 – 53.58983849
= 2 206.000162 m
:. Chainage of point of curve (PC) = 2 + 206 m

21
ii. Chainage of PT
Chainage of PT = Chainage of PBC + curve length (L)
= 2+206.000162 + 104.7197551
= 2+310.719917
Chainage of PT = 2+310.720m

3.6 CIRCULAR CURVE DEFLECTIONS

As I have mentioned before, the relationship between radius and the degree of a curve is
∆ = 1718.873385 where:
R ∆ = Degree of curve
R = Radius
Considering the above formula, our circular curve deflection angle (δ) will be
δ = 1718.873385 x L Minutes
R
Where δ = circular curve deflection angle
R = Radius of the circle
L = Chord/Arc length (L)

Using the information obtained from the above example, the deflection angle can be
computed or obtained as set out below; using the formula.
δ = 1718.873385 x L Minutes
R
It is good to note that chainages are laid out at equal intervals; hence this should be taken into
consideration.

Suppose our chainage or chainage points are taken at every 25 m interval. If 2 206 is divided
25, we will have 88.24, that is to say we have 88 complete sections.
2 206/25 = 88.24

By multiplying 88 by 25, the chainage at the point of 88 section is 2 200. The remaining
fractional part is 0.24 x 25 = 6. Or by subtracting 2 200 from 2 206 we get 6m.

22
The additional length to be added to 6 to make it a complete section is 19. This is where the
next chainage point (a) will be, at chainage 2 + 225.

Table 3.1: Setting out of Deflection Angles

Point Arc/Chord length Chainage Deflection angle (δ) Setting out angle

PC 0 2+206 00º 00' 00ʺ 00º 00' 00ʺ

a. 19 2+225 02º 43' 17ʺ.58 02º 43' 17ʺ.58
b 25 2+250 03º 34' 51ʺ.55 06º 18' 09ʺ.13
c 25 2+275 03º 34' 51ʺ.55 09º 53' 00ʺ.63
d 25 2+300 03º 34' 51ʺ.55 13º 27' 52ʺ.23
PT 10.72 2+310.72 01º 32' 07ʺ.90 15º 00' 0ʺ.13

a. δ = 1718.873385 x L Minutes
R
δ = 1718.873385 x 19 Minutes
200
δ = 163.2929716 Minutes
δ = 163.2929716 = 2.721549526º
60
δ = 2º 43' 17ʺ.58 (First Deflection Angle)

b. δ = 1718.873385 x 25 = 214.8591731 Minutes

200
δ = 214.8591731 = 03º 34' 51ʺ.55
60
δ = 03º 34' 51ʺ.55 (Even Deflection Angle)

The deflection angle for points b, c, and d are the same, because they have the same arc or
chord length which is 25 m hence they are tagged “Even Deflection Angle” but the last arc
length is different, it is 10.72 and it is tagged “ Last Deflection Angle”.

23
At point PT
δ = 1718.873385 x 10.72 Minutes
200
δ = 92.13161344 Minutes
δ = 92.13161344 = 1º.535526891
60

δ = 01º 32‟ 07”.9 (Last Deflection Angle)

Circular curve deflections (δ) can also be computed the from the deflection angle „∆‟
obtained at the point of intersection (PI) and the curve length (L).

I ∆ = 30º

E
T
T

c
bL A
a ∆/2 M d
C
PC B PT
90º C/2
90º

R R
∆/2
∆/2

Fig. 3.5b: Computation of Deflection Angles

From the above figure

δ /(∆/2) = arc /L ( Making δ the subject of the formula)

24
δ = ( arc x (∆/2))/ L

Where δ = circular curve deflection.

∆ = Deflection angle obtained at the intersection point
Arc= arc length or distance between chainage points along the curved path or
curve length.
∆ = 300, ∆/2 = 30/2 = 150

From the above example using the above formula δ = ( arc x (∆/2))/ L

a. At point (a)

δ = ( arc x (∆/2))/ L

δ = (19 x 15º) / 104.7197551

δ = 2º.721549527
δ = 02º 43' 17ʺ.58

b. At point b
δ = ( arc x (∆/2))/ L

δ = (25 x 15º) /104.7197551

δ = 03º.58098622

δ = 03º 34' 51ʺ.55

The deflection angle for points b, c, and d are the same, because they have the same arc or
chord length which is 25 m hence they are tagged “Even Deflection Angle” but the last arc
length is different, it is 10.72 and it is tagged “ Last Deflection Angle”.
At point PT
δ = ( arc x (∆/2))/ L

δ = (10.72 x 15º) / 104.7197551

δ = 1º.535526891
δ = 01º 32' 07ʺ.9

25
Table 3.1b: Setting out of Deflection Angles

Point Arc/Chord length Chainage Deflection angle (δ) Setting out angle

PC 0 2+206 00º 00' 00ʺ 00º 00' 00ʺ

a. 19 2+225 02º 43' 17ʺ.58 02º 43' 17ʺ.58
b 25 2+250 03º 34' 51ʺ.55 06º 18' 09ʺ.13
c 25 2+275 03º 34' 51ʺ.55 09º 53' 00ʺ.63
d 25 2+300 03º 34' 51ʺ.55 13º 27' 52ʺ.23
PT 10.72 2+310.72 01º 32' 07ʺ.90 15º 00' 0ʺ.13

I ∆
13º 27' 52ʺ.23

09º 53' 00ʺ.63 15º 00' 00ʺ.13

2+250
06º 18' 09ʺ.13
2+225
b c
02º 43' 17ʺ.58
a 2+275 d
00º 00' 00ʺ 2+300
PC PT 2+310.72
2+206 90 90º
⁰

R R
∆/2
∆/2

Fig. 3.6: Field Location of Deflection Angles

26
3.7 CHORD CALCULATIONS
In the previous example, it was determined that the deflection angle for station 2+225 was
020 43' 17ʺ.58, if follows that 2+225 can be located by placing a stake (peg) on the transit
line at 02º 43' 17ʺ.58 and at a distance of 19m (2+225 – 2+260) from PC.

Furthermore, station 2+250 can be located by placing a stake on the transit line at 06º 18'
09ʺ.13 and at a distance of 25m along the arc from the stake locating 2+225. The remaining
stations can be located in a similar manner. However, it must be noted that the distances
measured with a steel tape are not arc distances; they are straight lines known as
SUBCHORDS.
To calculate subchords, the formula C = 2R sin (∆/2) may be used. This formula is for the
special case of the long chord and the total deflection angle (∆/2). The general case can be
stated as follows:

C = 2R sin deflection angle and any subchord can be calculated if its deflection angle is
known. The figure bellow illustrates this further.

I ∆ = 30º

E
T
T

A
∆/2 M
C
PC B PT
90º C/2
90º

R R
∆/2
∆/2

O
Fig. 2.7: Chord Calculation

27
From triangle PC O B
Let δ represents sub deflection angles
Hence, let δ represents ∆/2, therefore Sin (∆/2) is taken as Sin δ
Now from triangle PC O B
Sin δ = (C/2)/ R (making C the subject of the formula)
(C/2)/ R = Sin δ
(C/2) = R x Sin δ
C = 2 x R x Sin δ
Where C = chord length
R = Radius of the circle.

a.) The first chord:

C = 2 x R x Sin δ
C = 2 x 200 x sin 02º 43' 17ʺ.58
C = 18.99285931m
C = 18.993 m

b. Even station chord:

C = 2 x R x Sin δ
C = 2 x 200x sin 03º 34' 51ʺ.55
C = 24.98372638 m
C = 24.984 m

c. Last Chord
C = 2 x R x Sin δ
C = 2 x 200 x sin 01º 32' 07ʺ.90
C = 10.71872298 m
C = 10.719m

28
 I ∆ = 30º

E
Arc = 25m T
T Arc = 25m

b
Arc = 19m a c
Chord= 18.993 m Chord= 24.984 m Chord= 24.984 m

PC C PT
B C/2
2+206 90º 90º

R R
∆/2
∆/2

O
Fig. 3.8: Curve arcs and chords

If these chord distances are used, the curve layout can proceed without error. In the cases of
short distances (as above) and in the case of flat (large radius) curves, the arcs and chords can
often appear to be equal. If more decimal places are introduced into the calculation, the
marginal difference between arc and chord will become evident.

3.8 SETTING OUT OF A CURVE

A circular curve can be set out by:
(i) Linear or chain and tape method
(ii) Instrument method in which a theodolite or a total station instrument is used.
Before curve can be set out, the two tangent points must be located on the ground.
The tangent distance from point of intersection (PI) to locate the PC and PT will be
measured. The theodolite is then set up at the PC and zeroed and sighted in on the PI. The
deflection angle (∆/2) is then turned off in the direction of the PT mark. If the computations
for T and the field measurements of T have been performed correctly, the line of sight of the

29
∆/2 angle will fall over the PT mark. If this does not occur, the T computations and the field
measurements are then repeated.

3.8.1 CHAIN AND TAPE METHODS

i. Offsets from long chords: After the confirmation of PI, PC, PT and ∆/2 angle, the
curve can be set out using chain method as shown in the diagram below: the lengths PI PC,
PI PT, and points PC and PT are calculated. Point PC, PT and the midpoint „B‟ are obtained
on the field.

I ∆

T T

E
A P
y
B C/2 PT
PC D C
90º x

R
R

∆
O
Fig. 3.8: Offsets from Long Chord

30
If PC PT = C
PC B and B PT = C/2
From triangle PC B O
R2 = OB2 + (C/2)2
C/2
PC B OB2 + (C/2)2 = R2
OB2 = R2 - (C/2)2
OB = √ R2 - (C/2)2
R To get the value of „y‟ at any distance „x‟ from B
and considering triangle APO from the above
triangle (fig. 2.8), AO = R and AP = x.
O R² = AP² + PO² (substituting for the value of AP)
R² = x² + PO² (making x the subject of the formula)
x² = R² - PO²
Now making PO the subject of the formula
PO² = R² - x²

PO = √ R² - x²
But PO = PB + BO and PB = y
:. (PB + BO) = √ R² - x²
(y + BO) = √ R² - x² ( making y the subject of the formula)
y = √ R² - x² - BO
But BO = √ R2 - (C/2)2 (substituting for the value of BO)

:. y = √ R² - x² - √ R2 - (C/2)2

Dividing the long chord into on even number of parts, points on the curve can be obtained
with corresponding value of x.

31
 ii. Offsets from the tangents: Curves can also be set out by measuring offsets from the
tangents. The offsets from the tangent can be either radial or perpendicular to the
tangent.

