NATURE, TYPES AND SOURCES OF STRESS While waiting to cross the road on a busy Monday morning, you may be

temporarily stressed. But, because you are alert,vigilant and aware of the danger, you are able to cross the road
safely. Faced with any challenge, we put in additional efforts and mobilise all our resources and the support system
to meet the challenge. All the challenges, problems, and difficult circumstances put us to stress. Thus, if handled
properly, stress increases the probability of one’s survival. Stress is like electricity. It gives energy, increases human
arousal and affects performance.However, if the electric current is too high,it can fuse bulbs, damage appliances,
etc.High stress too can produce unpleasant effects and cause our performance to deteriorate. Conversely, too little
stress may cause one to feel somewhat listless and low on motivation which may lead us to perform slowly and less
efficiently. It is important to remember that not all stress is inherently bad or destructive. ‘Eustress’ is the term used
to describe the level of stress that is good for you and is one of a person’s best assets for achieving peak
performance and managing minor crisis. Eustress, however, has the potential of turning into ‘distress’. It is this latter
manifestation of stress that causes our body’s wear and tear. Thus, stress can be described as the pattern of
responses an organism makes to stimulus event that disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope.
Nature of Stress The word stress has its origin in the Latin words ‘strictus’, meaning tight or narrow and ‘stringere’,
the verb meaning to tighten. These root words reflect the internal feelings of tightness and constriction of the
muscles and breathing reported by many people under stress. Stress is often explained in terms of characteristics of
the environment that are disruptive to the individual. Stressors are events that cause our body to give the stress
response. Such events include noise, crowding, a bad relationship, or the daily commuting to school or office. The
reaction to external stressors is called ‘strain’ (see Fig.3.1). Stress has come to be associated with both the causes as
well as effects. However, this view of stress can cause confusion. Hans Selye, the father of modern stress research,
defined stress as “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand” that is, regardless of the cause of the
threat, the individual will respond with the same physiological pattern of reactions. Many researchers do not agree
with this definition as they feel that the stress response is not nearly as general and nonspecific as Selye suggests.
Different stressors may produce somewhat different patterns of stress reaction, and different individuals may have
different characteristic modes of response. You may recall the case of an opening batsman mentioned earlier. Each
one of us will see the situation through our own eyes and it is our perception of the demands, and our ability to
meet them, which will determine whether we are feeling ‘stressed’ or not. Stress is not a factor that resides in the
individual or the environment, instead it is embedded in an ongoing process that involves individuals transacting
with their social and cultural environments, making appraisals of those encounters and attempting to cope with the
issues that arise. Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive state. It is a disruption in homeostasis or an imbalance that
gives rise to a requirement for resolution of that imbalance or restoration of homeostasis. The perception of stress
is dependent upon the individual’s cognitive appraisal of events and the resources available to deal with them. The
stress process, based on the cognitive theory of stress propounded by Lazarus and his colleagues, is described in
Figure 3.2. An individual’s response to a stressful situation largely depends upon the perceived events and how they
are interpreted or appraised. Lazarus has distinguished between two types of appraisal, i.e. primary and secondary.
Primary appraisal refers to the perception of a new or changing environment as positive, neutral or negative in its
consequences. Negative events are appraised for their possible harm, threat or challenge. Harm is the assessment of
the damage that has already been done by an event. Threat is the assessment of possible future damage that may
be brought about by the event. Challenge appraisals are associated with more confident expectations of the ability
to cope with the stressful event, the potential to overcome and even profit from the event. When we perceive an
event as stressful, we are likely to make a secondary appraisal, which is the assessment of one’s coping abilities and
resources and whether they will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat or challenge of the event. These resources
may be mental, physical, personal or social. If one thinks one has a positive attitude, health, skills and social support
to deal with the crises s/he will feel less stressed. This two-level appraisal process determines not only our cognitive
and behavioural responses but also our emotional and physiological responses to external events. These appraisals
are very subjective and will depend on many factors. One factor is the past experience of dealing with such a
stressful condition. If one has handled similar situations very successfully in the past, they would be less threatening
for her/him. Another factor is whether the stressful event is perceived as controllable, i.e. whether one has mastery
or control over a situation. A person who believes that s/he can control the onset of a negative situation, or its
adverse consequences, will experience less amount of stress than those who have no such sense of personal control.
