Experiment 1: Cantilever Beam 1(a) Choose a suitable location to bond an electrical resistance strain gauge on a thin fe blade of steel. Clean the area well and bond the strain gauge as per instructions of the handout. | 1(b) Hold one of its end rigidly using clamps (Pig. 1.1). Apply a load P on the other end and measure strain. Vary the load upto 0.6 kg and plot stress vs. load curve (Fig. 1.2). Compare it with theoretical prediction for linear elastic materials ac -cmall displacements. Does the problem become nonlinear if load P is high? Why do we observe nonlinearity? Strain Guage Cantilever (Steel Blade) Clamp Weight Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of the setup Experirhntal ‘Theoretical z Fig. 1.2. Deliverable for Expt. 1 Questions useful for end sem. exam. and to help you write "discussion" (you are not nized to answer these questions one by one) 1. Where should we measure the thickness of the beam? 2. Is accurate measurement of thickness important? 3. Bonding of strain gauge to the beam should be perfect. Why so? 4, Does the beam deform plastically? Justify that: some designs are deflection-constrained Can geometrical non-linearity be accounted for in our theoretical model? Will the resulting differential equations be non-linear? 7. What is the current level in the strain gauge if voltage applied to bridge is 9 V? What happens if voltage is considerably higher? What is the maximum allowed current ih a strain gauge? Is heat sink important? 8. Dead weights of the beam and the pan were not considered. Does it introduce error?* i Experiment 2: Combined Stresses ; INTRODUCTION The most common combined load system encountered in struc- ~ tural design is probably that due to bending and torsion. ‘This experiment concerns the determination of state of stress at a few selected points of a hellow circular shaft subjected to combined bending and torsion. The experiment aims to teach the following (i) How to measure stress at a point using a rosette strain gauge and quarter bridge (ji) How to measure stress developed by a bending moment using half bridge (iii) How to measure stress developed by a torque in a tube (or round) using full bridge (iv) To learn that superposition works for linear elastie materials. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP A long hallow circular tube of aluminium (ID = 36.38 mm) is fixed rigidly at the free end and a load P is applied through a moment arm BC as shown in Fig. 2.1. Load P as well as its location L can be varied. Two rosette strain gauges ate bonded at distance s from the free end, one of them (Sfs, St, S' 4.) at the top and another (Sts, 52, S%45) at the bottom of the tube. Appendix 2A explains how a strain gauge is used to measure strain. Rigid Fixture Rosette Guage (Only top shown) ON Tolssm SEBKBLVIA7(Ale Find the state of stress at the top point at location s for maximum permissible load P and largest lever length available in the setup. Convert strains into stress using stress- @ strain relations and properties of aluminium. Compare all the three stress components with those obtained through theory. (see Appendix 2B for data reduction) ICEDURE Bs ind strain in Sf, leg of rosette strain gauge for maximuin L and varying P and plot Siz vs_P. Also, find strains in this direction using theory, caused by (a) bending ‘foment alone, (b) torque alone and (c) combined bending and torsional moments, Plot all these strains predicted by theory and compare the superposed strain with sexperimently measured strain. Does the superposition work? gure out how-to use gauges Sf and S* through the half bridge for measuring stresses Fdeveloped by bending moment alone. Vary L to show that the flexural (burning) stress does not change. Plot fiexural stress by varying L for a fixed value of P. Compare it Bwith the theoretical prediction for linear elastic materials used. FFigure