B ∆
a. Radial offset

y
x
p

T1 T2
90º 90º
⁰

R R
∆/2

O C
A OQ = R + y

:. (R + y) 2 = R2 + x2
R + y = √R2 + x2

y = √ (R2 + x2) - R

32
b. Perpendicular offset
B ∆

Q
y
x P

T2
T1
P'

R R
A C

From triangle P1P0

OP2 = P1P2 + OP12
But P1P = X and OP = R
:. R2 = X2 + OP12
X2 = R2 – OP12
X= R2 – OP12
X = R2 – (R-y) 2
If x2 = R2 – OP12
X2 = R2 – (R-y) 2
(R-y) 2 = R2 - X2
R-y = R2 - X2
-y = R2 – X2 - R
y=R- R2 - X2 = y= R- (R2)– (X2)

33
3.8.2 INSTRUMENTAL METHODS
In this method a tape is used for making linear measurements and a theodolite is used for
making angular measurements.

After the confirmation of ∆/2 (deflection angle), PI, BC and EC. The theodolite is, if
possible, left at BC and zeroed and sighted in on PI, the δ1 angle will then be turned, thus
directing the telescope to point „a‟ and clamp the horizontal plate. Then the from BC the
length of the first subchord is measured to locate point a on the curve.

After the establishment of point „a‟ from BC, the δ2 will also be turned to forms the direction
of „b‟, then the second subchord length is measured to from „a‟ to locate „b‟ following the
above procedure the other δ angles (δ3, δ4 .) are turned and subchord length for each δ angle
are measured to located other points.

At the end final δ angle will be equal to ∆/2 and once it is turned one should be able to see
EC from BC.

34
 PI ∆

δ2 δ3
δ1
b c
a

PT
PC B

R R

∆
O
Fig. 2.11 Setting out of Curve using theodolite and tape

3.8.3 SETTING OUT OF CURVE USING TWO THEODOLITES

This is carried out as follows:
i. Compute deflection angles to be set out from both ends of the curve.
ii. One theodolite is set up at PC, set to zero and PI is sighted. The other theodolite is set
at PT, set to zero and PI is also sighted.
iii. Both theodolites are turned through their first respective deflection angle, the
chainman moves a ranging rod until it is in the intersection of collimation lines of the
telescopes, and peg „a‟ is then inserted.
iv. The theodolites are turned through the second deflection angle and peg „b‟ is inserted
in the intersection of collimation lines of the telescopes.
v. The process is repeated until the complete curve is set out.
The method requires no tape for fixing the positions of pegs and ensures greater speed
and accuracy than by the theodolite and chain method. The error is not carried
forward as each point is forced independently. It is useful for setting out curve in very
broken ground where accurate linear measurement is difficult. In practice, on extra

35
 theodolite is expensive and it is rarely practicable to have two theodolite available on
a job.
PI ∆

b c
a

PT
PC
90º

R R

∆
O
Fig. 2.11b: Setting out of curve using two theodolite

3.8.1 PROBLEMS IN SETTING OUT CURVES

The following difficulties may occur in setting out a curve:
i. Point of intersection of tangents not visible.
ii. Initial tangent point not accessible and
iii. Final tangent point not accessible
iv. Line of sight being obstructed.

36
i. Point of intersection of tangents not visible.

B ∆

M α β N

T2
T1
90º

R R
A C

∆
O
Fig. 2.12: Point of Intersection Problem

1. Locate points M and N on AB and BC respectively.

2. Measure angles α and β with a theodolite and length MN with a chain or tape.
3. Don‟t forget that the sum of angles of a triangle is equal to 180 i.e. α + β + O = 180
θ = 180 – (α + β), using this formula compute the value of θ
Or θ = 180 - ∆
4. Then BM = MN = BM = MNSin β
Sinβ Sinθ Sinθ

Similarly BN = MN = BN = MNSinα
Sinα Sinθ Sinθ

37
5. Calculate MT1 and NT2
i.e. MT1 = BT1 – BM and
NT2 = BT2 – BN

6. Thus T1 and T2 can be located from M and N respectively and the curve can be
plotted from T1.

ii. Initial Tangent point not accessible

In this case, the curve has to be set out from the second tangent point T2. Since the
circle reading read clockwise, it should be set to zero and let B be sighted with zero
pointing to B the δ angle should be set out at 360º (∆/2 – δc) for pointing toward „c‟
and similarly to locate „b‟ angle reading should be 360º – (∆/2 – δb) and likewise „a‟
is located by reading 360º - (Δ/2 – δa)

B ∆

δc (Δ/2 – δa)

δb
(Δ/2 – δb)

δa b c (Δ/2 – δc)
a

T2
T1
90º

R R
A C

Δ/2

∆
O
Fig. 3.12b: Inaccessible Initial Tangent Point Problem

38
iii. Final tangent point not accessible
1. Two points M and N are selected on BC which are accessible. By measuring MQ and
QN and if MQN is made a right angle then MN = MO2+ QN2
2. BT2 is known and BM is measured, hence MT2 is known
3. T2N then is equal to MN – MT2

B ∆

T2
T1
90º
Q N

R R
A C

∆
O

Fig. 3.12c: Inaccessible final tangent point

39
iv. Line of Sight being obstructed (Moving instrument up on the curve)

I ∆

c'

δ3 δ3
c δ4
c'' b c'''
δ2 a d
x
δ1
T2
T1
90º

R R
A C

∆
O

Fig. 2.12d: Line of sight being obstructed

1. If point „a‟, „b‟ and „c‟ are visible from T1 but „d‟ is not.
2. Shift the instrument to „c‟ and set the reading of instrument to zero.
3. Bisect T1, and then plunge the telescope so that cc'' is obtained.
4. The direction of „cd‟ is then obtained by measuring clockwise δ4 = δ3 + x as
originally obtained.

40
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 SECTIONING
In engineering surveying we often consider a route (road, sewer pipeline, channel etc) from
three district perspective:
(i) Plan view
(ii) Profile and
(iii) Cross section

1. THE PLAN VIEW: The plan view of the route location is the same as if we were in
an aircraft looking straight down on the roadway

2. THE PROFILE: The profile of the route is a side view or elevation in which the
longitudinal surfaces are highlighted (e.g. surface of road, top and bottom of pipelines, etc.)

3. THE CROSS SECTION: The cross section shows the end view of a section at a
point and it is at right angles to the centre line.
These three views taken together define the route in X, Y, and Z coordinates.

4.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SECTIONING

Before road construction starts, the alignment of the centre line is marked out first by the
surveyor using pegs. This is where sectioning starts.

4.1.1 SECTIONING: Sectioning is the determination of the variations in height of the

ground along and perpendicular to the centre line.

There two are types of sectioning and they are:

1. Longitudinal sections or profiles and
2. Cross sections.
The two types of measurement to be taken in sectioning are:

41
a. Running levels along and perpendicular to the centre line so that changes in height
can be recorded.
b. Horizontal distance measurement along and perpendicular to the centre line to define
the relative positions of the points at which levels were taken.

4.2 LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS/PROFILES

Longitudinal sections or profiles are sections that depict ground elevations at vertical
section along the centre line or a survey line of the proposed project. This is necessary
before a rail road, highway, transmission line, side walk or sewer line can be designed.

After bush clearing and removal of top soil, the centre line will be set out using theodolite
and chain, theodolite and EDM or total station. Regular interval of say 25m or 30m is pegged
out along the centre line, starting from zero chainage at the beginning of the line to the end.

The levelling operation commences along the centre line of the proposed road way, levelling
start from an established bench mark and it may be closed back on the same bench mark or
on another bench mark.

Levels are taken on top and bottom of pegs placed at regular interval as stated above along
the centre line and at critical points where there is a sudden change of levels, and at the
beginning or end of curve.

The aim of profile levelling is to enable the plotting of elevation of points along the centre
line.

It is not essential to put the instrument along the centre line. For safety it can be placed any
where off the centre line and also to allow large number of readings to be taken.

After the field observations, reduction of the field book and the computations, the next thing
is plotting of the profile or longitudinal section. To show the distortions of the ground

42
clearly, the elevations or heights are plotted on a much large scale after taking a suitable
datum that can clearly and conveniently depict the longitudinal section of the road.
After the plotting of profile or longitudinal section, it is necessary to have a smooth surface.
This smooth surface is known as grade line it is selected on various considerations like:
i. Minimum amount of cutting and filling of earth work.
ii. Balancing the cut and fill and
iii. Keeping the slope within allowable limit.

4.2.1 DETAILED OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE OF LONGITUDINAL

SECTIONS
i. Running a Longitudinal Section: This is the term used to describe the field work
involved in surveying a longitudinal section. The line of the section must first be set
out on the ground by ranging in sufficient poles or pegs to define the straights and
curves. In more accurate work the setting out, chaining and pegging may be
completed first using a theodolite. Once the line has been established on the ground,
levelling can commence.
ii. Reference to Datum: Levelling should start from an established bench mark and
then, by means of back sight and fore sight only, sometimes called flying levels,
extend to a final fore sight on to a firm peg marking the start of the section. The level
is set up in a suitable position from which observations may be made on to as great a
part of the section line as possible.
iii. Levelling the Section: First a chain, or preferably a tape, is drawn out along the
section line. With the tape held taut (firm or tight), peg is placed to mark the end of
the regular interval, say 30m, if the regular pegging has not previously been
completed. The process then continues as follows:

a. The staffman holds the staff on the peg at the beginning of the section and a backsight
is taken and booked, noting in the remarks column that this point has zero chainage,
being the start of the line.

43
 b. The staffman then follows the line of the tape and depending on the accuracy and
detail required, would hold the staff and call out the chainage of the following:
i. Every marked change of slope
ii. Every feature crossing the section line, e.g. property boundaries, fences,
hedges, power and telephone lines, railway lines etc.
iii. Edges of banks and, if possible, the beds or bottoms of streams, ditches,
ponds, etc.
iv. The back edge of pavements, the top and bottom of kerbs and section line on
the centre line of any existing road crossing.
v. The underside of bridges, using the staff inverted.
vi. The end of each tape length or regular interval of say 20 or 30m as required.

These intermediate sights are observed and booked. The chainage called out by the
staffman each time is recorded in the remarks column of the field book against the
appropriate level reading.

c. After completing all observations along one tape length, the tape will be pulled
forward along the line as before again and the same process continues, the leveller
noting each time, the continuous chainage from the start of the section line.

d. The level must be moved forward to a more convenient position after a time and the
leveller will signal the need for a change point. The staffman will then choose a stable
change point preferably on the line, but off it if necessary. After observing the
foresight the instrument is moved forward to another suitable position, a backsight is
taken to the change point, and the whole process continues as before.

iv. Field Checks: After some distance has been covered foresight is taken on to a
permanent change point or Temporary Benchmark (T.B.M.) ready for the start of the
observations on to the next part of the section line. The levelling work so far
considered has now to be checked. This can be done in one of the three ways below:

44
 a. By closing the level circuit back on to the starting benchmark: The difference
between the final sums of the backsights and foresights will indicate the accuracy
of the work.
b. By closing the levels on to another nearer benchmark: The observed difference
in height between the two benchmarks is then compared with the known
difference.