For example, a sense of self-confidence or efficacy can determine whether the person is likely to appraise the
situation as a threat or a challenge. Thus, the experience and outcome of a stressor may vary from individual to
individual. Stress, includes all those environmental and personal events, which challenge or threaten the well-being
of a person. These stressors can be external, such as environmental (noise, air pollution), social (break-up with a
friend, loneliness) or psychological (conflict, frustration) within the individual. Very often, these stressors result in a
variety of stress reactions, which may be physiological, behavioural, emotional, and cognitive (see Fig.3.2). At the
physiological level, arousal plays a key role in stress related behaviours. The hypothalamus initiates action along two
pathways. The first pathway involves the autonomic nervous system. The adrenal gland releases large amount of
catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the blood stream. This leads to physiological changes seen in
fight-or-flight response. The second pathway involves the pituitary gland, which secretes the corticosteroid (cortisol)
which provides energy. The emotional reactions to experience of stress include negative emotions such as fear,
anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression or even denial. The behavioural responses are virtually limitless,
depending on the nature of the stressful event. Confrontative action against the stressor (fight) or withdrawal from
the threatening event 54 Psychology (flight) are two general categories of behavioural responses. Cognitive
responses include beliefs about the harm or threat an event poses and beliefs about its causes or controllability.
These include responses such as inability to concentrate, and intrusive, repetitive or morbid thoughts. As indicated in
Figure 3.2, the stresses which people experience also vary in terms of intensity (low intensity vs. high intensity),
duration (short-term vs. longterm), complexity ( less complex vs. more complex) and predictability (unexpected
vs. predictable). The outcome of stress depends on the position of a particular stressful experience along these
dimensions. Usually more intense, prolonged or chronic, complex and unanticipated stresses have more negative
consequences than have less intense, short-term, less complex and expected stresses. An individual’s experiences of
stress depend on the physiological strength of that person. Thus, individuals with poor physical health and weak
constitution would be more vulnerable than would be those who enjoy good health and strong constitution.
Psychological characteristics like mental health, temperament, and selfconcept are relevant to the experience of
stress. The cultural context in which we live determines the meaning of any event and defines the nature of
response that is expected under various conditions. Finally, the resources of the person, such as money, will
determine the stress experience social skills, coping style, support networks, etc. All these factors determine the
appraisal of a given stressful situation. Signs and Symptoms of Stress The way we respond to stress varies depending
upon our personality, early upbringing and life experiences. Everyone has their own pattern of stress response. So
the warning signs may vary, as may their intensity. Some of us know our pattern of stress response and can gauge
the depth of the problem by the nature and severity of our own symptoms or changes in behaviour. These
symptoms of stress can be physical, emotional and behavioural. Any of the symptoms can indicate a degree of stress
which, if left unresolved, might have serious implications. Types of Stress The three major types of stress, viz.
physical and environmental, psychological, and social are listed in Figure 3.2. It is important to understand that all
these types of stress are interrelated. Physical and Environmental Stress Physical stresses are demands that change
the state of our body. We feel strained when we overexert ourselves physically, lack a nutritious diet, suffer an
injury, or fail to get enough sleep. Environmental stresses are aspects of our surroundings that are often unavoidable
such as air pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the summer, winter cold, etc. Another group of environmental stresses
are catastrophic events or disasters such as fire, earthquake, floods, etc. Psychological Stress These are stresses that
we generate ourselves in our minds. These are personal and unique to the person experiencing them and are
internal sources of stress. We worry about problems, feel anxiety, or become depressed. These are not only
symptoms of stress, but they cause further stress for us. Some of the important sources of psychological stress are
frustration, conflicts, internal and social pressures, etc. Frustration results from the blocking of needs and motives by
something or someone that hinders us from achieving a desired goal. There could be a number of causes of
frustration such as social discrimination, interpersonal hurt, low grades in school, etc. Conflicts may occur between
two or more incompatible needs or motives, e.g. whether to study dance or psychology. You may want to continue
studies or take up a job. There may be a conflict of values when you are pressurised to take any action that may be
against the values held by you. Internal pressures stem from beliefs based upon expectations from inside us to
ourselves such as, ‘I must do everything perfectly’. Such expectations can only lead to disappointment. Many of us
drive ourselves ruthlessly towards achieving unrealistically high standards in achieving our goals. Social pressures
maybe brought about from people who make excessive demands on us. This can cause even greater pressure when
we have to work with them. Also, there are people with whom we face interpersonal difficulties, ‘a personality clash’
of sorts.

