ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.

INTRODUCTION
Magnetite
It is found that some of the ores of iron possess magnetic properties. One such ore is called magnetite. Magnetite
is a mineral resource and one of the main ferromagnetic ores of iron with the chemical formula Fe3O 4. It is
therefore one of the oxides of iron. Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring minerals on earth.

Magnetism
Magnetism is the property of ferrous materials to exhibit either attractive or repulsive influence on other ferrous
materials. It is a force of attraction or repulsion that acts at a distance. It is due to a magnetic field, which is caused
by moving electrically charged particles. It is mainly inherent in magnetic objects such as a magnet.

Magnet
A magnet is an iron mineral that exhibits magnetic properties. A magnet exhibits a strong magnetic field and will
attract materials like iron to it. Magnets have two poles, called the north (N) and south (S) poles. Two magnets
will be attracted by their opposite poles, and each will repel the like pole of the other magnet. Magnetism has
many uses in modern life.

Magnetic Field
This is the area around a magnet within which its influence is noticeable. A magnetic field consists of imaginary
lines of flux coming from moving or spinning electrically charged particles. Examples include the spin of a proton
and the motion of electrons through a wire in an electric circuit. This is illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 1: Magnetic Field Around a Piece of Bar Magnet

Terms related to Magnetic Field

Magnetic Flux: All magnets, no matter their shape, have two regions called magnetic poles with the magnetism
both in and around a magnetic circuit producing a definite chain of organized and balanced pattern of invisible
lines of flux around it. These lines of flux are collectively referred to as the “magnetic field” of the magnet. The
shape of this magnetic field is more intense in some parts than others with the area of the magnet that has the
greatest magnetism being called “poles”. At each end of a magnet is a pole.
These lines of flux (called a vector field) cannot be seen by the naked eye, but they can be seen visually by using
iron fillings sprinkled onto a sheet of paper or by using a small compass to trace them out. Magnetic poles are
always present in pairs, there is always a region of the magnet called the North-pole and there is always an
opposite region called the South-pole.
Magnetic fields are always shown visually as lines of force that give a definite pole at each end of the ma terial
where the flux lines are denser and more concentrated. The lines which go to make up a magnetic field showing

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

the direction and intensity are called Lines of Force or more commonly “Magnetic Flux” and are given the Greek
symbol, Phi (Φ) as shown below.

Figure 2: Lines of Flux around a Bar Magnet

As shown above, the magnetic field is strongest near to the poles of the magnet where the lines of flux are more
closely spaced. The general direction for the magnetic flux flow is from the North (N) to the South (S) pole. In
addition, these magnetic lines form closed loops that leave at the north pole of the magnet and enter at the south
pole. Magnetic poles are always in pairs.
However, magnetic flux does not actually flow from the north to the south pole or flow anywhere for that matter
as magnetic flux is a static region around a magnet in which the magnetic force exists. In other words, magnetic
flux does not flow or move it is just there and is not influenced by gravity.
The formula for flux is Φ = 𝐵 × 𝐴
Where B = Flux Density; and
A = area
Some important facts emerge when plotting lines of force:
 Lines of force NEVER cross.
 Lines of force are CONTINUOUS.
 Lines of force always form individual CLOSED LOOPS around the magnet.
 Lines of force have a definite DIRECTION from North to South.
 Lines of force that are close together indicate a STRONG magnetic field.
 Lines of force that are farther apart indicate a WEAK magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux Density

We now know that the lines of force or more commonly the magnetic flux around a magnetic material is given
the Greek symbol, Phi, (Φ) with the unit of flux being the Weber, (Wb) after Wilhelm Eduard Weber. But the
number of lines of force within a given unit area is called the “Flux Density” and since flux (Φ) is measured
in (Wb) and area (A) in metres squared, (m2), flux density is therefore measured in Webers/Metre2 or (Wb/m2)
and is given the symbol B.
However, when referring to flux density in magnetism, flux density is given the unit of the Tesla after Nikola
Tesla so therefore one Wb/m2 is equal to one Tesla, 1Wb/m2 = 1T. Flux density is proportional to the lines of
force and inversely proportional to area so we can express Flux Density as:
Magnetic Flux(weber)
Magnetic Flux Density =
Area(m2 )
The symbol for magnetic flux density is B and the unit of magnetic flux density is the Tesla, T.
Φ
B=
A

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It is important to remember that all calculations for flux density are done in the same units, e.g., flux in webers,
area in m2 and flux density in Teslas.