NOTE: A misclosure between the two benchmarks may indicate a disturbance of one of them
and may not necessarily be due to any error in the levelling observations.

c. By using Double Chainage Points: In this method the field book is ruled with two
backsight columns and two foresight columns. At each set-up the height of
instrument (H.I) is thus determined twice, the one observation checking the other.
This method is similar to running a closed circuit back to the starting benchmark,
but with one set of instrument position only. The does not form a reliable check
for two reasons:
i. The difference between the two foresight readings can be retained in
the leveller‟s mind and deliberately or inadvertently applied to the
following backsight readings. This will record a consistency which
does not actually exist.
ii. A settlement of the instrument between the pair of backsight readings
and the pair of foresight reading will still show an apparent check on
the readings despite a real loss of accuracy.

v. Plotting the Profile: Once the field observation have been taken and checked and
the field book reduced, the profile drawing can be prepared as follows:

a. Draw a datum line chosen to plot about 5m below the lowest reduced level
on the profile and being a multiple of 5m above datum. This line must be
clearly marked, e.g. datum line 35m.

45
b. Scale off the chainages of the points at which the levels were observed
along the datum line to a suitable scale and tabulate them. This horizontal
scale must also be noted on the drawing and in presentation work usually
includes a scale bar.

c. Erect ordinates (perpendiculars) at these points and scale off the reduced
level of each and tabulate them. To make the irregularities of the ground
more obvious the vertical scale is usually larger than the horizontal scale.
This provides a vertical exaggeration of the profile. The vertical scale is
usually five to ten times greater than the horizontal, the greater
exaggeration being used on flatter land. The vertical scale must be noted
on the drawing, even if it is the same as the horizontal scale. Again in
presentation work, a scale bar is usually included.

d. Join each point of reduced level plotted with a continuous line. This line
must not be a curve like of slope, so the slope should be even between
these points. The points are therefore joined with a series of straight lines,
although in presentation work this line may be draw freehand over a
lightly ruled pencil line. The resulting slight unevenness sometimes tends
to improve the appearance of the drawing.

e. Represent on the profile the features which intersected the line on the
ground. Include descriptive notes, e.g. street names, property designations,
etc.

46
 Finished
Level

Formation
Level

DATUM LEVEL
100.000M

0.960 111.600 112.520 0+000

111.300 110.030 0+100

111.300110.920 0+125
111.300 111.190 0+075

111.440 111.710 0+150

111.780 110.040 0+175

111.300 112.330 0+050

112.270113.580 0+225
111.900110.530 0+200

0.710 112.300 113.010 0+250

111.480 114.160 0+025
CHAINAGE(M)

REDUCED
LEVELS
FORMATION
LEVELS

1.310
2.680

0.270
1.030

0.610
CUT

0.380

1.740
1.270

1.370
FILL

Vertical Exaggeration is ten times

vi. Working Profile: This consists of the original profile or longitudinal section with
the position of the new work level on it, their relation to existing ground level and any
other information which may be needed during construction. This information is
recorded as follows:

a. New work is represented by two parallel lines. The lower indicates the level to which
the earth is to be worked, i.e. the formation level, and the upper indicates the level of
the finished construction i.e. the finished level.
b. The gradients of the formation level are clearly recorded as shown in the above
figure.
c. The formation level at each point are calculated and tabulated as shown in the figure
above.
d. Where formation level is above the ground level the difference between the two
levels represents fill. Conversely, where formation level is below the ground level, the

47
 difference between the two levels represent cut. The cuts and fills at each point may
be obtained by subtracting the formation levels from the profile levels; these
differences are also tabulated in the above figure so as to assist the setting out on site.
Their tabulation also helps to prevent errors from arising in setting out.
e. The positions of new works, bridges, culverts, etc. are shown with a reference to the
drawing, which gives details of their construction.

vii. Fair Drawing: The profile drawings may be finished off as follows:
a. For professional and commercial purposes: The drawings are simply finished
in black ink only on tracing paper, tracing linen or plastic sheets so that copy
prints may be obtained easily.
b. For presentation work and practical examinations: Before the 1930s the
practice of providing copy prints from transparencies was established and
working drawings were well presented and drawn on good quality paper using
coloured inks and washes. A convention of colours was develop for the
preparation of profiles and these can with advantage, be maintained in this
type of drawing today. These colour convention is as follows:
i. Ordinates: thin blue lines
ii. Ground and datum lines: black (sometimes the ground line is verged in
burnt sienna (brown pigment or dark reddish brown) along its underside).
iii. Tabulated chainages and reduced levels: black.
iv. Formation level line and gradients: red.
v. Finished level line: blue.
vi. Tabulated formation levels and depths of cut: red.
vii. Heights of fill: blue.
viii. Horizontal and vertical scales, scale bars, notes and titles: black.

4.3 CROSS SECTION

Cross section shows the end view of a section at a point and it is at right angles to the centre
line. Cross sections are short section lines set out usually at right angles to the main profile

48
line. For laying a pipeline or sewer line only longitudinal section is adequate because the
width of the line is small. In the case of roads and railways apart from longitudinal section,
cross sections at right angles to the centre line of the alignment are required at some regular
intervals. This is necessary to know the topography of the area which will be required for the
roads and railways and also to compute the volume of cut and fill for the construction work.
And they must extent beyond the limit of proposed construction so that the full character of
the whole area is known.

4.3.1 DETAILED OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE OF CROSS-SECTIONS

i. The Interval between Cross-Sections: It was explained above that cross- sections
extend the width of the information supplied by a longitudinal section. They should
therefore be taken at intervals in such a way that there is no marked change of slope in
the ground between them. This would be at right angles to at least every level point
taken on the longitudinal section. In practice this is frequently neglected. Cross-
sections are being mostly observed at regular intervals of about 20m to 30m to make
calculations of volumes of earth works easier.

ii. Setting Out: Cross Sections are set out normal i.e. at right angles to the longitudinal
section, the right angle being judged by eye for narrow strips such as roads and
railways. Where the cross sections needed are long, such as for reservoirs, motorways
intersections, etc., or where special accuracy is needed, then they must be set out using
a theodolite, a level with horizontal circle or an optical square. If cross sections are
taken other than at right angles to the longitudinal section usually needed along a
valley or a ridge intersecting the centre line at an angle, then this angle must be
measured so that its position may also be shown in the plan view.

iii. Methods of Cross Sectioning: The field work is basically similar to that of
observing longitudinal sections. Levels are observed at changes of slope and their
positions are fixed by measuring their distances from the longitudinal section line.
Cross-sections are usually observed using the following equipment:

49
 a. A level, tape and staff are the most usual instruments.
b. On steep ground, to save frequent re-positioning of the instrument, it may be
more convenient to use a theodolite, tape and staff.
c. Alternatively, where less accuracy is needed, such as on preliminary or pre-
contract works, then a hand level, tape and staff or ranging rod may be used
instead of the more accurate level.
d. A clinometer, tape and ranging rod may be used on steep ground instead of a
theodolite.

NOTE: The hand level or clinometer is seldom used today because final routes of
construction projects can generally be chosen with greater precision from aerial
photographs. Also modern theodolites and levels are now so light and easy to
manipulate that special hand instruments are seldom required.

iv Cross-Sectioning with a level: When a level is used the cross sectioning may be done
at the same time as the main profile. Alternatively, it may be carried out at the second
stage of the work, the level‟s height being fixed and checked at each set-up by a
backsight and foresight to previously heighted pegs on the longitudinal section.

a. The level is set up and a backsight observed or the height of instrument (H.I)
measured. The staffman follows the line of the previously pegged cross
section, or is guided forward at right angles by an assistant, who remains on
the main section controlling the tape. The staffman retains the zero end of the
tape and holds the staff and tape end at each change of slope. The assistant on
the main section then calls out the measured distance to each staff position to
the leveller.

b. On flat ground it may be possible to observe all the levels on one cross-
section from a single set-up before moving on to the next. This makes
booking easier and helps to prevent errors. However, where the ground slope

50
 is greater it may be necessary to move the instrument several times before all
the levels on one section can be observed.

c. To cut down the number of instrument set-ups, it is better to observe the

available positions on several cross-sections first before moving the
instrument to observe other levels on the same section lines. In adopting this
method, care must be taken in booking to ensure that the staff readings are
properly recorded against the offset distances and that the individual cross-
sections are currently identified each time.

iv. Cross-Sectioning with a theodolite: On steep ground, to save having to move a level
several times to cover the whole slope of the cross-section, a theodolite may be used
instead.

a. The theodolite is set up over the previously levelled centre line peg. Its height
of collimation above the peg is measured, which is equivalent to a backsight
in levelling. By orienting along the centre line an accurate right angle can be
turned off for cross-section. The chainage of the centre line peg is noted to
define the particular cross-section being observed.

b. An inclined line of sight is set on the instrument roughly parallel to the

ground, and this vertical angle is recorded. This angle of slope of the line of
sight can be altered as necessary for different staff positions or for reading on
either side of the longitudinal section. Errors are less likely to occur if one
setting can be retained as far as possible.

c. Staff intersections are read off as before and the distances to staff position are
taped. The tape should be held horizontally. If this is not possible the tape may
be held along the line of sight, the zero end of the tape being held against the
staff at the approximate height of the reading and the distance read off at the

51
 instrument against the horizontal axis. These lengths are reduced to the
horizontal using the same recorded angle of slope in the formula “S = L cos Ѳ.

vi. Cross-Sectioning Field notes: The field observations are booked in the same
way whichever instrument is used, except that with the theodolite the vertical
angle must be noted each time. Booking may take one of the two forms below:

a. The sketch section: with the readings noted thereon as illustrated in the figure
below. This is usually adopted where the cross-sections are to be scale drawn,
only without a record of reduced levels.

0.25 0.95 1.51 2.33 3.16

Ground Level

0 10.50 25.00
25.00 13.20

b. The level book form.

STN B.S I.S F.S H.I R.L DIST. CHAINAGE DIST. REMARKS
L R

1.51 112.04 110.53 90.00 PEG

0.95 111.09 13.20 90.00

0.23 111.81 25.00 90.00

2.33 109.71 90.00 10.50

3.16 108.88 90.00 25.00

1.12 110.92 100.00 PEG

52
vii. Cross-Sectional Plotting: Unlike longitudinal sections the horizontal and vertical
scales of cross-sections are usually the same. They are plotted without vertical
exaggeration as this is more convenient for showing new work and for volume
calculation.

4.4 PURPOSE OF SECTIONING

Longitudinal and cross sections are taken at regular intervals by the surveyors. This is done
in order to depict the full character of the roadway and to enable the engineer or designer to
compare existing ground levels with his proposed formation levels, i.e. the levels to which
the ground is to be worked in new construction.
a. Longitudinal Sections provide data for the following:
i. Deciding the most suitable and economic levels and gradients to which the ground
should be worked in its longitudinal section.
ii. Supplying details at any point along the section of the amount of cut, i.e. the depth
of excavation, or the amount of fill, i.e. the height to which the ground must be
raised, to suit the new formation level.
iii. Recording the places where neither cut nor fill occurs. These are the point at
which the formation level intersects the existing ground level.

b. Cross Sections provide data for the following:

i. Deciding the most suitable and economic levels to which the ground is to be
worked in the transverse direction, e.g. at right angles to its length.
ii. Supplying details for calculating the position height and slope of any
necessary embankments.
iii. Calculating earthwork quantities for costing purposes and for the suitable
provision of earth-moving plant.