Social Stress These are induced externally and result from our interaction with other people. Social events like death
or illness in the family, strained relationships, trouble with neighbours are some examples of social stresses. These
social stresses vary widely from person to person. Attending parties may be stressful for a person who likes to spend
quiet evenings at home while an outgoing person may find staying at home in the evenings stressful. Sources of
Stress A wide range of events and conditions can generate stress. Among the most important of these are major
stressful life events, such as death of a loved one or personal injury, the annoying frequent hassles of everyday life
and traumatic events that affect our lives.

A Measure of Stressful Life Events Holmes and Rahe developed a life event measure of stress. A measure of stressful
life events based on the above scale known as the Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale has been developed for
the Indian population by Singh, Kaur and Kaur. It is a self-rating questionnaire made up of fifty-one life changes,
which a person may have experienced. Each of these life events is assigned a numerical value in terms of their
severity. For example, the death of one’s spouse is assigned 95, personal illness or injury 56, failure in examination
43, appearing for examination or interview 43, change in sleeping habits 33,as the mean stress score. Both positive
and negative events are taken, believing that both kinds of changes cause stress. The respondent’s stress score is the
weighted sum of all the items/life change events in the past one year checked by her/him.

The mean number of stressful life events experienced over a period of one year without producing overt physical or
mental illness is approximately two. However, the correlations between life events and susceptibility to any
particular illness is low, indicating a weak association between life events and stress. It has been argued as to
whether life events have caused some stress-related illness or whether stress caused the life events and illness. The
impact of most life events varies from person to person. Factors such as age at which the event was first
experienced, frequency of occurrence, duration of the stressful event and social support must be studied in
evaluating the relationship between stressful life events and the subsequent illness episode.

Life Events Changes, both big and small, sudden and gradual affect our life from the moment we are born. We learn
to cope with small, everyday changes but major life events can be stressful, because they disturb our routine and
cause upheaval. If several of these life events that are planned (e.g. moving into a new house) or unpredicted(e.g.
break-up of a long-term relationship)occur within a short period of time, we find it difficult to cope with them and
will be more prone to the symptoms of stress.

Hassles These are the personal stresses we endure as individuals, due to the happenings in our daily life, such as
noisy surroundings, commuting, quarrelsome neighbours, electricity and water shortage, traffic snarls, and so on.
Attending to various emergencies are daily hassles experienced by a housewife. There are some jobs in which daily
hassles are very frequent. These daily hassles may sometimes have devastating consequences for the individual who
is often the one coping alone with them as others may not even be aware of them as outsiders. The more stress
people report as a result of daily hassles, the poorer is their psychological well-being. Traumatic Events These include
being involved in a variety of extreme events such as a fire, train or road accident, robbery, earthquake, tsunami,
etc. The effects of these events may occur after some lapse of time and sometimes persist as symptoms of anxiety,
flashbacks, dreams and intrusive thoughts, etc. Severe trauma can also strain relationships. Professional help will be
needed to cope with them especially if they persist for many months after the event is over.

EFFECTS OF STRESS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING AND HEALTH What are the effects of stress? Many of the
effects are physiological in nature, however, other changes also occur inside stressed individuals. There are four
major effects of stress associated with the stressed state, viz. emotional, physiological, cognitive, and behavioural.
Emotional Effects : Those who suffer from stress are far more likely to experience mood swings, and show erratic
behaviour that may alienate them from family and friends. In some cases this can start a vicious circle of decreasing
confidence, leading to more serious emotional problems. Some examples are feelings of anxiety and depression,
increased physical tension, increased psychological tension band mood swings. Box 3.2 presents the phenomenon of
‘Examination Anxiety’. Physiological Effects : When the human body is placed under physical or psychological stress,
it increases the production of certain hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones produce marked
changes in heart rate, blood pressure levels, metabolism and physical activity. Although, this physical reaction will
help us to function more effectively when we are under pressure for short periods of time, it can be extremely
damaging to the body in the long-term effects. Examples of physiological effects are release of epinephrine and nor-
epinephrine, slowing down of the digestive system, expansion of air passages in the lungs, increased heart rate, and
constriction of blood vessels. Cognitive Effects : If pressures due to stress continue, one may suffer from mental
overload. This suffering from high level of stress can rapidly cause individuals to lose their ability to make sound
decisions. Faulty decisions made at home, in career, or at workplace may lead to arguments, failure, financial loss or
even loss of job. Cognitive effects of stress are poor concentration, and reduced short-term memory capacity.