Electromagnetic Induction
When a DC current passes through a long straight conductor, a magnetizing force and magnetic field is developed
around it If the wire is then wound into a coil, the magnetic field is greatly intensified producing a static magnetic
field around itself forming the shape of a bar magnet giving a distinct North and South pole.

Air-core Hollow Coil

The magnetic flux developed around the coil being proportional to the amount of current flowing in the coils
windings as shown. If additional layers of wire are wound upon the same coil with the same current flowing
through them, the static magnetic field strength would be increased. Therefore, the magnetic field strength of a
coil is determined by the ampere turns of the coil. With more turns of wire within the coil, the greater the strength
of the static magnetic field around it. But what if we reversed this idea by disconnecting the electrical current
from the coil and instead of a hollow core, we placed a bar magnet inside the core of the coil of wire. By moving
this bar magnet “in” and “out” of the coil a current would be induced into the coil by the physical movement of
the magnetic flux inside it.
Likewise, if we kept the bar magnet stationary and moved the coil back and forth within the magnetic field an
electric current would be induced in the coil. Then by either moving the wire or changing the magnetic field we
can induce a voltage and current within the coil and this process is known as Electromagnetic Induction and is
the basic principle of operation of transformers, motors and generators. Electromagnetic Induction was first
discovered way back in the 1830’s by Michael Faraday. Faraday noticed that when he moved a permanent
magnet in and out of a coil or a single loop of wire it induced an ElectroMotive Force or emf, in other words a
Voltage, and therefore a current was produced.
So, what Michael Faraday discovered was a way of producing an electrical current in a circuit by using o nly the
force of a magnetic field and not batteries. This then led to a very important law linking electricity with
magnetism, namely; Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.

Electromagnetic Induction by a Moving Magnet

When the magnet shown below is moved “towards” the coil, the pointer or needle of the Galvanometer, which is
basically a very sensitive centre zeroed moving-coil ammeter, will deflect away from its centre position in one
direction only. When the magnet stops moving and is held stationary with regards to the coil the needle of the
galvanometer returns back to zero as there is no physical movement of the magnetic field.
Likewise, when the magnet is moved “away” from the coil in the other direction, the needle of the galvanometer
deflects in the opposite direction with regards to the first indicating a change in polarity. Then by moving the
magnet back and forth towards the coil the needle of the galvanometer will deflect left or right, positive or
negative, relative to the directional motion of the magnet.

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Likewise, if the magnet is now held stationary and ONLY the coil is moved towards or away from the magnet
the needle of the galvanometer will also deflect in either direction. Then the action of moving a coil or loop of
wire through a magnetic field induces a voltage in the coil with the magnitude of this induced voltage being
proportional to the speed or velocity of the movement.
Then we can see that the faster the movement of the magnetic field the greater will be the induced emf or voltage
in the coil, so for Faraday’s law to hold true there must be “relative motion” or movement between the coil and
the magnetic field and either the magnetic field, the coil or both can move.