4.5 POSITIONING AND ACCURACY OF LEVELS

Levels should be taken along all section lines at changes in the general slope which are
sufficiently large to affect design or volume calculations. In practice, if earthworks are to be

53
computed, the levels are taken at regular intervals as this simplifies the volume calculations.
The actual spacing will depend on the nature of the ground and the type of construction, but
regular spacing of 20 and 30m are usual. Additional level observations are also made
between the regular intervals at important features such as on existing roads, bed of streams,
etc., and at marked changes of slope.

As levelling observations for sections are usually taken of rough ground it is impractical to
observe the staff to three decimal places. Staff readings to the nearest centimetre are therefore
taken, although in more accurate work readings on change points and hard flat surfaces, such
as manhole cover may be observed to millimetres.

4.6 SETTING OUT OF ROUTES

In construction sites, setting out is the major work of surveyor. Normally surveying has to do
with preparation of maps or plans showing existing features on the ground. While setting out
is the reverse of this; it is the process of fixing on ground the details shown on a map or plan.

4.6.1 EQUIPMENTS FOR SETTING OUT

The following instruments are some of the instruments being used for setting out and
they are:
1. Levels (e.g. Dumpy, tilting and automatic)
2. Theodolites.
3. Tapes and
4. Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) device.
Modern equipment like total station, digital levels and automatic laser levels (digital)
are being frequently used these days.
The modern equipment (digitals) have the advantage of being:
(i) Convenient
(ii) Quick and
(iii) More accurate above the analogue equipment.

54
In construction projects good frame work of horizontal and vertical controls are very
important. It is the duty of the surveyor to orient all his work with the existing frame work of
horizontal and vertical controls within the vicinity of the project site. It is also recommended
that adequate number of supplementary bench marks (vertical controls) and horizontal
control based on local coordinate system, should be established along or very close to the
project site. This will give room for convenient and efficient use of those controls by the
construction personnel‟s.

4.6.2 STAKING OUT A HIGHWAY

1. The first step is to provide the contractor with stakes showing points marking the
limits of the construction project. This will enable the contractor to clear the site and
hence these stakes are known as CLEARING STAKES. The stakes have the
dimension of 1.5cm x 2.5cm x 1.25cm of wooden pegs. They are placed at about
100m apart along the project site or road way.

2.5cm
1.5cm

1.25m

2. The next thing is rough cut stakes. These are to be provided so that the contractor can
undertake “rough cut” grading operations.
These stakes are set
i. Along the project centre line 15m interval.

55
ii. At the beginning and end of all horizontal curves
iii. At any other grade or alignment transition.
The stakes are 2.5cm x 5.0cm x 45cm. On the stakes are marked C or E indicating cut
or fill.

5.0cm
2.5cm

F Indicates vertical interval above or

45cm below ground surface.
or
C

3. Next is the slope stakes. This is to guide the contractor in marking final excavations
and embankments. Slope stakes are driven at the slope intercepts (intersections of the
original ground and each side slope) or off set of short distances, e.g. grade slope
stakes are set at point that have the same ground and grade elevation.

56
 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 AREA CALCULATION
5.1 METHODS OF MEASURING AREA
There are so many methods of area computation. Some of the methods are:
1. Geometric methods: This is when the area is divided into a number of triangles,
rectangles or trapeziums.
2. By taken offsets from a straight line
3. Double meridian distances methods
4. Coordinates method
5. The use of planimeter: When the plan or map of an area is available, however
irregular it may be, planimeter can be run over the enclosing lines to compute the area
of the plot.

5.1.1 Geometric methods

a. Area of a triangle

c
a
h

C N A
b

From the above triangle (Δ) ABC, the area of the triangle is:
Area = ½ x base x height
Area = ½ x b x h
:. Area = ½ bh

Considering Δ ABN
Sin A = h/c

57
:. h = c sin A
But Area = ½ x b x h
Substituting for the value of „h‟
Area = ½ x b x c sin A
:. Area = ½ bc sin A

Using the same triangle, but now let the perpendicular line BN be projected from line BA
to reach C.

B
N
c

a h

A
C b

Area = ½ x base x height

=½xcxh
But sin B = h/a
h = a sin B
:. Area = ½ x c x a sin B
OR
Area = ½ ac sin B or ½ ca sin B.

Also, if the perpendicular line CN is projected from line BC to join point A.

58
 B

a N c

C b A

Area = ½ x base x height

=½xaxh
And sin C = h/b
h = b sin C
If area = ½ x a x h
Then, Area = ½ x a x b sin C
:. Area = ½ ab sin C

Therefore, area of the triangle ABC can be computed using the following formulae:
Area of Δ (ABC) = ½ bc sin A or ½ ac sin B and/or ½ ab sin C.

In a situation where perpendicularity is not set out and angles are not measured or given,
but the length of all the sides are given, the above formulae cannot be used but Hero‟s
formula will be appropriate.

The area of a triangle whose sides are known but angles are not given can be computed by
the formula below, known as Hero‟s formula.
Area = S (S-a) (S – b) (S– c) (This is Hero‟s formula)

Where a,b,c are sides of the triangle and

S = ½ (a + b + c) where S = sub-perimeter

59
b. Area of a Rectangle:

A L B
A

D C

The area of the rectangle ABCD is:

Area = L x W
L = length of the rectangle and
W = width or Breadth of the rectangle.

c. Area of a Trapezium:
a
A B

h h

D E F C
b

The area of a trapezium is computed by the formula below:

Area = ½ (a + b) x h
Where h = Perpendicular height
„a‟ and „b‟ = the two opposite sides of the trapezium.

60
Example:
a
A B

h h

x x
D E F C
b

From the above figure, AB// DC, and AB= a = 7m and DC = b = 13m. If the distance
between the parallel sides is 4m; and DE = FC = x. Find:
a. The perimeter of the trapezium
b. The area of the trapezium.

Solution:
If AB//DC and DE = FC and AE = BF =h.
Therefore, angle D = angle C, hence, the trapezium is an isosceles trapezium. Based on the
above facts Δ AED and Δ BCF are equal.

Also AB = EF = a = 7m
DE = FC = x
DC = DE + EF + FC = 13m
:. DC = x + EF + x
DC = 2x + EF = 13
:.2x + EF = 13
2x = 13 – EF
But EF = 7 ( from the above figure)
:. 2x = 13 – 7
2x = 6

61
x = 6/2 = 3
:. x =3m
a. The Perimeter of the trapezium
The perimeter of the trapezium is now equal to:
Perimeter = AB + BC + CD + DA
But BC = DA from the above figure and they are not known, hence they have to be
computed.

x
D E
From the above triangle,
DA² = x² + h²
DA = √x² + h²
DA = √3² + 4² = √9 + 16
DA = √25 =5
:.DA = 5
From the above DA= BC, therefore BC = 5 = DA

Now the perimeter of the trapezium is:

Perimeter = AB + BC + CD + DA
Perimeter = 7 + 5 + 13 + 5
Perimeter = 30
:. The Perimeter of the trapezium = 30m

b. The area of the trapezium

The area of the trapezium = ½ (a + b) x h

62
Now Area = ½ (7 +13) x 4
Area = ½(20) x 4 = 10 x 4
Area = 40m²
:. The area of the trapezium = 40m²

5.1.2 AREA OF A TRACT WITH IRREGULAR BOUNDARIES (By taken offsets

from a straight line)
If the boundaries of a tract are irregular it is not possible to run the traverse along the
boundaries. The traverse is usually run at a convenient distance from the actual boundaries.
The offsets from the traverse to the irregular boundaries are then taken at regular intervals or
if necessary at irregular intervals. The area between the traverse line and the irregular
boundaries is determined by
1. Mid ordinate rule
2. Average ordinate rule
3. Trapezoidal rule and
4. Simpson‟s rule

1. Mid ordinate rule

m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m6 m7 m8 m9

d d d d d d d d d
L

The total area of the irregular plot:

A = m1d + m2d + m3d + m4d + m5d + m6d + m7d + m8d + m9d
= d (m1+ m2 + m3+ m4+ m5+ m6+ m7+ m8+ m9)

63
= L (m1+ m2 + m3+ m4+ m5+ m6+ m7+ m8+ m9)
n

where m = length of each ordinate

d = interval of the divisions (common interval)
n = number of the division or the number of portions that the plot is divided into.
L = total length of the plot.

2. Average ordinate rule

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

d d d d d d d d
L

If 01,02…..08 are the ordinates to the boundary from the base line.
Average ordinate = 01 + 02 + 03 + 04 + 05 + 06 + 07 + 08
8
And area = average ordinate x length (L)
01 + 02 + 03 + 04 + 05 + 06 + 07 + 0` x L
8

3. Trapezoidal rule
The area can also be computed by applying the trapezoidal rule which is obtained by
considering each part as a trapezium and then adding the parts areas together.

64
Therefore, considering the figure above, the area is
A = 01+ 02d + 02+03d + 03+04d + 04+05d + 05+06d + 06+07d + 07+ 08d
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= d (01 + 08) + (02 + 03 + 04 + 05 + 06 + 07)
2

The trapezoidal rule can, therefore, be stated as:

Area = product of the common interval (d) and sum of intermediate ordinates plus average of
the first and last ordinates.

If the intervals are not equal the areas of the trapeziums have to be computed separately and
added together.

4. Simpson’s rule
In the rules stated above the irregular boundary consists of a number of straight lines. If the
boundary is curved, it can be approximated as a series of straight lines. Alternatively,
Simpson‟s rule is applied which assumes that the short lengths of boundaries between the
ordinate are parabolic arcs.

I
E
H
D
G
F
02 03
01

A B C
d d

The area ABCDEF consists of two parts:

a. Area ABCDGF which is equal to
01 + 03 x 2d = d (01 + 03)
2

65
b. Area DEFG
= 2/3 x area of enclosing parallelogram.
FHEIDG
= 2/3 x (2d) (EG)

= 2 x (2d) x 02 – 03 + 01
3 2

Note that: 03 + 01 = GB ≠ EB
2
EB = 02

Area DEFG = 2 x d x 202 – (03 + 01)

3

The total area will be the addition of the two areas.

Area A = 01 + 03 x 2d = d (01 + 03)
2

Area B = 2 x d x 202 – (03 + 01)

3

Now the total area = A + B

The total area =. d (01 + 03) + 2 x d 202 – (03 + 01)

3

= d (01 + 03) + 2d 202 – (03 + 01)

3

= d (01 + 03) + d 402 – 2(03 + 01)

3

= d (01 + 03) + d 402 – 203 - 201

3

= d (01 + 03) + d 402 – 203 - 201

1 3

= 3d (01 + 03) + d (402 – 203 - 201)

3

= 301d + 303d+402d - 203d - 201 d)

3

66
 = d(301 + 303 + 402 – 203 - 201 )
3
= d (01 + 03 + 402)
3
:. The total area of the two segments = d (01 + 03 + 402) OR d (01 + 402 + 03)
3 3

The area of the next two segments

= d (03 + 404 + 05)

3

Taking all the areas together, total area becomes

A = d {(01 + 402+ 03) + (03 + 404 + 05) + (05 + 406 + 07)+...+ (0n -1 + 40n + 0n + 1}
3

A = d (01 + 0n + 1) + 4 (02 + 04 + 06 + …..) + 2 (03 + 05 + 07 +….)