Behavioural Effects : Stress affects our behaviour in the form of eating less nutritional food, increasing intake of
stimulants such as caffeine, excessive consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs such as tranquillisers etc.
Tranquillisers can be addictive and have side effects such as loss of concentration, poor coordination, and dizziness.
Some of the typical behavioural effects of stress seen are disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism, and
reduced work performance.

Examination Anxiety Examination anxiety is a fairly common phenomenon that involves feelings of tension or
uneasiness that occur before, during, or after an examination. Many people experience feelings of anxiety around
examinations and find it helpful in some ways, as it can be motivating and create the pressure that is needed to stay
focused on one’s performance. Examination nerves, worry, or fear of failure are normal for even the most talented
student. However, stress of formal examination results in such high degrees of anxiety in some students that they
are unable to perform at a level which matches the potential they have shown in less stressful classroom situations.
Examination stress has been characterised as “evaluative apprehension” or “evaluative stress” and produces
debilitating behavioural, cognitive, and physiological effects no different from those produced by any other stressor.
High stress can interfere with the student’s preparation, concentration, and performance. Examination stress can
cause test anxiety which adversely affects test performance. Persons who are high in test anxiety tend to perceive
evaluative situations as personally threatening; in test situations, they are often tense, apprehensive, nervous, and
emotionally aroused. Moreover, the negative self-centred cognitions which they experience distract their attention
and interfere with concentration during examinations. High test anxious students respond to examination stress with
intense emotional reactions, negative thoughts about themselves, feelings of inadequacy, helplessness, and loss of
status and esteem that impair their performance. Generally, the high test anxious person instead of plunging into a
task plunges inward, that is, either neglects or misinterprets informational cues that may be readily available to
her/him, or experiences attentional blocks. While preparing for examinations, one must spend enough time for
study, overview and weigh one’s strengths and weaknesses, discuss difficulties with teachers and classmates, plan a
revision timetable, condense notes, space out revision periods, and most importantly on the examination day
concentrate on staying calm.

Stress and Health You must have often observed that many of your friends (may be including yourself as well!) fall
sick during the examination time. They suffer from stomach upsets, body aches, nausea, diarrhoea and fever etc. You
must have also noticed that people who are unhappy in their personal lives fall sick more often than those who are
happy and enjoy life. Chronic daily stress can divert an individual’s attention from caring for herself or himself. When
stress is prolonged, it affects physical health and impairs psychological functioning. People experience exhaustion
and attitudinal problems when the stress due to demands from the environment and constraints are too high and
little support is available from family and friends. The physical exhaustion is seen in the signs of chronic fatigue,
weakness and low energy. The mental exhaustion appears in the form of irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness
and hopelessness. This state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion is known as burnout. There is also
convincing evidence to show that stress can produce changes in the immune system and increase the chances of
someone becoming ill. Stress has been implicated in the development of cardiovascular disorders, high blood
pressure, as well as psychosomatic disorders including ulcers, asthma, allergies and headaches. Researchers estimate
that stress plays an important role in fifty to seventy per cent of all physical illnesses. Studies also reveal that sixty
per cent of medical visits are primarily for stress-related symptoms. General Adaptation Syndrome What happens to
the body when stress is prolonged? Selye studied this issue by subjecting animals to a variety of stressors such as
high temperature, X-rays and insulin injections, in the laboratory over a long period of time. He also observed
patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals. Selye noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of
them. He called this pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS involves three stages:
alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion (see Fig.3.3). Fig.3.3 : The General Adaptation Syndrome 1. Alarm
reaction stage : The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to activation of the adrenal pituitary-cortex
system. This triggers the release of hormones producing the stress response. Now the individual is ready for fight or
flight. 2. Resistance stage : If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The parasympathetic nervous system
calls for more cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, as through
confrontation. 3. Exhaustion stage : Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains the body
of its resources and leads to the third stage of exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and
resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood pressure becomes
more likely. Selye’s model has been criticised for assigning a very limited role to psychological factors in stress.
Researchers have reported that the psychological appraisal of events is important for the determination of stress.
How people respond to stress is substantially influenced by their perceptions, personalities and biological
constitutions. Stress and the Immune System Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune
system. The immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside.
Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the immune system. It studies the
effects of stress on the immune system. How does the immune system work? The white blood cells (leucocytes)
within the immune system identify and destroy foreign bodies antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to the
production of antibodies. There are several kinds of white blood cells or leucocytes within the immune system,
including T cells, B cells and natural killer cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper cells increase immunological
activity. It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), the virus causing
Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). B cells produce antibodies. Natural killer cells are involved in the fight
against both viruses and tumours. Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in the
defence against various infections and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer cell cytotoxicity have been found in
people who are highly stressed, including students facing important examinations, bereaved persons, and those who
are severely depressed. Studies reveal that immune functioning is better in individuals receiving social support. Also,
changes in the immune system will have more effect on health among those whose immune systems are already
weakened. Figure 3.4 depicts this sequence comprising negative emotions, release of stress hormones which lead to
weakening of the immune system, thereby affecting mental and physical health. Psychological stress is accompanied
by negative emotions and associated behaviours, including depression, hostility, anger and aggression. Negative
emotion states are of particular concern to the study of effects of stress on health. The incidence of psychological
disorders, such as panic attacks and obsessive behaviour increases with the build up of long-term stress. Worries can
reach such a level that they surface as a frightening, painful physical sensation, which can be mistaken for a heart
attack. People under prolonged stress are more prone to irrational fears, mood swings and phobias, and may
experience fits of depression, anger and irritability. These negative emotions appear to be related to the function of
the immune system. Our ability to interpret our world and to invest that interpretation with personal meaning and
emotion have a powerful and direct effect on the body. Negative moods have been associated with poorer health
outcomes. Feelings of hopelessness are related to worsening of disease, increased risk of injury and death due to
various causes. Lifestyle Stress can lead to unhealthy lifestyle or health damaging behaviour. Lifestyle is the overall
pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s health and quality of life. Stressed individuals may be
more likely to expose themselves to pathogens, which are agents causing physical illness. People who are stressed
have poor nutritional habits, sleepless and are likely to engage in other health risking behaviours like smoking and
alcohol abuse. Such health impairing behaviours develop gradually and are accompanied by pleasant experiences
temporarily. However, we tend to ignore their long-term damaging effects and underestimate the risk they pose to
our lives. Studies have revealed that health promoting behaviour like balanced diet, regular exercise, family support,
etc. play an important role in good health. Adhering to a lifestyle that includes balanced low fat diet, regular exercise
and continued activity along with positive thinking enhances health and longevity. The modern lifestyle of excesses
in eating, drinking and the so called fast-paced good life has led to violation of basic principles of health in some of
us, as to what we eat, think or do with our lives. COPING WITH STRESS In recent years the conviction has grown that
it is how we cope with stress and not the stress one experiences that influences our psychological well-being, social
functioning and health. Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to
stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress. The way we cope with
stress often depends on rigid deep-seated beliefs, based on experience, e.g. when caught in a traffic jam we feel
angry, because we believe that the traffic ‘should’ move faster. To manage stress we often need to reassess the way
we think and learn coping strategies. People who cope poorly with stress have an impaired immune response and
diminished activity of natural killer cells. Individuals show consistent individual differences in the coping strategies
they use to handle stressful situations. These can include both overt and covert activities. The three coping strategies
given by Endler and Parker are: Task-oriented Strategy : This involves obtaining information about the stressful
situation and about alternative courses of action and their probable outcome; it also involves deciding priorities and
acting so as to deal directly with the stressful situation. For example, schedule my time better, or think about how I
have solved similar problems. Emotion-oriented Strategy : This can involve efforts to maintain hope and to control
one’s emotions; it can also involve venting feelings of anger and frustration, or deciding that nothing can be done to
change things. For example, tell myself that it is not really happening to me, or worry about what I am going to do.
Avoidance-oriented Strategy : This involves denying or minimising the seriousness of the situation; it also involves
conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by self protective thoughts. Examples of this are
watching TV, phone up a friend, or try to be with other people. Lazarus and Folkman has conceptualised coping as a
dynamic process rather than an individual trait. Coping refers to constantly changing cognitive and behavioural
efforts to master, reduce or tolerate the internal or external demands that are created by the stressful transaction.