Faraday’s Law of Induction

From the above description we can say that a relationship exists between an electrical voltage and a changing
magnetic field to which Michael Faraday’s famous law of electromagnetic induction states: that a voltage is
induced in a circuit whenever relative motion exists between a conductor and a magnetic field and that the
magnitude of this voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the flux. In other words, Electromagnetic
Induction is the process of using magnetic fields to produce voltage, and in a closed circuit, a current. So how
much voltage (emf) can be induced into the coil using just magnetism. This is determined by the following 3
different factors.
 Increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil – By increasing the number of individual conductors
cutting through the magnetic field, the amount of induced emf produced will be the sum of all the
individual loops of the coil, so if there are 20 turns in the coil there will be 20 times more induced emf
than in one piece of wire.
 Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet – If the same coil of wire
passed through the same magnetic field but its speed or velocity is increased, the wire will cut the lines of
flux at a faster rate so more induced emf would be produced.
 Increasing the strength of the magnetic field – If the same coil of wire is moved at the same speed through
a stronger magnetic field, there will be more emf produced because there are more lines of force to cut.
If we were able to move the magnet in the diagram above in and out of the coil at a constant speed and distance
without stopping, we would generate a continuously induced voltage that would alternate between one positive
polarity and a negative polarity producing an alternating or AC output voltage and this is the basic principle of
how an electrical generator works similar to those used in dynamos and car alternators.
In small generators such as a bicycle dynamo, a small permanent magnet is rotated by the action of the bicycle
wheel inside a fixed coil. Alternatively, an electromagnet powered by a fixed DC voltage can be made to rotate
inside a fixed coil, such as in large power generators producing in both cases an alternating current.

Simple Loop Generator

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

A Simple/Single Loop Generator basically consists of two conductors or coils, two magnet bars and two slip
rings (which are insulated with each other and from central shaft) and a normal wire for connection as required.
The rotating coil may be assumed as armature and the magnet bars field magnets.

Working Principle
Assume that the coil or the two conductors are rotating in a clock -wise direction. The coil has a fixed position
between the field and the flux linked with it starts changing its value. As a result, EMF is induced in it and it is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage. When the coil reaches at 90° in the process of rotating, the coil
slides don’t cut the flux and the flux move parallel between them. As a result, EMF is not induced in the coil. As
the coil continues its rotation, the amount increases to its maximum and when the coil reaches again at 90° then
in this case maximum EMF is induced in the coil this is because of the maximum flux is produced. The result is
that when the coil rotates from 90° to 180°, the flux increases gradually and the rate of change of flux linkage
decreases. In this manner, the way that the flux continuously changes due to the rotation of the conductor loop is
the rate of change of the magnetic flux (or magnetic field) linking the conductor loop (or the circuit), and that
means that the faster the loop rotates, the greater would be the rate of change of flux and therefore the larger
would be the value of the induced emf in the conductor loop. The galvanometer would as a result indicate a greater
deflection of the pointer if the conductor loop rotates faster, while the deflection is less if the rotation of the
conductor loop is slower.

Construction of a Practical DC Generator

A practical DC generator is much more intricate (complicated) than the simple loop of wire shown in the figure
above. In the practical machine, the simple loop of wire is actually so many more conductor windings wound
round into slots created on something called the armature. Also, the two poles of the magnet are replaced by a
number of electromagnetic arrangements called the field winding made up of poles/pole shoes. The slips rings
are represented by a commutator, while the brushes are arranged more appropriately for maximum effect. The
construction details of the DC machine is illustrated in the figure below showing the various parts.

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Frame and Yoke

The outer hollow cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter-poles are fixed and by means of which the
machine is fixed to the foundation is known as Yoke. It is made of cast steel or rolled steel for the large machines
and for the smaller size machine the yoke is generally made of cast iron. The two main purposes of the yoke are
as follows:
 It supports the pole cores and provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machines.
 It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

Magnetic Field System of DC Generator

The Magnetic Field System is the stationary or fixed part of the machine. It produces the main magnetic flux. The
magnetic field system consists of Mainframe or Yoke, Pole core and Pole shoes and Field or Exciting coils. These
various parts of DC Generator are described below in detail.