out how to use 45° gauges through the full bridge to measure shear stress feaused by torsion alone. Plot shear stress 7,, as distance Z is varied for a fixed value of P. Compare it with the theoretical prediction of linear elastic materials by plotting fon a graph paper or through a computer.Appendix 2A; Strain Guages [J Measuring strain on a surface through a resistance strain gauge » (Prepared by Prashant Kumar) A resistance strain gauge is bonded to the surface of a component so well that it becomes an integral part of the component. Any change in length of the component between two points is monitored accurately with the strain gauge because the resistance of the strain auge wire is altered. Note that a strain gauge is capable of measuring only the normal ains (tensilé and compressive along the axis of the gauge). Shear strains are determined ndirectly by finding normal strain in several directions, Relation between normal strain (c) and change in electrical resistance (AR/R) is given by, AR/R € S, here S, is the gauge factor and is provided to us by the manufacturer of the strain gauges. ‘or example strain gauge, used in this laboratory courses, is of R = 120 © and has S, ~ 2, exact value is supplied by the manufacturer. Strain is supposed to be measured at a point but experimentally a strain gauge measures p average strain over an rectangular area (4.5 x 4— mm? for 120 Q strain gauge to be fused in our lab.). In fact, the total unfolded length of this strain gauge is about 50 mm it is folded to the small rectangular area as shown in Fig. 2.2a. Rosette strain gauges are shown in Figs. 2.2b and 2.2c. Strain Gauge Circuit Wheatstone bridge (Fig. 2.3 is employed to measure the change in the resistance accu- rately. For optimum sensitivity Re=R=R=h Beand voltage £ is made null just prior to measurement. f,, Ro, Rj and Rg can either be active strain gauges or dummy strain gauges (passive resistance, not bonded to the component) When the component is loaded, change in measured voltage is given by (Dally and Riley) agev (Hoh, om ah) R Ry Rs Ry or measuring strain at a point, only one active strain gauge is used at a time. For mea- Suring stress caused by a bending moment, two active gauges (Fy and Rp) are used, Ry at Fthe top surface and A, at the bottom surfaces Fig. 2.4. With this scheme responses of Ry and fi, are added together. For measuring shear stress caused by a torsional moment, four tive gauges may be used, two at the top point with +45° and —45° orientation and other 0 at the bottom point again with +45? and —45° orientation such that tensile strains used as A, and Ry arms of the Wheatstone bridge and compressive strains as Ry and . Then outputs of all four gauges are summed up to obtain high sensitivity (AE is of order of a few mV and a high value can be measured more accurately). It is difficult to measure AZ accurately only with the Wheatstone bridge. Also it de- Bpends upon V (voltage source) which may change with time. A commercially available JStrain Indicator is used to measure the strain which integrates a potentiometer with the Wheatstone bridge (Fig. 2.5), Initially potentiometer is set to obtain null value of E. After the load is applied on the component and resistances of the active strai in-gauges ch another null point is obtained by varying Rs and Re. Then change in R deectly eneevaluation of strain (Dally and Riley) j Reference Dally, J.W. and Riely, J.F. (1978) Experimental Stress Analysis, McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Ltd. Tokyo. fa) «@) BFig. 2.2 (a) A single element strait in gauge folded to small area, rosette (45°), and (c) () three - element three - element rosette (120°). STRAIN 4 GAUGES ] JN 2.3 The Wheatstone bridge circuit, Fig. 2.4 Two gauges bonded to a beam, Fig. 2.5 Potentiometer integrated with the Wheatstone bridge.Appendix 2B: Stress at a point fata Analysis