Coping serves to allow the individual to manage or alter a problem and regulate the emotional response to that
problem. According to them coping responses can be divided into two types of responses, problem-focused and
emotion-focused. Problem-focused strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviours designed to gain
information, to alter the event, and to alter belief and commitments. They increase the person’s awareness, level of
knowledge, and range of behavioural and cognitive coping options. They can act to reduce the threat value of the
event. For example “I made a plan of action and followed it”. Emotion-focused strategies call for psychological
changes designed primarily to limit the degree of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to
alter the event itself. For example “I did some things to let it out of my system”. While both problem-focused and
emotion-focused coping are necessary when facing stressful situations, research suggests that people generally tend
to use the former more often than the latter. Stress Management Techniques Stress is a silent killer. It is estimated
to play a significant role in physical illness and disease. Hypertension, heart disease, ulcers, diabetes and even cancer
are linked to stress. Due to lifestyle changes stress is on the increase. Therefore, schools, other institutions, offices
and communities are concerned about knowing techniques to manage stress. Some of these techniques are:
Relaxation Techniques : It is an active skill that reduces symptoms of stress and decreases the incidence of illnesses
such as high blood pressure and heart disease. Usually relaxation starts from the lower part of the body and
progresses up to the facial muscles in such a way that the whole body is relaxed. Deep breathing is used along with
muscle relaxation to calm the mind and relax the body. Meditation Procedures : The yogic method of meditation
consists of a sequence of learned techniques for refocusing of attention that brings about an altered state of
consciousness. It involves such a thorough concentration that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside
stimulation and reaches a different state of consciousness. Biofeedback : It is a procedure to monitor and reduce the
physiological aspects of stress by providing feedback about current physiological activity and is often accompanied
by relaxation training.

Biofeedback training involves three stages : developing an awareness of the particular physiological response, e.g.
heart rate, learning ways of controlling that physiological response in quiet conditions; and transferring that control
into the conditions of everyday life. Creative Visualisation : It is an effective technique for dealing with stress.
Creative visualisation is a subjective experience that uses imagery and imagination. Before visualising one must set
oneself a realistic goal, as it helps build confidence. It is easier to visualise if one’s mind is quiet, body relaxed and
eyes are closed. This reduces the risk of interference from unbidden thoughts and provides the creative energy
needed for turning an imagined scene into reality. Cognitive Behavioural Techniques : These techniques aim to
inoculate people against stress. Stress inoculation training is one effective method developed by Meichenbaum. The
essence of this approach is to replace negative and irrational thoughts with positive and rational ones. There are
three main phases in this : assessment, stress reduction techniques, and application and follow through. Assessment
involves discussing the nature of the problem and seeing it from the viewpoint of the person/client. Stress reduction
involves learning the techniques of reducing stress such as relaxation and self-instruction. Exercise : Exercise can
provide an active outlet for the physiological arousal experienced in response to stress. Regular exercise improves
the efficiency of the heart, enhances the function of the lungs, maintains good circulation, lowers blood pressure,
reduces fat in the blood and improves the body’s immune system. Swimming, walking, running, cycling, skipping, etc.
help to reduce stress. One must practice these exercises at least four times a week for 30 minutes at a time. Each
session must have a warm-up, exercise and cool down phases. PROMOTING POSITIVE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING It
is unlikely that we will go through life without some experience of personal crises causing acute pressure for a while.
Many people sail through and rebuild their lives very positively. They are likely to have constructive attitudes and
also have lots of emotional and social support of various kinds available to them. When we find ways of managing
these pressures and can use the energy to create something positive out of the situation, then we will have learned
to survive healthily and this will leave us more stress fit for future crises. It is like being immunised against the
dangers of unhealthy stress. Stress Resistant Personality : Recent studies by Kobasa have shown that people with
high levels of stress but low levels of illness share three characteristics, which are referred to as the personality traits
of hardiness. It consists of ‘the three Cs’, i.e. commitment, control, and challenge. Hardiness is a set of beliefs
about oneself, the world, and how they interact. It takes shape as a sense of personal commitment to what you are
doing, a sense of control over your life, and a feeling of challenge. Stress resistant personalities have control which is
a sense of purpose and direction in life; commitment to work, family, hobbies and social life; and challenge, that is,
they see changes in life as normal and positive rather than as a threat. Everyone does not have these characteristics,
many of us have to relearn specific life skills in areas such as rational thinking, and assertiveness to equip ourselves
better to cope with the demands of everyday life, etc.