Pole Core and Pole Shoes

The Pole Core and Pole Shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke by bolts. Since the poles, project inwards
they are called salient poles. Each pole core has a curved surface. Usually, the pole core and shoes are made of
thin cast steel or wrought iron laminations which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure. The poles are
laminated to reduce the Eddy Current loss. The poles core serves the following purposes given below:
 It supports the field or exciting coils.
 They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.
It increases the cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit, as a result, the reluctance of the magnetic path is
reduced. The figure showing the pole core and pole shoe is represented below:

Field or Exciting Coils

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

Each pole core has one or more field coils (windings) placed over it to produce a magnetic field. The enameled
copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting coils. The coils are wound on the former and then
placed around the pole core.

When direct current passes through the field winding, it magnetizes the poles, which in turns produces the flux.
The field coils of all the poles are connected in series in such a way that when current flows through them, the
adjacent poles attain opposite polarity.

Armature
The rotating part of the DC machine or a DC Generator is called the Armature. The armature consists of a shaft
upon which a laminated cylinder, called Armature Core is placed.

Armature Core
The armature core of DC Generator is cylindrical in shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. The armature core of
a DC generator or machine serves the following purposes.
 It houses the conductors in the slots.
 It provides an easy path for the magnetic flux.
As the armature is a rotating part of the DC Generator or machine, the reversal of flux takes place in the core,
hence hysteresis losses are produced. The silicon steel material is used for the construction of the core to reduce
the hysteresis losses. The rotating armature cuts the magnetic field, due to which an emf is induced in it. This emf
circulates the eddy current which results in Eddy Current loss. Thus, to reduce the loss the armature core is
laminated with a stamping of about 0.3 to 0.5 mm thickness. Each lamination is insulated from the other by a
coating of varnish. At the outer periphery of the armature are grooves or slots which accommodate the armature
winding as shown in the figure below:

Armature Winding
The insulated conductors are placed in the slots of the armature core. The conductors are wedged, and bands of
steel wire wound around the core and are suitably connected. This arrangement of conductors is called Armature
Winding. The armature winding is the heart of the DC Machine. The armature winding plays a very important

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

role in the construction of a DC machine because the conversion of power takes place in the armature winding.
Based on connections, there are two types of armature windings named:
 Wave Winding
 Lap Winding

Lap Winding: In lap winding the armature conductors are divided into the groups equal to the number of poles
of the motor. All the conductors in each group are connected in series and all such groups are connected in parallel.
Therefore, in lap winding the number of parallel paths (A) is equal to the number of poles (P).

Thus, if a machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there will be P parallel paths, each path will have
Z/P conductors connected in series. In lap winding, the number of poles is equal to the number of parallel paths.
Out of which half the poles are north (positive) and the remaining half are south (negative). If there
are Z conductors in the armature and 4 poles then there will be 4 parallel paths each containing Z/4 conductor s in
series. Due to the existence of a large number of parallel paths, the lap wound armature is capable of supplying
larger load currents. Therefore, lap winding is used for low voltage high current DC motors.

Wave Winding In wave winding, all the armature coils are connected in series through commutator segments in
such a way that the whole armature winding is divided into two parallel paths. Thus, if the machine has Z armature
conductors, there will be only two parallel paths each having Z/2 conductors in series. In this case number of
brushes is equal to two, i.e. number of parallel paths as shown below. If there are Z conductors in the armature
then there will be 2 parallel paths each containing Z/2 conductors in series. The wave winding is useful for high
voltage low current motors.

Commutator
The commutator, which rotates with the armature, is cylindrical in shape and is made from a number of wedge-
shaped hard drawn copper bars or segments insulated from each other and from the shaft. The segments form a
ring around the shaft of the armature. Each commutator segment is connected to the ends of the armature coils.