3

Since we are taking 2 segments at a time, the number of segments should always be even and
the number of ordinates odd for Simpson‟s rule to be applicable.

To get the area by Simpson‟s rule; the rule is, add the first and last ordinates to four times the
even ordinates and two times the odd ordinates and multiply the sum by one third of the
common interval.

i.e. d (first + last ordinates) +4 (even ordinates) + 2 (odd ordinates)

3

The accuracy of Simpson‟s rule is more than that of the trapezoidal rule for curved
boundaries.

67
5.1.3 AREA OF A CLOSED TRAVERSE
The corrected latitude and departure of a line is known after the adjustment of the traverse.
These are utilized in computing the area of the closed traverse for which four methods are
available.
i. Meridian distance method
ii. Double meridian distance method
iii. Double parallel distance method
iv. Departure and total latitude method.
1. Meridian distance method
The meridian distance of a line is the perpendicular distance from the line‟s midpoint
to a reference meridian (North- South line).

D


Meridian distance of CD Latitude of CD

I J

C
Meridian distance of BC Departure of CD
G H
B Latitude of BC
Meridian distance Departure of BC
E of AB F

Latitude of AB

A

Departure of A B

EF is the meridian distance of AB

GH is the meridian distance of BC and
IJ is the meridian distance of CD

68
Mathematically, meridian distance of BC is equal to meridian distance of AB plus half of the
departure of AB plus half of the departure of BC.

Similarly, meridian distance of CD is equal to the meridian distance of BC plus half of the
departure of BC plus half of the departure of CD. Thus the meridian distance of any line is
equal to the meridian distance of the preceding line plus half of the departure of the
preceding line plus half of the departure of the line itself. To apply this rule, the sign of the
departure should be considered. Eastern departure being positive, and western departure
negative. Similarly, latitude is positive towards north and negative towards south.

D
O
J I

N C

L K

H G
A

E F

M B

AM = Latitude of AB
EF = Meridian distance of AB
MN = Latitude of BC
HG = Meridian distance of BC
ON = Latitude of CD
IJ = Meridian Distance of CD

69
Area ABCD = - AMB + NMBC + ONCD – OAD
= ((-AM) x EF) + (NM x HG) + (ON x JI) + ((-OA) x LK)

Here all the departures are positive as A, the most westerly station has been chosen as origin.
As regards sign of latitude, from the direction of arrows it is clear that latitude of AB and DA
point downwards i.e. towards south and hence they are negative.
Symbolically A = Σ (L x Md)
Where L = latitude and
Md = Meridian distance.

2. Double Meridian Distance Method

In order to avoid working with half departures, surveyors use the Double
Meridian Distance (DMD) i.e, twice the meridian distance in making computations.
Thus the DMD of BC is equal to DMD of AB plus the departure of AB plus the
departure of BC.

The following are the rules for computing DMDs for a closed traverse.
i. The DMD of the first line is equal to the departure of the first line. If the first line is
chosen as the one that begins at the western most corner, negative DMDs can be
avoided.
ii. The DMD of each succeeding line is equal to the DMD of the previous line plus the
departure of the previous line plus the departure of the line itself.
iii. The DMD of the last line of a balanced closed traverse is equal to the departure of the
line but with opposite sign.
It has already been shown that:
Area ABCD = (-AM) x EF + NM x HG + JI x ON + LK x (-OA)
This can be rewritten as:
2 ABCD = {(-AM) x 2EF + NM x 2HG + ON x 2JI + (-OA) x 2LK)}
2 ABCD={(-AM) x DMDAB + NM x DMDBC + ON x DMDCD + (-OA) x DMD DA}
2ABCD = Σ (L x DMD)
ABCD = ½ ((Σ(L x DMD)).

70
 Here summation of products of DMD and latitudes of lines of a closed traverse with
proper sign gives twice the area of the traverse. If the traverse is covered clockwise,
the area will be negative, if counter clockwise, the area will be positive.

3. Double Parallel Distance Method

In this method perpendicular distances of mid points of different lines are measured
from a reference parallel. The reference parallel is usually taken through the most
southerly point of the traverse along the east-west line, i.e. perpendicular to the
reference meridian. The double parallel distance is twice the parallel distance of a
line. The DPD for any traverse line is equal to the DPD of the previous line plus the
latitude of the previous line plus latitude of the line itself. The traverse area can be
computed by multiplying the DPD of each line by its departure, summing the
products and taking half the absolute value of the total.

4. Departure and Total latitude method

Total latitude of a point is equal to its distance from the reference station measured
parallel to the reference meridian.
Reference
Meridian D
DDA DCD

L3 f C

L2 L2
Reference Meridian
A b e c
Reference Station

- L1

DAB
DBC
B

71
Area of the closed traverse ABCD
A = ABb + Bbc + DecC + ADe – CcB

A = ½ (-L1) DAB + ½ (-L1) bc + ½ (L2 + L3) (-DCD) + ½ (L3) (-DDA) – ½ L2 bc

= ½ (-L1) DAB + ½ (-L1) DBC + ½ (L2 + L3) (-DCD) + ½ (L3) (-DDA) – ½ L2(-DBC)

= ½ (-L1) (DAB + DBC) + ½ L2 (DBC) + ½ L3 ((-DCD-DDA) – ½ L2 (DCD).

= ½ {(-L1) (DAB+ DBC) + (L2) (+DBC- DCD) + L3 (-DCD- DDA)}

2A = { (-L1) (DAB + DBC) + (L2) (DBC - DCD) + (L3) (-DCD- DDA)}

2A= Σ total latitude of a point X (algebraic sum of two adjacent departures).

Hence, the following steps should be followed in computing area by this
method:
1. Compute the total latitude of each station from a reference station.
2. Compute the algebraic sum of departures of lines meeting at this station.
3. Find the product of total latitude of each station and the corresponding algebraic sum
of departures.
4. Half the algebraic sum of these products gives the required area.

72
5. COORDINATES METHOD
In this method independent coordinates of the points are used in the computation of
areas.
y

D (XD, YD)

A
(XA, YA)
C (XC, YC)

x
B (XB, YB)
Fig. 5.4a Coordinates method illustration
To avoid negative sign, the origin O is chosen at the most southerly and westerly
point.

Total area of the traverse

A= {(XC + XB)/2} (YC - YB) + {(XD + XC)/2} (YD - YC) - {( XB+ XA)/2} ( YA- YB) – {( XD
+ XA)/2} (YD-YA)

73
Further illustrations on Coordinate Method

N
Nc C (Nc, Ec)

Nd D (Nd, Ed)

Nb B
(Nb, Eb)

Na
A
(Na, Ea)

E
Eb Ea Ec Ed

Fig. 4.4b Coordinates method illustration

A = {(Ea + Ed)/2} (Nd – Na) + {(Ed + Ec)/2} (Nc – Nd) – {(Ea + Eb)/2} (Nb – Na)
– {(Eb + Ec)/2} (Nc – Nb)
Multiply both sides by 2
2A = (Ea + Ed) (Nd – Na) + (Ed + Ec) (Nc – Nd) – (Ea + Eb) (Nb – Na) – (Eb + Ec) (Nc –
Nb)
2A= EaNd – EaNa + EdNd – EdNa + EdNc – EdNd + EcNc – EcNd
- (Ea Nb – EaNa + EbNb – EbNa) - (EbNc – EbNb + EcNc – EcNb)

By opening the brackets we have:

2A = EaNd – EaNa + EdNd – EdNa + EdNc – EdNd + EcNc – EcNd
- EaNb + EaNa - EbNb + EbNa - EbNc + EbNb - EcNc + EcNb

74
2A = EaNd – EdNa + EdNc – EcNd – EaNb + EbNa – EbNc + EcNb.
Re grouping
2A = Na (Eb – Ed) + Nb (Ec - Ea) + Nc (Ed – Eb) + Nd (Ea – Ec)
Or
2A = (NaEb – NaEd) + (NbEc – NbEa) + (NcEd – NcEb) + (NdEa – NdEc)
Which is the same thing as:

Na Ea
Nb Eb
Nc Ec
Nd Ed
Na Ea
Here two sums of products should be taken.
1. Products of all adjacent terms taken down to the right i.e.
NaEb + NbEc + NcEd + NdEa ……………………….(1)
2. Products of all adjacent terms up to the right.
NaEd + NdEc + NcEb + NbEa…………………………(2)
Subtract (1) from (2) or (2) from (1) to get 2 Area.
The traverse area is equal to half the absolute value of the difference between these
two sums. In applying this procedure it is to be observed that the first coordinate listed must
be repeated at the end of the list.

6. AREA MEASUREMENT BY PLANIMETER

The planimeter is a mechanical instrument. It is used to measure area of a plan or map very
accurately no matter how irregular its shape may be.
There are two types of planimeter:
1. Amsler polar planimeter
2. Roller planimeter
The Amsler polar planimeter is more frequently used and hence explained here in
detail.

75
 Tracing point

Pole arm


Tracing arm
Measuring or
. integrating unit

Pole block
(heavy weight)

Fig. 5.5a Schematic diagram of Amsler polar planimeter

Complete revolution dial

(geared spindle)

1 0 9
2
Primary drum 8
3
4 7
5 6 Disc spindle

Integrating disc

Vernier
Fig. 5.5b The integrating unit.
1. Pole Block or Anchor: It is a heavy block. This is fixed on the plan by a fine retaining
pin called the anchor point.
2. Pole Arm or Anchor arm: This is a bar whose one end is pivoted about the pole block
and the other end about the integrating unit.
3. Tracing arm: This may be either fixed or variable in length. Its one end is attached to
the integrating unit while the other end carries the tracing point or optical tracer.
4. The Integrating unit or measuring unit: It consists of a hardened steel integrating disc
carried on pivots. The disc spindle is connected to a primary drum or roller which is

76
 divided into 100 parts. By means of a vernier, readings up to 1/1000th of a revolution
of the roller is obtained. The roller is so designed that when it completes one
revolution, another disc connected with the roller shows one dimension. This disc is
divided into ten divisions. The disc, therefore completes one revolution after every 10
revolutions of the roller. The reading of a planimeter is in 4 digits. If the readings is
say, 3456 it shows:
(i) 3 on the disc indicating 3 full rotations of the roller,
(ii) 45 on the roller which means out of 100 divisions roller has moved through 45
divisions.
(iii) 6 indicates the vernier reading of the roller which is in thousandth.