Life Skills Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with
the demands and challenges of everyday life. Our ability to cope depends on how well we are prepared to deal with
and counterbalance everyday demands, and keep equilibrium in our lives. These life skills can be learned and even
improved upon. Assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self-care, and
overcoming unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, procrastination, etc. are some life skills that will help to meet the
challenges of life. Assertiveness : Assertiveness is a behaviour or skill that helps to communicate, clearly and
confidently, our feelings, needs, wants, and thoughts. It is the ability to say no to a request, to state an opinion
without being self-conscious, or to express emotions such as love, anger, etc. openly. If you are assertive, you feel
confident, and have high self-esteem and a solid sense of your own identity. Time Management : The way you spend
your time determines the quality of your life. Learning how to plan time and delegate can help to relieve the
pressure. The major way to reduce time stress is to change one’s perception of time. The central principle of time
management is to spend your time doing the things that you value, or that help you to achieve your goals. It
depends on being realistic about what you know and that you must do it within a certain time period, knowing what
you want to do, and organising your life to achieve a balance between the two. Rational Thinking : Many stress-
related problems occur as a result of distorted thinking. The way you think and the way you feel are closely
connected. When we are stressed, we have an inbuilt selective bias to attend to negative thoughts and 64
Psychology images from the past, which affect our perception of the present and the future. Some of the principles
of rational thinking are: challenging your distorted thinking and irrational beliefs, driving out potentially intrusive
negative anxiety-provoking thoughts, and making positive statements. Improving Relationships : The key to a sound
lasting relationship is communication. This consists of three essential skills: listening to what the other person is
saying, expressing how you feel and what you think, and accepting the other person’s opinions and feelings, even if
they are different from your own. It also requires us to avoid misplaced jealousy and sulking behaviour. Self-care : If
we keep ourselves healthy, fit and relaxed, we are better prepared physically and emotionally to tackle the stresses
of everyday life. Our breathing patterns reflect our state of mind and emotions. When we are stressed or anxious,
we tend towards rapid and shallow breathing from high in the chest, with frequent sighs. The most relaxed breathing
is slow, stomach-centred breathing from the diaphragm, i.e. a dome like muscle between the chest and the
abdominal cavity. Environmental stresses like noise, pollution, space, light, colour, etc. can all exert an influence on
our mood. These have a noticeable effect on our ability to cope with stress, and well-being. Overcoming Unhelpful
Habits : Unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, avoidance, procrastination, etc. are strategies that help to cope in
the short-term but which make one more vulnerable to stress. Perfectionists are persons who have to get everything
just right. They have difficulty in varying standards according to factors such as time available, consequences of not
being able to stop work, and the effort needed. They are more likely to feel tense and find it difficult to relax, are
critical of self and others, and may become inclined to avoid challenges. Avoidance is to put the issue under the
carpet and refuse to acceptor face it. Procrastination means putting off what we know we need to do. We all are
guilty of saying “I will do it later”. People who procrastinate are deliberately avoiding confronting their fears of
failure or rejection. Various factors have been identified which facilitate the development of positive health. Health
is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity. Positive health comprises the following constructs:“a healthy body; high quality of personal relationships; a
sense of purpose in life; self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks; and resilience to stress, trauma, and change”. Box 3.3
presents the relationship between resilience and health. Specifically, factors that act as stress buffers and facilitate
positive health are diet, exercise, positive attitude, positive thinking, and social support. Diet : A balanced diet can lift
one’s mood, give more energy, feed muscles, improve circulation, prevent illness, strengthen the immune system
and make one feel better to cope with stresses of life. The key to healthy living is to eat three main meals a day, and
eat a varied well-balanced diet. How much nutrition one needs depends on one's activity level, genetic make-up,
climate, and health history. What people eat, and how much do they weigh involve behavioural processes. Some
people are able to maintain a healthy diet and weight while others become obese. When we are stressed, we seek
‘comfort foods’ which are high in fats, salt and sugar.

Resilience and Health In recent years, there has been a lot of research in understanding resilience in children and
adolescents. Resilience is a dynamic developmental process referring to the maintenance of positive adjustment
under challenging life conditions. It has been described as the capacity to ‘bounce back’ in the face of stress and
adversity. Resilience has been conceptualised as reflecting feelings of self-worth and self-confidence, autonomy and
self-reliance, finding positive role models, seeking a confidant, cognitive skills such as problem solving, creativity,
resourcefulness, and flexibility and a belief that one’s life has purpose and meaning. Resilient individuals are able to
overcome the effects of trauma, stress and adversity and learn to live psychologically healthy and meaningful lives.
Resilience has recently been defined in terms of three resources: I HAVE (social and interpersonal strengths), i.e.
‘people around me I trust and who love me no matter what’, IAM (inner strengths), i.e. ‘respectful of myself and
others’, and I CAN ( interpersonal and problem solving skills), i.e. ‘find ways to solve problems I face’. For a child to
be resilient s/he needs to have more than one of these strengths. For example, children may have plenty of self-
esteem (I am), but may lack anyone whom they can turn to for support (I have), and do not have the capacity to
solve problems (I can), will not be resilient. Outcomes of longitudinal studies of children provide evidence that in
spite of extreme vulnerabilities related to poverty and other social disadvantages, many individuals develop into
capable and caring adults.