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Emf Equation of a DC Generator

As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In the case of a generator, the emf of rotation is called
the Generated emf or Armature emf and is denoted as Er = Eg. In the case of a motor, the emf of rotation is
known as Back emf or Counter emf and represented as Er = Eb. The expression for emf is same for both the
operations, i.e., for Generator as well as for Motor.
Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor
Let,
P – number of poles of the machine
ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
Z – Total number of armature conductors.
N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
A – number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is given as:

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as:

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be:

Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get

The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature terminals is given by the equation
shown below:

Where n is the speed in revolution per second (r.p.s) and given as:

For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A) are constant.
Hence, equation (5) can be written as:

Where K is a constant and given as:

Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as:

Where K1 is another constant and hence induced emf equation can be written as:

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as:

Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole. The polarity of induced
emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of rotation. If either of the two is reversed
the polarity changes, but if two are reversed the polarity remains unchanged.
This induced emf is a fundamental phenomenon for all the DC Machines whether they are working as a generator
or motor.
If the DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the equation shown below:

Where Eg is the Generated Emf

If the DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the equation shown below:

In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it acts opposite to the supply voltage.

Back EMF in DC Motor

When the current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, the torque induces on the conductor, the torque
rotates the conductor which cuts the flux of the magnetic field. According to the Electromagnetic Induction
Phenomenon “when the conductor cuts the magnetic field, EMF induces in the conductor”.
The Fleming right-hand rule determines the direction of the induced EMF. According to Fleming Right Hand
Rule, if we hold our thumb, middle finger and index finger of the right hand by an angle of 90°, then the index
finger represents the direction of the magnetic field. The thumb shows the direction of motion of the conductor
and the middle finger represents the emf induces on the conductor. On applying the right-hand rule in the figure
shown below, it is seen that the direction of the induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage. Thereby the emf
is known as the counter emf or back emf. The back emf is developed in series with the applied voltage, but
opposite in direction, i.e., the back emf opposes the current which causes it.

The magnitude of the back emf is given by the same expression shown below:

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

Where Eb is the induced emf of the motor known as Back EMF, A is the number of parallel paths through the
armature between the brushes of opposite polarity. P is the number of poles, N is the speed, Z is the total number
of conductors in the armature and ϕ is the useful flux per pole.
A simple conventional circuit diagram of the machine working as a motor is shown in the diagram below:

In this case, the magnitude of the back emf is always less than the applied voltage. The difference between the
two is nearly equal when the motor runs under normal conditions. The current induces on the motor because of
the main supply. The relation between the main supply, back emf and armature current is given as Eb = V – IaRa.

Advantages of Back Emf in DC Motor

1. The back emf opposes the supply voltage. The supply voltage induces the current in the coil which rotates the
armature. The electrical work required by the motor for causing the current against the back emf is converted into
mechanical energy. And that energy is induced in the armature of the motor. Thus, we can say that energy
conversion in the DC motor is possible only because of the back emf. The mechanical energy induced in the
motor is the product of the back emf and the armature current, i.e., E b x Ia.
2. The back emf makes the DC motor self-regulating machine, i.e., the back emf develops the armature current
according to the need of the motor. The armature current of the motor is calculated as:

Let’s understand how the back emf makes motor self-regulating.

Consider the motor is running at no-load condition. At no load, the DC motor requires small torque for controlling
the friction and windage loss. The motor withdraws less current. As the back emf depends on the current their
value also decreases. The magnitude of the back EMF is nearly equal to the supply voltage.
If the sudden load is applied to the motor, the motor becomes slow down. As the speed of the motor decreases,
the magnitude of their back emf also falls down. The small back emf withdraw heavy current from the supply.
The large armature current induces the large torque in the armature, which is the need of the motor. Thus, the
motor moves continuously at a new speed.
If the load on the motor is suddenly reduced, the driving torque on the motor is more than the load torque. The
driving torque increases the speed of the motor which also increases their back emf. The high value of back emf
decreases the armature current. The small magnitude of armature current develops less driving torque, which is
equal to the load torque. And the motor will rotate uniformly at the new speed.
relation between Mechanical power (Pm), supply voltage (Vt) and Back EMF (Eb)
The back emf in the dc motor is expressed as:

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

Where Eb – Back Emf

Ia – Armature Current
Vt – Terminal Voltage
Ra – Resistance of Armature
The maximum power developed on the motor is expressed by

On differentiating the above equation, we get

From the back emf equation, we get

On substituting the IaRa in the above equation, we get

The above equation shows that the maximum power is developed in the motor when the back emf is equal to half
of the supply voltage.