The planimeter when placed over a plan or map whose area is to be measured rests on three
points:
(i) Anchor point
(ii) Drum or roller, and
(iii) Tracing point or tracer.

The area is measured by moving down the tracer over the outline of the plan or map in a
clockwise direction. The area is then obtained as:
A = M (F.R – I.R ± I0N ± C)
Where:
M= Multiplying constant or planimeter constant and is equal to the area per revolution of
the roller. This value is marked on the tracing arm.
F.R. = Final reading
I.R. = Initial reading
N= Number of full revolutions of the disc. As one revolution of the disc is 10 units. It is
multiplied by 10 in the above expression. Plus sign is to be used when the rotation is
clockwise and minus sign when anticlockwise.
C= Constant of the instrument usually marked on the tracing arm just above the scale
divisions. The constant when multiplied by M gives the zero circle. It is to be added

77
 when the anchor point is within the circle and is taken to be zero when the anchor
point is outside the circle.
While using a planimeter the following points should be observed:
1. The tracer point should be guided by a triangle or straight edge though usually it is
steered free hand.
2. The anchor point should preferably be placed outside the traverse as this will avoid
the additive constant C.
3. The movement of the disc should be carefully watched and clockwise or
anticlockwise rotation of the zero mark of the disc against the index mark should be
noted.
4. The tracing point should always be moved clockwise.
5. Since area obtained by planimeter is not necessarily an exact value, it is a good
practice to trace a figure several times and take an average of the results thus
obtained. It is also desirable to trace the figure one or more times in the opposite
directions and average these values also. The different values should agree within a
limit of 2 to 5 units.

The length of the tracing arm of the planimeter can be adjusted and accordingly value of M
will vary. Since the bar setting may not be perfect it is best to check the planimeter constant
by running over the perimeter of a carefully laid out square 5cm on a side with diagonals
7.07cm. The area should be 25cm2. If the difference in reading is say 100,
1 unit = 25cm2 = 0.25cm2
100
If the observed difference in reading is 1125, area is 0.25 x 1125 = 281.25cm2.
If the scale of the map is 1cm = 100m
Then
1cm2 = 100 x 100m2
:. The Area = 281.25 x 104m2

The planimeter is useful in measuring irregular areas. It is often used in measuring cross-
sectional areas of high ways and in computing areas of property surveys.

78
 CHAPTER SIX
6.0 EARTHWORK QUANTITIES
Earthwork operations involve the determination of the volume of materials that should be
excavated or embarked on any engineering project in order to bring the ground surface to a
pre-determined grade (formation level).

The principles also involve the determination of volume.

Earthwork operation is one of the basic operations in route survey and data for the
calculation of earthwork quantities can be obtained from:
i. Cross sections taken by field surveyor or photogrammetric method.
ii. Contour maps product by field survey or photogrammetric method.
iii. Spot heights.

6.1 USES OF EARTHWORK QUANTITIES

Earthwork quantities for route survey can be used for:
i. Comparing alternative route corridor (the narrow strip of land that forms the roadway).
ii. Comparing trial location within the corridor (the narrow strip of land that forms the
roadway).
iii. The design of the grade line and other prominent structures. (e.g. bridges and
culverts).
iv. Estimating cost of construction.
v. Determining the most economic method of executing the project.
vi. Estimating workdone and working out amount due to be paid to contractors.

6.2 VOLUMES
Surveyors are often required to compute volumes of earthwork either in cut or fill when
planning a highway system. To compute stockpiles of coal, gravel or other materials,
knowledge of volume computation is required. There are basically three methods for this:
i. Cross section method

79
 ii. Unit area or borrow pit method
iii. Contour area method.

1. CROSS SECTION METHOD

This is employed for computation of volumes for highways, railways and
canals.

b Design profile

he
S

C 1
Existing ground hr
profile

b/2 + Sc b/2 + Sc
Existing ground
Fig. 6.1 Cross Section of existing ground profile. profile

Type of cross section method of computing volume are as follows.

i. Level section
ii. Two level section
iii. Side hill two level section
iv. Three level section.
v. Multi level section

1. LEVEL SECTION
Before volume can be calculated area need to be calculated first. The general formula that is
being used for this kind of area computation is coordinate method. It is as stated below:
A = ½ {X1 (Y2 – Yn) + X2 (Y3 – Y1) + X3 (Y4 – Y2) +…+ Xn (Y1 – Yn – 1)}
Or

80
A = ½ {Y1 (X2 – Xn) + Y2 (X3-X1) + Y3 (X4 – X2) + …+ Yn (X1-Xn-1)}

For a cross section in earthwork, Y coordinate of two points are zero.

A D

1 h 1
n n

B C
nh b/2 b/2 nh
b

Fig. 6.1 Level Section Illustrations

Table 5.1 Level Section Coordinates

Point X Y
A -(b/2 + nh) h
B -b/2 0
C b/2 0
D (b/2 + nh) h

Recalling the formula given above (coordinate method of area computation);

A = ½ {Ya (Xb – Xd) + Yb (Xc – Xa) + Yc (Xd – Xb) + Yd (Xa – Xc)}

:.A = ½ {h (-b/2 – (b/2 + nh)) + 0 (b/2 – (-b/2 + nh)) + 0 (b/2 + nh) – (-b/2)) + h (-(b/2 + nh) – (b/2))}

A = ½ {h (-b/2 – (b/2 + nh)) + h (-(b/2 + nh) – (b/2))}

A= ½ {h (-b/2 – (b/2 – nh) + h (-(b/2 - nh – (b/2))}

A= ½ {h (- b – nh) + h (-b –nh)}

81
A= ½ {2h (-b – nh)

A = {2h (-b – nh)}/2

A = h (-b – nh)

:. A = -h (b + nh)

2. TWO LEVEL SECTION IN CUTTING

w1
C
1
D m

E w2
1 h1
h n

h2 1
n

A B
b/2 b/2

Fig. 6.3 Two Level Section Illustrations

From the geometry of the figure above

h + w1/m = h1; h – w2/m = h2
b/2 + h1n = w1
or b/2 + {h + w1/m} n = w1
or b/2 + nh = w1 (1 – n/m)
b/2 + nh = w1 m-n
m

or w1 = (b/2 + nh) m/(m - n)

82
Similarly w2 = (b/2 + nh) m/(m + n)

The coordinates of the above figure are as stated below:

Table 5.2: Coordinates of Two Level Section

Point X Y
A -b/2 0
B +b/2 0
C w1 h1
E -w2 h2

Area in terms of coordinates is equal to:

A = ½{Ya (Xb – Xe) + Yb (Xc – Xa) + Yc (Xe – Xb) + Ye (Xa – Xc)}
A= ½ {0 (b/2 – (-w2)) + 0 (w1 – (- b/2)) + h1 (-w2 – b/2) + h2 (-b/2 – w1)
A = ½ {h1 (-w2 – b/2) + h2 (-b/2 – w1)
A= ½ {-w2h1 – b/2 h1 + -b/2 h2 – w1 h2}
A = ½ {-b/2 (h1 + h2) -w2h1 – w1 h2
Multiply through by -1
A = -½ {b/2 (h1 +h2) + h1w2 + h2w1}
Substitute for the values of h1 and h2
A= -½ {b/2 (h1 +h2) + (h + (w1 /m))w2 + (h - (w2/m))w1}
A= -½ {b/2 (h1 +h2) + h(w1 + w2)}

83
 3. TWO LEVEL SECTION IN FILLING

b/2 b/2
A B
n
1
n h1
1 h

h2 C

D
1 w1
m
E

w2

Fig. 6.4: Two Level Section in Filling Illustrations

From the geometry of the above figure:
w1 = (b/2 + nh) m/m + n
w2 = (b/2 + nh) m/m – n
h1 = h – w1/m; h2 = h + w2/ m
The same formula as derived above is applicable. Hence, if b, h, n and m are given h 1, h2, w1
and w2 can be computed and the area obtained as shown above.

84
4. SIDE HILL TWO LEVEL SECTION

Existing Ground Surface

m
1
1 h1
n1
n2h2 Cutting
D
H F h K
A
mh C B
Filling
n2

1 n1h1
h2
b/2 b/2

G
w2 w1

Fig. 6.5: Side Hill Two Level Section Illustrations

From the geometry of the above figure:

w1= n1h1 + b/2

w2 = n2h2 + b/2

And from the similar triangles HGF and FDC

h/h2 = mh/ (n2h2 + b/2 – mh)

mhh2 = h (n2h2 + b/2 – mh)

h2 = h (n2h2 + b/2 – mh) /mh

h2 = (n2h2 + b/2 – mh)/m

85
mh2 = n2h2 + b/2 – mh

mh2 - n2h2 = b/2 – mh

h2 (m - n2) = b/2 – mh

h2 = (b/2 – mh) /m – n2

w2 = n2h2 + b/2
Substitute for the value of h2 in the above equation:
w2 = n2 {( b/2 – mh) /m – n2} + b/2

w2 = {(n2)/ (m – n2)}. (b/2 – mh) + b/2

.
w2 = {n2 (b/2 – mh) + b/2(m – n2)}/ m- n2

w2 = ( n2b/2 – mhn2 + mb/2 – n2b/2)/ m – n2

w2 = (mb/2 – mhn2)/ m – n2

w2 = m(b/2 – hn2)/ m – n2

w2 = m (b/2 – n2h)
(m – n2)

Similarly, w1 = m (b/2 – n1h)

(m – n1)

Remember, area of a triangle = ½ base x height

:. Area of cutting = ½ h1 (b/2 + mh) from Δ FKE
But b/2 + n1h1 = w1 and
h1 = (w1 – b/2)/ n1

h1 = 1 (w1 – b/2)
n1

Hence, Area = ½ x 1 (w1 – b/2) (b/2 + mh)

n1
Substituting for the value of w1, we have:

86
Area of cutting = ½ x (b/2 + mh)²
m – n1

Similarly, Area of filling = ½ x (b/2 – mh)²

m – n2

Further analysis of the above result

Area = ½ x 1 (w1 – b/2) (b/2 + mh)

n1

w1 = m (b/2 – n1h)
(m – n2)

Substitute for the value of w1

Area = ½ x 1 m (b/2 – n1h) – b/2 (b/2 + mh)
n1 m – n1 1

Area = ½ x 1 m (b/2 – n1h) – b/2 (m – n1) (b/2 + mh)

n1 m – n1

Opening the brackets:

Area = ½ x 1 mb/2 + mn1h – mb/2 + n1b/2 (b/2 + mh)
n1 m - n1

Area = ½ x 1 mn1h + n1b/2 (b/2 + mh)

n1 m - n1

Area = ½ x 1 n1 ( mh + b/2) (b/2 + mh)

n1 m - n1

Area = ½ x 1 n1 ( mh + b/2)²
n1 m - n1

Area = ½ x ( mh + b/2)²
m - n1
:. Area = ½ . (b/2 + mh)²/ m – n1

87
 1. THREE LEVEL SECTION
Here at least three levels are required to define the ground slope. The shapes in cutting and
filling are shown below.

w1 m1 C
1
D
m2
1

E w2 1
h1
h n
1
h2
n

A b/2 F B
b/2
b

Fig. 6.6 Illustrations on Three Level Section.