Exercise : A large number of studies confirm a consistently positive relationship between physical fitness and health.
Also, of all the measures an individual can take to improve health, exercise is the lifestyle change with the widest
popular approval. Regular exercise plays an important role in managing weight and stress, and is shown to have a
positive effect on reducing tension, anxiety and depression. Physical exercises that are essential for good health are
stretching exercises such as yogic asanas and aerobic exercises such as jogging, swimming, cycling, etc. Whereas
stretching exercises have a calming effect, aerobic exercises increase the arousal level of the body. The health
benefits of exercise work as a stress buffer. Studies suggest that fitness permits individuals to maintain general
mental and physical wellbeing even in the face of negative life events. Positive Attitude : Positive health and well-
being can be realised by having a positive attitude. Some of the factors leading to a positive attitude are: having a
fairly accurate perception of reality; a sense of purpose in life and responsibility; acceptance and tolerance for
different viewpoints of others; and taking credit for success and accepting blame for failure. Finally, being open to
new ideas and having a sense of humour with the ability to laugh at oneself help us to remain centred, and see
things in a proper perspective. Positive Thinking : The power of positive thinking has been increasingly recognised in
reducing and coping with stress. Optimism, which is the inclination to expect favourable life outcomes, has been
linked to psychological and physical wellbeing. People differ in the manner in which they cope. For example,
optimists tend to assume that adversity can be handled successfully whereas pessimists anticipate disasters.
Optimists use more problem focused coping strategies, and seek advice and help from others. Pessimists ignore the
problem or source of stress, and use strategies such as giving up the goal with which stress is interfering or denying
that stress exists. 66 Psychology Social Support : Social support is defined as the existence and availability of people
on whom we can rely upon, people who let us know that they care about, value, and love us. Someone who believes
that s/he belongs to a social network of communication and mutual obligation experiences social support. Perceived
support, i.e. the quality of social support is positively related to health and wellbeing, whereas social network, i.e.
the quantity of social support is unrelated to well-being, because it is very time-consuming and demanding to
maintain a large social network. Studies have revealed that women exposed to life event stresses, who had a close
friend, were less likely to be depressed and had lesser medical complications during pregnancy. Social support can
help to provide protection against stress. People with high levels of social support from family and friends may
experience less stress when they confront a stressful experience, and they may cope with it more successfully. Social
support may be in the form of tangible support or assistance involving material aid, such as money, goods, services,
etc. For example, a child gives notes to her/his friend, since s/he was absent from school due to sickness. Family and
friends also provide informational support about stressful events. For example, a student facing a stressful event
such as a difficult board examination, if provided information by a friend who has faced a similar one, would not only
be able to identify the exact procedures involved, but also it would facilitate in determining what resources and
coping strategies could be useful to successfully pass the examination. During times of stress, one may experience
sadness, anxiety, and loss of self-esteem. Supportive friends and family provide emotional support by reassuring
the individual that she/he is loved, valued, and cared for. Research has demonstrated that social support effectively
reduces psychological distress such as depression or anxiety, during times of stress. There is growing evidence that
social support is positively related to psychological well-being. Generally, social support leads to mental health
benefits for both the giver and the receiver.

•Stress is a part of life. Stress is neither a stimulus nor a response but an ongoing transactional process between the
individual and the environment. •There are three major types of stresses, physical and environmental, psychological
and social. Sources of stress are life events, everyday hassles, traumatic events. The response to stress is emotional,
physiological, cognitive and behavioural. •Coping is a dynamic situation-specific individual reaction to stress. There
are three main types of coping, task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented coping. Coping responses
may be problem-focused or emotion-focused. Problem-focused coping focuses to alter the environment and acts to
reduce the threat value of the event. Emotion-focused coping are strategies for changing emotions and aim to limit
the degree of emotional disruption caused by the event. •It is essential to have a healthy lifestyle for handling stress
and effective coping. Assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self-care, and
overcoming unhelpful habits are life skills that help us to meet life’s challenges. •Positive health and well-being
come through balanced diet, exercise, positive attitude, positive optimistic thinking, and social support. There is also
a need for overall harmonious conditions in society. We must avoid taking unhealthy escape routes of smoking,
alcohol, drugs and other harmful behaviours.