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

Types of DC Generator
The DC generator converts mechanical power into electrical power. The magnetic flux in a DC machine is
produced by the field coils carry current. The circulating current in the field windings produces a magnetic flux,
and the phenomenon is known as Excitation.
DC Generator is classified according to the methods of their field excitation.
By excitation, the DC Generators are classified as Separately excited DC Generators and Self-excited DC
Generators. There is also Permanent magnet type DC generators.
The self-excited DC Generators are further classified as Shunt wound DC generators; Series wound DC
generators and Compound wound DC generators.
The Compound Wound DC generators are further divided as long shunt-wound DC generators, and short shunt-
wound DC generators. The field pole of the DC generator is stationary, and the armature conductor rotates. The
voltage generated in the armature conductor is of alternating nature, and this voltage is converted into the direct
voltage at the brushes with the help of the commutator. The detailed description of the various types of generators
is explained below.

Permanent Magnet type DC Generator

In this type of DC generator, there is no field winding is placed around the poles. The field produced by the poles
of these machines remains constant. Although these machines are very compact but are used only in small sizes
like dynamos in motorcycles, etc. The main disadvantage of these machines is that the flux produced by the
magnets deteriorates with the passage of time which changes the characteristics of the machine.

Separately Excited DC Generator

A DC generator whose field winding or coil is energized by a separate or external DC source is called a separately
excited DC Generator. The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field current with the unsaturated region
of magnetic material of the poles. i.e., flux is directly proportional to the field current. But in the saturated region,
the flux remains constant.
The figure of self-excited DC Generator is shown below:

Separately Excited DC Generator

Here,
Ia = I L where Ia is the armature current and I L is the line current.
Terminal voltage is given as:

If the contact brush drop is known, then the equation (1) is written as:

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

The power developed is given by the equation shown below:

Power output is given by equation (4) shown above.

Self-Excited DC Generator
Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by the generator itself.
In self-excited DC generator, the field coils may be connected in parallel with the armature in the series, or it may
be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with the armature windings.
The self-excited DC Generator is further classified as series-wound generator, shunt-wound generator and
compound-wound generator.

Shunt Wound Generator

In a shunt-wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature winding forming a parallel or
shunt circuit. Therefore, the full terminal voltage is applied across it. A very small field current I sh, flows through
it because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very high resistance R sh of the order of 100 ohms.
The connection diagram of shunt-wound generator is shown below:

Shunt Wound DC Generator

The shunt field current is given as:

Where Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance.

The current field Ish is practically constant at all loads. Therefore, the DC shunt machine is considered to be a
constant flux machine.
Armature current is given as:

Terminal voltage is given by the equation shown below:

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If the brush contact drop is included, the equation of the terminal voltage becomes

Series Wound Generator

A series-wound generator the field coils are connected in series with the armature winding. The series field
winding carries the armature current.
The series field winding consists of a few turns of wire of thick wire of larger cross-sectional area and having low
resistance usually of the order of less than 1 ohm because the armature current has a very large value.
Its convectional diagram is shown below:

Series Wound DC Generator

Series field current is given as:

Rse is known as the series field winding resistance.

Terminal voltage is given as:

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as:

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The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to the current flowing through it. But it is
only true before magnetic saturation after the saturation flux becomes constant even if the current flowing through
it is increased.

Compound Wound Generator

In a compound-wound generator, there are two field windings. One is connected in series, and another is
connected in parallel with the armature windings. There are two types of compound-wound generator namely;
Long shunt compound-wound generator, and Short shunt compound-wound generator.

Compound Wound Generator

In a Compound Wound Generator, there are two sets of the field winding on each pole. One of them is connected
in series having few turns of thick wire, and the other is connected in parallel having many turns of fine wire with
the armature windings.
In other words, the generator which has both shunt and series fields is called the compound wound generators.
If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced by the shunt winding, then the
machine is said to be cumulative compounded. If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, then the
machine is called the differentially compounded.
It is connected in two ways. One is a long shunt compound generator, and another is a short shunt compound
generator.
If the shunt field is connected in parallel with the armature alone then the machine is called the short compound
generator. In long shunt compound generator, the shunt field is connected in series with the armature. The two
types of generators are discussed below in details.

Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator: In a long shunt-wound generator, the shunt field winding is parallel
with both armature and series field winding. The connection diagram of the long shunt-wound generator is shown
below:

Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator

The shunt field current is given as:

Series field current is given as:

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

Terminal voltage is given as:

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as:

Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator: In a Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator, the shunt field
winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding only. The connection diagram of a short shunt-wound
generator is shown below.

Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator

Series field current is given as:

The shunt field current is given as:

Terminal voltage is given as:

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as:

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

In this type of DC generator, the field is produced by the shunt as well as series winding. The shunt field is
stronger than the series field. If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced by the
shunt field winding, the generator is said to be Cumulatively Compound Wound generator.
If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is said to be Differentially Compounded.
Types of DC Motor
A Direct Current Motor, DC is named according to the connection of the field winding with the armature.
Mainly there are two types of DC Motors. One is Separately Excited DC Motor and other is Self-excited DC
Motor.
The self-excited motors are further classified as Shunt wound or shunt motor, Series wound or series motor
and Compound wound or compound motor.
The dc motor converts electrical power into mechanical power. The construction of the dc motor and generator
are the same. But the dc motor has a wide range of speed and good speed regulation in electric traction.
The working principle of the dc motor is based on the principle that the current-carrying conductor is placed in
the magnetic field and a mechanical force is experienced by it.
The DC motor is generally used in the location that requires a protective enclosure, for example, drip-proof, the
fireproof, etc. according to the requirements. The detailed description of the various types of motor is given below.
Separately Excited DC Motor
As the name signifies, the field coils or field windings are energized by a separate DC source as shown in the
circuit diagram shown below:

Separately Excited DC Motor

Self-Excited DC Motor
As the name implies self-excited, hence, in this type of motor, the current in the windings is supplied by the
machine or motor itself. Self-excited DC Motor is further divided into shunt wound, and series-wound motor.
They are explained below in detail.

Shunt-Wound Motor
This is the most common types of DC Motor. Here the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature as
shown in the figure below:
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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

Shunt Wound DC Motor

The current, voltage and power equations for a shunt motor are written as follows.
By applying KCL at junction A in the above figure.
The sum of the incoming currents at A = Sum of the outgoing currents at A.

Where,
I is the input line current
Ia is the armature current
Ish is the shunt field current
Equation (1) is the current equation.
The voltage equations are written by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) for the field winding circuit.

For armature winding circuit the equation will be given as:

The power equation is given as:

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the armature + loss in the field.

Multiplying equation (3) by Ia we get the following equations.

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

Where,
VIa is the electrical power supplied to the armature of the motor.

Series Wound Motor

In the series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding. The connection diagram
is shown below:

Series Wound Motor

By applying the KCL in the above figure:

Where,
Ise is the series field current
The voltage equation can be obtained by applying KVL in the above figure.

The power equation is obtained by multiplying equation (8) by I we get

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the armature + losses in the field

Comparing the equation (9) and (10), we will get the equation shown below:

Compound Wound Motor

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

A DC Motor having both shunt and series field windings is called a Compound Motor. The connection diagram
of the compound motor is shown below:

Compound Motor

The compound motor is further subdivided as Cumulative Compound Motor and Differential
Compound Motor. In a cumulative compound motor the flux produced by both the windings is in the same
direction, i.e.

In differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings is opposite to the flux produced
by the shunt field winding, i.e.

The positive and negative sign indicates that the direction of the flux produced in the field windings.

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

Transformer
Definition: The transformer is a static device which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It is
used for transferring the electrical power from one circuit to another without any variation in their frequency. In
electromagnetic induction, the transfer of energy from one circuit to another takes places by the help of the mutual
induction. i.e the flux induced in the primary winding is linked with the secondary winding.