of Part (1) [ fe Yay ] : : Yay ey : or finding éyy, Yey, applying transformation Equations (Fig. 2.6) aoe (S$) +(= <2) 05284 sin 29 fo 0 = 445°, 005.26 = 0, we obtain ! +65 dg = SEG Tey 2 2 ot yy Yay oO 2 WVe have two equations for two unknowns (yy ey) yielding a wy = €45 + €45 — Eo Tey = as — Cas ress-strain relations, 2 T for = B(x: — vO) say = 55 (Oy — v08) jay = G be solved to have cee = (Fo) (eet Hey) Cw = (4) (Gy + vess) Tay = Grey. piste constants of Aluminium : E = 69 MPa, v = 0.395,Eivaried. and coi Pare it wit ree (general Determine how pi BA BCD is made of a mild iB. 3.1). C ‘orners are Do the follow Measure deflection of point B th theory. artial differe, lized) is zero. stresses at points 5, empare with theoretic jie! flat of rectangular cross-section and welded to arigid made ri ing yi 4 Sa, A x "ntiation of total SED STRAIN GAES-1, ale bom ~3.4- 20062 € nd So through strain gauges and al predictions (refer Appendix 3A, sid by weld fillets. Load P is applied at Puinc and and plot it as function of variable Parameter P. Com- Strain energy with respect to an internal * plot them by varyinga yd ey, Uy 4 (lb Appendix 3A Stress and deflection in a Rectangular Portal frame with redundancy of third degree. (by Dr. Prashant Kumar) ider a square portal frame, made of mild steel fia id —— Tame, ma it of a rectangular cross-section ant led to a rigid wall (Fig. 3 2). Corners are made rigid by weld filets, ‘We shall determine Ses at Points S; and Sz and defiection of the load point P. The frame remains elastic ‘small deffection theory is used. ill use the well known relation obtained from Castigliano’s Energy Theorem, Ea OF, re U is the Strain Energy of the structure, F; is the applied load, and u; is the deflection e direction of load F; and at the point where F; is applied. 4 (1) to use Castigliano’s Theorem ill first discuss how to exploit Eq. 3.1 to solve problems of indeterminate structures. fider a beam fixed at both ends (Fig. 3.3). At point K, internal generalized forces, and F, are shown. A, is the vertical displacement in the upward direction of point direction of V; similarly A; is the deflection in downward direction of point Kp. ing compatibility, Ai =-A2 Castigliano’s theorem gives We eV Wr “a ay sre Uy and Up are strain-energies of sections MK and KN respectively. For total strain rey U =U, + Up, these equations yield jou _.) 570): (3.2) ( See 9 3.1) SSE Fig. 3.2 Portal frame Fig. 3.3 Beam with fixed ends“se fw we obtain two more relations, XE / 7 e can obtain three additional equations. nak to the Portal Frame, we make a cut at point B as shown in Fig. 3.4 and ite ‘the three internal loads V, H and M. Total strain energy U, in general, is given (ing the effect of shear) _s [Mids FL US | oer tL aap bending moment axial force at a section modulus of elasticity moment of inertia. area of cross-section. ig this equation and making use of Eqs. 3.2 - 3.4, we obtain MoM, FLOF _ Lf Pare+l peo MOM, y ss FLOP _ Ll Perl yanetermining Strain Energy Member AB (Fig. 3.5) eralized forces are given by M = M-av Fo= -H ding aM, _ oH OF iia oa = fember BC (Fig. 3.6) ralized forces and associated partial differentials are _ _ My OM, aM, My = M+yH; OH OH 7% By =0 a = aa = ar_, OF _ or Fs Vi or ), aah am 7°: fember CD (Fig. 3.7) alized forces and associated partial differentials are Mo = -M-IH+2V—0P, roy aM, _ | OM oH OF Fig. 3.5 Forces in Member ABubstitution in Bq. (3.5) gives if a i [os [ts utnyay 4 [cu lH tov — =PI-pa] 1 +Gl(-M)(-YI+04 Hay] <0 1f{me 3 ve pp 2HI TP ee mesa Ve, Pe TL 2 + +e am rt] a S (1481) y Vamp ; *ogp) HE + OM 2 ISO, e ~ 3p rts 3mm; 1170 mm, ta 35, we have e 6 gp = 389x101 We neglect the term 23, in comparision to 1. Note that it is contributed by the axial 7 Similarly, we can neglect the effect of xial force on the other two equations (3.6 & bstituting in Eq, (3.6) and Tetaining only bending moment terms, we