Area = ½ -bh1 – h(w1 + w2) – bh2
2 2

Area = - ½ b (h1 + h2) + h (w1 + w2)

2

As before: w1 = b/2 + nh1

w1 = m1 + (h1 – h)
or h1 – h = w1
m1

or h1 = = w1 + h
m1
Substitute for the value of h1

w1 = b/2 + n w1 + h
m1
w1 m1 – n = b/2 + nh
m1

88
 w1 = m1 (b/2 + nh)
m1 – n

Similarly, w2 = m2 (b/2 + nh)

m2 – n

h1 = h + w1/ m1
h2 = h – w2 / m2
Hence, if h and slopes m1, m2 and n are given h1, h2, w1 and w2 can be computed and hence
the area.
Point x y
A -b/2 0
B b/2 0
C w1 h1
D 0 h
E -w2 h2

Remember, using coordinate method:

2A = ya (xb – xe) + yb (xc – xa) + yc (xd – xb) + yd (xe – xc) + ye (xa – xd)

A = ½ 0(b/2 – (- w2)) + 0 (w1 – (-b/2)) + h1 (0 – b/2) + h (-w2 - w1) + h2 (-b/2 – 0)

A = ½ h1 (– b/2) + h (-w2 - w1) + h2 (-b/2)

A = ½ -bh1 - h (w2 + w1) – bh2

2 2

A = ½ - b (h1 + h2 ) - h (w2 + w1)

2
Multiply through by -1

A= -½ b (h1 + h2 ) + h (w2 + w1)

89
6. MULTILEVEL SECTION
C

E D
F

h2 h h3 h4

h1

A w2 w3 B
b/2 b/2
w1 w4

Fig. 6.7 Multilevel Section Illustrations

The above figure shows a multilevel section where more than three levels are required to
define the transverse slope of the ground. For a multilevel section the coordinate method
of determining area is convenient. And this has already been explained in other sections
above.

6.3 FORMULAE FOR VOLUME COMPUTATIONS

1. Volume by Average End Areas

A1

A0

Fig. 6.8: Average End Area Volume Computation

90
 The volume by Average End Area is given by:
V = ½ (A0 + A1) x L
:. V = Average end areas x length between the sections.

2. Prismoidal Formula

The volume is V= L (A0 + 4M + A1)

6
Here, A0, A1 are the end areas, whereas M is the area of the middle section. The area of the
middle section is obtained by taking dimension of the middle section and computing the area
or by computing the area of a section whose dimensions are intermediate of the end
dimensions.

3. Volume by Mean Area Method

In this method the mean cross sectional area of the various section is first computed as:
Am = A1 + A2 + … + An
n

Volume „V‟ = Am x L, where L is the length between the first and last section.

4. Trapezoidal Rule for Computing Volumes

If we have a series of sectional areas A1, A2, …, An at an equal interval of D, by end area
methods:
Volume between A1 and A2 = A1 + A2 * D
2
Between A2 and A3 = A2 + A3 * D
2
Between An – 1 and An = An - 1 + An * D
2

Total volume then is:

V = D * (A1 + An) + A2 + A3 + … + An - 1
2

This is known as Trapezoidal Rule.

91
5. Prismoidal Rules for Computing Volumes

The volume of a prismoid is:

V = L (A0 + 4M + A1)
6
If three consecutive sections A1, A2, and A3 are taken at interval of D. L = 2D, and the
formula becomes:
V1 = 2D (A1 + 4A2 + A3)
6

The next prismoid:

V2 = 2D (A3 + 4A4 + A5)
6
:
:
Vn = 2D (An +1 + 4An + 2 + An + 3)
6
Adding all the volumes together, the total volume becomes:
V = D (A1 + An + 3) + 4(A2 + A4 + … + An + 2) + 2(A3 + A5 + … + An + 1)
3

In other words, the Prismoidal formula states that the total volume is:
V= Interval between the sections x (Area of the first section + Last section) +
3

(4 times the even sections) + ( 2 times the odd sections)

To use the Prismoidal rule the number of sections must be odd. If the number of sections is
even the Prismoidal formula cannot be applied to the last two sections and the last two
sections should be treated separately. Either the Trapezoidal rule or the End Area formula
should be applied to compute the volume of the remaining segment. If Prismoidal rule is to
be applied, the area of the middle (mid.) section should be computed separately and then the
formula should be applied.

Also, it is to be noted that, the volume obtained by Trapezoidal rule is always greater than the
volume obtained by the Prismoidal rule.

92
6. PRISMOIDAL CORRECTION OR PRISMODIAL EXCESS

This is the difference between the volumes computed by the Trapezoidal rule and the
Prismoidal rule. As the volume calculated by Trapezoidal rule is greater than that calculated
by the Prismoidal formula, the correction is negative. When volume is computed using
Trapezoidal rule or End area formula, the Prismoidal correction is applied.

Correction (CP) = Volume by the Trapezoidal rule – Volume by the Prismoidal rule.

CP = D (A1 + A2) – D (A1 + Am + A2)

2 6

= D (A1 – 2Am + A2)

3

If we have series of sectional areas the correction becomes:

CP = D (A1 + An) – 2(A2 + A4 + … + An – 1) + 2(A3 + A5 + … + An – 2)

6

CP = D (First Area + Last Area) – 2 times (Sum of Even Areas) + 2 times (Sum of Odd Areas)
6

93
7. VOLUME FROM SPOT HEIGHTS/ LEVELS

When the area of excavation is square, rectangular or consists of a number of vertical sides,
as in the case of foundation of a water tank, underground reservoir, etc. the volume can be
computed by taking levels of number of points along a grid. The difference between the
formation level and the existing level of the ground will give the height of fill or cut at the
corresponding points. The accuracy depends on the density of the levels taken and the
method used for the computation of the volume.
a b f
a

d c e

Fig. 6.9 Volume from Spot Heights

The volume of any square say a, b, c, d and b, c, e, f as shown above can be computed as
follows.

The volume of the square abcd is:

V = Average height x Area of the square abcd

V = ha + hb + hc + hd x area of the square abcd
4

94
Similarly, the volume of the next square bcef is:

V = Average height x Area of the square bcef

V = hb + hc + he + hf x area of the square bcef
4
If the areas of the squares are all equal and is given by A, summation of volume can be
expressed as:

V = A (Ʃ h1 + 2Ʃ h2 + 3Ʃ h3 + 4Ʃ h4)
4

Where:
Ʃ h1 = sum of depth used once
Ʃ h2 = sum of depth used twice
Ʃ h3 = sum of depth used thrice
Ʃ h4 = sum of depth used four times
This is the maximum number of times a vertical height can occur.

If the area of interest is divided into a number of triangles, the volume “V” will be that of
triangular prism i.e.

V = ha + hb + hc x A
3

If all the triangular areas are equal the volume can be computed using the formula below:

V = A (Ʃ h )
3

Where „h‟ is the vertical height.

V = A (Ʃ h1 + 2Ʃ h2 + 3Ʃ h3 + … + 8Ʃ h8)
3
Where:
Ʃ h1 = sum of depth used once

95
Ʃ h2 = sum of depth used twice
Ʃ h3 = sum of depth used thrice
:
:
Ʃ h8 = sum of depth used eight times

8. VOLUME FROM CONTOUR PLAN

The contour plan can be utilized for computing the volume of the earthwork between
different contour lines.

The accuracy of volume computed from contour lines depend on the accuracy with which the
contours have been determined and plotted. This method is very useful where very large
volumes are involved and in the preliminary stage of route project, for making initial cost
estimate comparison of alternative route and selection of the best route.

A5

A4

A3
A2

A1

150 m
125 m

100 m

75 m

50 m

Fig. 6.10 Volume Calculation from Contour Plan

96
Area can be measured from a map or plan by planimeter or any other method and the volume
can be computed using End Area method.

A1 = area enclosed by the 150 m contour line.

A2 = area enclosed by the 125 m contour line.
A3 = area enclosed by the 100 m contour line.
A4 = area enclosed by the 75 m contour line.
A5 = area enclosed by the 50 m contour line.

V = d A1 + 0 + A1 + A2 + A2 + A3 + A3 + A4 + A4 + A5
2 2 2 2 2

Where „d‟ = contour interval

Basically, there are four different methods of volume calculation from contour plan.
i. By cross sections
ii. By equal depth contours
iii. By horizontal planes and
iv. By reservoir problem (when the finished surface is a level surface).

1. Cross Sectional Method

Cross section of the existing ground can be plotted from the contour plan. When the
formation level of the proposed road is known, it can be superimposed on the cross section.
This will give us the required cut and fill at various sections at the centre line of the proposed
road. The area of the cross section is determined from the depth at the centre and side slopes.
The volume of earthwork is computed using the Trapezoidal rule or Prismoidal formula.

97
 Fig. 6.11 (a) Volume from Cross Section.

Original Ground Level

Cut Grade Line

Fill
Fill

Fig. 6.11 (b) Volume from Cross Section.

2. Equal Depth Contour Method

In this method the contours of the finished or graded surface are drawn over the contour map
at the same interval as that of the contours. The original contour may be plotted with firm
lines, and the contour of the proposed surface plotted with dotted lines. At the intersection of
full line contour with a dash line contour, depths of cutting or filling can be determined. By
joining the points of equal cut and fill a set of lines are obtained. These lines are the
horizontal projection of lines cut from the existing surface by planes parallel to the finished

98
surface. The irregular areas bounded by these lines are obtained by planimeter. The volume
between any two successive areas is determined by multiplying the average of two areas by
the depth between them.

104
104

103
103
102

102
101
101

100
100

Fig. 6.12 Volume from Equal Depth Contour

3. Horizontal Planes Method

In this method, the volume of earth work is computed by taking horizontal sections on the
contour plan. If the existing contours are plotted as firm lines, the proposed formation
surfaces may be shown by dotted lines. The volume can be computed by the following steps:

a. All the points where dotted lines and the firm lines intersect are the points of cut
and fill. All these points shall be joined to give a curve.

99
b. If within these curves, the original ground surface is at a higher level than the
proposed grade surface and as such the excavation of the ground is necessary i.e. cut
is necessary.
c. Similarly, outside these lines fill is necessary.
d. The amount of cut or fill at each section is plotted and from the hatched figure
areas of cut A1, A3, A5, and fill A2, A4, A6 can be computed.
e. The amount of the earthwork between two successive contours can be computed
using the Average End Area method. The Pyramidal formula should be applied for
the end sections.

Ground surface

• 100
A1 •

• •
• 99
A2 A3 Cut Fill
• 98
• •
A5
Fill A4

•
A6 97
Fig. 6.13 Volume from Horizontal Section
96

100
4. Capacity of a Reservoir

Two general methods are used for computing the reservoir volume:
i. By taking horizontal sections and
ii. By taking vertical sections

In the first method the whole area under each contour line is computed. Let them be A1, A2,
…, An. If Trapezoidal rule is applied the volume is:

V = h A1 + An + A2 + A3 + … + An-1
2

Where:
h = contour interval.
If necessary, Prismoidal formula can also be applied.