Construction of an Electrical Transformer

The primary winding, secondary winding and the magnetic core are the three important parts of the transformer.
These coils are insulated from each other. The main flux is induced in the primary winding of the transformer.
This flux passes through the low reluctance path of the magnetic core and linked with the secondary winding of
the transformer.

Working Principle of a Transformer

Consider the N1 and N2 are the numbers of the turns on the primary and the secondary winding of the transformer
shown in the figure above. The voltage is applied to the primary winding of the transformer because of which the
current is induced in it. The current causes the magnetic flux which is represented by the dotted line in the above
figure.
A flux is induced in the primary winding because of self-induction. This flux is linked with the secondary winding
because of mutual induction. Thus, the emf is induced in the secondary winding of the transformer. The power is
transferred from the primary winding to the secondary winding. The frequency of the transferred energy also
remains same. Constructionally, the transformers are of two general types, distinguished from each other merely
by the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated core. The two types are
known as (i) core-type and (ii) shell type.
In the so-called core type transformers, the windings surround a considerable part of the core whereas in shell -
type transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings as shown schematically in Figure
below.

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

EMF Equation of a Transformer

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, alternating flux ϕm sets up in the
iron core of the transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and secondary winding. The function
of flux is a sine function.
The rate of change of flux with respect to time is derived mathematically.
The derivation of the EMF Equation of the transformer is shown below. Let
ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber
f be the supply frequency in Hz
N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding
Φ is the flux per turn in Weber

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f seconds.

But for a sinusoidal wave the r.m.s. or effective value is 1.11 times the average value, therefore;
RMS value of e.m.f. induced per turn = 1.11 × 4f Φm.

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

Step-up and Step-down Transformers

Step-up Transformer: A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is greater than its input (primary)
voltage is called a step-up transformer. The step-up transformer decreases the output current for keeping the input
and output power of the system equal.
Considered a step-up transformer shown in the figure below. The E 1 and E2 are the voltages, and T 1 and T2 are
the number of turns on the primary and secondary winding of the transformer.

The number of turns on the secondary of the transformer is greater than that of the primary, i.e., T 2 > T1. Thus,
the voltage turn ratio of the step-up transformer is 1:2. The primary winding of the step-up transformer is made
up of thick insulated copper wire because the low magnitude current flows through it.
Applications – Step-up transformer is used in transmission lines for transforming the high voltage produced by
the alternator. The power loss of the transmission line is directly proportional to the square of the current flows
through it. Power = I2R
The output current of the step-up transformer is less, and hence it is used for reducing the power loss. The step-
up transformer is also used for starting the electrical motor, in the microwave oven, X-rays machines, etc.

Step-down Transformer: A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is less than its input (primary)
voltage is called a step-down transformer. The number of turns on the primary of the transformer is greater than
the turn on the secondary of the transformer, i.e., T2 < T1. The step-down transformer is shown in the figure below.

The voltage turn ratio of the step-down transformer is 2:1. The voltage turn ratio determines the magnitude of
voltage transforms from primary to secondary windings of the transformer. Step-down transformer is made up of
two or more coil wound on the iron core of the transformer. It works on the principle of magnetic induction

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 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I (EEC 123) LECTURE NOTES FOR ND I [PREPARED BY ENGR AMINU A.A.]

between the coils. The voltage applied to the primary of the coil magnetise the iron core which induces the
secondary windings of the transformer. Thus the voltage transforms from primary to the secondary winding of
the transformer.
Applications – It is used for electrical isolation, in a power distribution network, for controlling the home
appliances, in a doorbell, etc.

Elementary Theory of an Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e., its windings have no ohmic resistance, there is no magnetic
leakage and hence which has no I2R and core losses. In other words, an ideal transformer consists of two purely
inductive coils wound on a loss-free core. It may, however, be noted that it is impossible to realize such a
transformer in practice.

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