have i[lor—sncaeesor femur sey —aPyee =o HUW oM_P 54 ML 2°37 T Z- stitution in Eq. (3.7) and retaining only bending moment terms, we obtain M FE b a b a ¢ xc F P 3.6 Forces in Member BC Fig. 3.7 Forces in Member(CDif [ot-avy0)te + [or+uay +dy + [cu -WW+av— 2P)(-1)] =0 2 2 2 ME at AE ate we Py « i 3Pl ¥ M=—. ae 1 $25 at point 5; and S; Ree points 5 and S, are now be evaluated easil; ae y by using Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.8 Bending moment at Sy and S, (3.7)M, = SPt_ Pa va (2 “) D = (2 _5)p. aS a tress given by ‘ we stress given 4 7 &y i 2 _ 6M * mM (5) bh8 ORE _ (3Pl_ ab = ( ~aP ) 6M, on = Me ction of load P tion A is determined by aU _ Wa , Voc , Veo ~ OP > “OP oP oP er- neglecting the effect of shear and axial forces, U is given by 5 2 0 O = say | Meas OM oP al Moe 3Pl_ oP My=M-av = 2 (3.8) * dM, _ th BUay _ =—8_PH OP# © ~ 3x 196 ET 3 5) 3p, —3p(t = M+ yl = 3Pl-PPy= FP (5 )13 Pe ing the terms of all members ou 13) Pe aoa | Tue) Br | a °Objectives In this experiment, objectives are 1, Determination of material fringe value of a photoelastic birefringent material using a circular disc. : 2. To find principal directions at a marked point on the disc. Clearly show principal direction through a sketch. 3. Determination of stress distribution over the depth of a beam under four point bend- ing. 4. To study stress concentration through photoelastic fringes around a fillet through ) | several polyurethene rubber models. Material Fringe Value In any photoelastic experiment, initially, the material fringe value (F,) of the model ma- terial has to be determined. A circular disc under diametral compression can be used to determine it because the loading is quite simple and theoretical solutions are available for such a situation, | Stress optic law is given by NF, == (a-m) (4) where V is fringe order, t is the thickness of the specimen and oy and 2 are princi stresses, At the centre of the disc, which is loaded diametrically as shown in Fig. (Dally & Riley), we have (o1-02) = = (4.2) | Eliminating (¢; — 02) from Eqs. 4.1 and 4.2 we have 8R Fs = SDN (4:3) For experimentation follow the steps : _ * Align the polaiscope for a circularly polarized light (dark field). For various Of the loa, ind the fringe order at the center ofthe model using Tardy compensating method. * Plot load vs. fringe order and find the ratio P/N as the slope of the fit i line of the graph. - y ean * Use the above value in Eq. (4.3) and determine F, Principal direction at a point 4 To find principal directions at a given Point of the disc, unison till the isoclinic fringe passes through the poi ertical determines the principal direction. In your rep , Totate the polarizer and an: int. Inclination of analyzer from"! ort show the principal direction:‘point through a figure drawn to scale. ica ‘under bending ‘beam made of photoelastic material same as of the disc is loaded through 4-point bending Shown in the Fig. 4.2. Using Eq. 4.1 find the state of stress in the uniform central portion beam as a function of y (at the marked points) by following the procedure '* Measure distance between loads applied by the loading frame and dimensions of the beam. * Place the beam in the loading frame and for an applied load determine principal “rection from the isoclinic fringe ‘Using the stress-optic law plot the stress distribution over the depth of the beam. pare the result with the beam theory. How does a zero degree isoclinic look like. stress concentration Polyurethene rubber models are provided to you with a fillet of different radius. ch the fringes while conducting the experiment and explain the result. ‘The al sketch or its photocopying should be pasted in the report. tual) yi aryl, | o¢ load | Bt, |SI |G | ca canter froaved | ot | Cant? ne Fig. 4.1 Circular dise Fi Cireut ig. 4.2 Rectangular Toaded diametrically loaded under four Polat eedlng