The second method is applied when the reservoir is regular in shape. From the contour map
dimensions of the vertical cross sections are obtained. The volume is the calculated from the
cross sectional areas.

103 102 101 100

Fig. 6.14 Contour Lines of a Reservoir

101
 CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 SETTING OUT OF STRUCTURES
In every country construction is a major activity and setting out, therefore, becomes an
important work for the surveyors. Normally, surveying involves preparation of maps or plans
showing the existing features of the ground; while setting out is the reverse of the process. It
is the fixing on ground the details shown on a map or plan.

Setting out is the operation required for the correct positioning of works on the ground and
their dimensional control during erection or construction of the work or structures.

Various construction works such as buildings, pipelines, rail roads, high ways, and bridges
are set out in strict compliance with the engineering design and plan data.

The surveyor should have a clear idea of his task in mind and should provide adequate
checks for every work preferably with different methods. The surveyor should also bear the
following facts in mind.
i. Accuracy required
ii. Data available and required
iii. Instrument available
iv. Time available.

7.1 CONSTRUCTION CONTROLS (HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL)

The importance of a good framework for horizontal and vertical control in a project area
cannot be overemphasized. It is important for the surveyor in charge of a project to describe
and reference all major horizontal control monuments.

To preserve vertical control monuments (bench marks) it is recommended that an adequate

number of differential level circuits be run to establish supplementary bench marks.

102
For large projects, it is common engineering practice to establish a rectangular grid system.
Usually such a system is based on a local coordinate system.

Depending on the size and complexity of the project, the survey crew should arrive on site
one day or several days prior to the commencement of construction. The first on-site job for
construction surveyor is to relocate the horizontal and vertical controls used in the
preliminary survey. Usually, a number of months, and sometimes even years, have passed
between the preliminary survey, the project design based on the preliminary survey and the
budget decision to award a contract for construction.

It may be necessary to re-establish the horizontal and vertical controls in the area of proposed
construction if they might have been removed or displaced. If this is the case, extreme
caution is advised, as the design plans are based on the original survey fabric, and any
deviation from the original controls could well lead to serious problems in construction. If
the original controls (or most of it) still exist in the field, it is customary to check and verify
all linear and angular dimensions that could directly affect the project.

The same rigorous approach is required for vertical controls. If local benchmarks have been
destroyed (as is often the case), the benchmarks must be re-established accurately. Key
existing elevations shown on design drawings (e.g. connecting invert elevations for gravity
flow sewers, or connecting beam seat elevations on concrete structures) must be resurveyed
to ensure that:
i. The original elevation shown on the plan was correct, and
ii. The new and original vertical controls are in fact, both referenced to the same vertical
datum.

In all these areas, absolutely nothing is taken for granted.

Once the original control has been re-established or verified, the control must be extended
over the construction site to suit the purposes of each specific project.

103
7.2 ACCURACY AND MISTAKES
In construction surveys all field measurements and calculations are suspect until they have
been verified by independent means or by repeated checks.

Unlike other forms of surveying, construction surveying is often associated with speed of
operation. Once a contract has been awarded, the contractor may wish to commence
construction immediately. A hurried surveyor is more likely to make mistakes in
measurements and calculations, and thus even more vigilance than normal is required.

Construction surveying is not an occupation for a fainthearted person; the responsibilities

are great, and the working conditions often less than ideal. However, the sense of
achievement can be very rewarding.

7.2.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR SETTING OUT

1. SITE PLAN: The site plan shows the general arrangement of the proposed work in
relation to the existing features on the project site.
2. SETTING OUT DRAWINGS: This shows the arrangement in less detail but includes
key dimensions for setting out of centre lines or main buildings.
3. SPECIFICATIONS: These are written details of certain aspects of the construction.
Specifications are the directives that shall be obeyed while planning and executing
a project so as to obtain the prescribed accuracy standard.

7.2.2 SOURCES OF ERRORS IN SETTING OUT

1. Expansion and contraction of the original plan.
2. Plotting error
3. Scaling error
4. Copying inaccuracies

7.3 SETTING OUT BY POLAR COORDINATES

Polar coordinates involve direction and distance. The direction is set out by a theodolite and
distance by a steel band.

104
 C
21’ 1710
B 87
0
30.01m
28.51m 06’
D
EXISTING ROAD 410 03’

30’
34.46m

26.00m
A

2170
40.97m
2980
E
27’

Fig. 7.1 Setting out by Polar coordinates

The above plan is set out by polar coordinates as follows:

i. Set up the instrument (theodolite) on station B
ii. Bisect the target at station A with the circle reading 41º 03' + 180º = 221º 03', that is
the back bearing BA
iii. Release horizontal clamp and turn the instrument until circle reading reads the
approximate bearing 87º that is bearing BC, and then clamp the circle reading.
iv. Using the slow motion screw bring the circle reading to the required reading 87º 21'.
v. Measure distance BC and direct the man holding ranging pole to fix pillar C
vi. Then the instrument is shifted to C and steps i-v are repeated to fix subsequent points.

7.4 SETTING OUT OF BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

The first task in setting out a building or a structure is to locate the ownership line. This
involves careful retracing and verification of the property boundary lines. This is required:
i. To provide a baseline for layout.
ii. To check that the proposed building or structure does not encroach on adjoining
properties.

105
Once the property or boundary lines are established, then the building is located according to
the plan, with all corner marked in the field.

Stakes may be set initially at the exact building corners as a visual check on positioning of
the structure but these points are lost as soon as excavation begins. Hence batter boards are
necessary. It is usually set 1 to 2m from each and of the intersecting building lines.

Corner stakes and batter board points are checked by measuring diagonals for comparison
with each other and their computed values. Benchmarks beyond the construction area are
required to control elevations.

After erection of batter boards, excavation of structure‟s footings or basement can begin.
Staking out a building can be quickened by taking minimum instrument set ups and staking
many points from a single setup of the instrument. Final building dimensions, however,
should be checked by tapes.

7.4.1 SETTING OUT OF BUILDING

Buildings are controlled during construction for
a. Position
b. Size
c. Shape
d. Level and
e. Verticality

The position, size and shape are marked by pegs.

106
 B C

b q
c

PROPOSED

BUILDING

a d
k

A D
l m

Fig. 7.2 Setting out of Building

The above building is set out as follows:
i. Two lines at right angles to meet another are set out precisely by theodolite to form
the reference frame.
ii. Alternatively, four lines are set out to form a closed frame outside and parallel to the
proposed structure.
iii. After establishing the reference frame lines intermediate points, a, b, c and d are
aligned in along the reference frame lines and their positions accurately measured by
steel band. (q & k can also be fixed).
iv. Theodolite is then set up on each of the intermediate points along the reference frame
line and right angles are turned with appropriate distances measured to locate the
corners of the structure.
v. Alternatively, if corners are coordinated on the setting out drawing, bearing and
distance of each corner may be calculated from a fixed point on the reference frame.
The required points are fixed by theodolite and steel band (direction and distance
method).
vi. Level is determined by establishing a datum on site and then transferring levels to the
structure.

107
7.5 CHECKS ON SETTING OUT
Checks are made on setting out works using various methods. The checks provided depend
on the type of work; the nature of terrain, the time available and instruments that are
available.

To align in a new point, check of alignment is made by measuring the angle on the straight
line which should be 180º ± 20″ for the point established. By traversing, a fresh traverse is
run from different control but of the same origin to the newly established point to check the
accuracy of the point.

Similarly for heights, flying levelling can be carried out from a different bench mark to check
the heights previously got.

108
 CHAPTER EIGHT

8.0 AS-BUILT SURVEY

As-Built Surveys are the kind of survey operations carried out in order to document the
precise final locations and layouts of engineering works and record any design changes
that may have been incorporated into the construction.

OR

An as-built is a survey that verifies to a regulatory agency that a constructed project

has indeed, been built by the contractor the way that the engineer’s design specified it
to be built.

A finished structure seldom corresponds exactly to the original plans in every detail.
Unexpected, usually unforeseeable difficulties often make variations from the plans
necessary or, occasionally, variations may occur accidentally that are economically
unfeasible to correct. The purpose of an AS-BUILT SURVEY is to record these variations.
The as-built survey should begin as soon as it becomes feasible: meaning that the actual
horizontal and vertical locations of features in the completed structure should be determined
as soon as the features are erected.

Unlike many land surveys, done before buildings or other improvements are added to the
land or after these additions are complete, as-built surveys are utilized during the middle of a
construction project. As requested by many industries, as-built shows improvements to the
land, as they appeared at a particular point with time.

As-built surveys are conducted several times throughout the duration of a construction
project. Their frequency and the number of surveys undertaken depend on the scope of the
construction project. The purpose of an as-built survey is to verify to local and state boards
that the construction work authorized has been completed according to the same
specifications set during the planning stage and shown in the site plan. The as-built survey is
most often used to show the building inspector that a project under construction is
conforming with zoning regulations. As-built surveys may be required for nearly every type
of land project, from roads and trails to utility improvements and building construction.

109
Accurate as-builts are important not only as a bureaucratic measure, it is a type of survey that
shows exactly what has been completed to date, a useful tool in adjusting the schedule of a
large construction project. An as-built survey provides an important tool to manage the
building as it is under construction and after it has been completed. As such, they may be
requested by the project supervisor or others who are interested in the completion of the
project. They may be used to document what has been completed by a specific date or work
out payments to contractors. Often they are used to verify the floor plan and evacuation
plans, utility and cabling plans, or other subsequent steps in the building process.

Unlike many other land survey types, as-built surveys are often three-dimensional, rather
than flat maps and it is also known as “field verification of an-existing conditions”. This kind
of surveys has proven invaluable to those in many different positions responsible for the
space in question. It can also provide the basis for reconciling the drawings and other site
plan information against actual field conditions and the work that has been completed to date.

Upon completion of a project, it is essential that a final plan be drawn showing the actual
details of construction. The final plan, known as the “as-built drawing”, is usually quite
similar to the design plan, with the exception that revisions are made to reflect changes in
design that invariably occur during the construction process. Design changes result from
problems that become apparent only after construction is under way. It is difficult, especially
on complex projects, to plan for every eventuality that may be encountered; however, if the
preliminary surveyor and the designer have both done their jobs well, the design plan and the
as-built plan are usually quite similar.

8.1 IMPORTANCE OF AS-BUILT SURVEY

i. It is a type of survey that shows exactly what has been completed to date; therefore it
is a useful tool in adjusting the schedule of a large construction project.

ii. It is a useful tool in managing the building that is under construction and after it has
been completed.

110
iii. It can be used to document what has been completed by a specific date or work out
payments to contractors.

iv. It can also provide the basis for reconciling the drawings and other site plans
information against actual field conditions and the work that has been completed to
date.

111