2261_UT_LIII_SG_2014_ASNT Level III Study Guide Ultrasonic Testing Method 7/7/14 9:01 AM Page 61

Chapter 7
Guided Waves

Guided wave is a general term used to describe One interesting major difference associated with
wave propagation where the guidance of boundary guided waves (compared to bulk waves), is that
plays a very important role. The structure in which
a guided wave may propagate is called a waveguide.
Natural waveguides include: plates (aircraft skin),
rods (cylinders, square rods, rails, etc.), hollow
cylinder (pipes, tubing), multilayer structures, inter-
face, multiple layer surface on a half-space.
Since the early 2000s, there has been an increase
in the industrial use of ultrasonic guided waves for
examination of large areas of components. The
main application has been for the detection of cor-
rosion in pipes and pipelines, but because guided
(a)
waves may exist in a variety of component shapes,
there are many possibilities for their use. There are,
however, some significant differences in the proper-
ties of guided waves compared with the bulk wave
modes, compression and shear, used for conven-
(b)
tional ultrasonic testing. This chapter introduces
some of these concepts.

Waves
Some guided wave possibilities are rayleigh surface
waves, stonely waves and lamb waves (Figure 1). (c)
There are many other guided wave possibilities as
long as a boundary on either one or two sides of the
wave is considered. Figure 1: Ultrasonic guided wave possibilities:
A surface wave is a special type of guided wave (a) rayleigh (surface) wave; (b) lamb wave;
that is guided with a single surface. They are often (c) stonely waves.
called rayleigh waves.
A stonely wave travels at an interface between
two materials.
Guided waves in plate structures can be classi-
fied as lamb waves. Lamb waves can be further clas- (a)
sified as symmetric or asymmetric based on their
displacement fields (Figure 2). For symmetric
modes, the deformation of the plate is symmetric to
the center plane. For asymmetric waves the defor-
mation is asymmetric to the center plane. (b)
Waves in more complex structures, such as mul-
tiple layers or curved plates, can be referred to as
lamb-type guided wave modes. Figure 2: Lamb wave propagating in plate:
(a) symmetric; (b) asymmetric.

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Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7

Traditional UT thickness measurement

Insonified area

Normal-beam
excitation

Guided wave inspection

Insonified area

Angle-beam
excitation

Comb excitation

Figure 3: Comparison of bulk wave and guided wave inspection methods.

many different wave velocity values can be obtained means that they are suitable for large-area examina-
as a function of frequency, whereas for most practi- tion from a single source.
cal bulk wave propagation purposes the wave veloc- The principal benefits of ultrasonic guided
ity is independent of frequency. In fact, tables of waves can be summarized as follows.
wave velocities applicable to bulk wave propagation 1. Inspection over long distances from a single
in materials are available from most manufacturers probe position is possible.
of ultrasonic equipment. These tables often show 2. There’s no need for scanning; all of the data is
just a single wave velocity value for longitudinal acquired from the single probe position. Quite
waves and one additional value for shear waves. often, greater sensitivity than that obtained in
A comparison of bulk wave and guided wave standard normal beam ultrasonic inspection or
ultrasonic inspection is illustrated in Figure 3. The other NDT techniques can be obtained, even
guided waves propagate some distance away from with low-frequency ultrasonic guided wave
the transducer, whereas for bulk waves only the area inspection techniques. Propagation behavior of
underneath the transducer is insonified. To generate guided waves is governed by the product of
guided waves the ultrasonic wavelength generally frequency and material thickness so that they are
has to be large in relation to the thickness of the highly sensitive to thickness changes.
material, so that test frequencies are low, typically in 3. There is also an ability to inspect hidden
the kilohertz range. This, and the inherently low structures, structures under water, coatings,
attenuation properties of guided waves in metals, insulations and concrete because of the

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Guided Waves

inspection capability from a single probe

position via wave structure change and
controlled mode sensitivity along with an ability
to propagate over long distances.
4. Because of the inspection simplicity and speed,
there is also a tremendous cost-effectiveness
associated with guided wave propagation and
inspection.

Dispersion
Dispersion and the propagation of either dispersive
or nondispersive modes is important to understand
when dealing with ultrasonic guided waves.
Figures 4 and 5 show nondispersive and dispersive
guided wave propagation respectively. For nondis-
persive wave propagation, the pulse duration
remains constant as the wave travels through the
structure. On the other hand, for dispersive wave
propagation, because wave velocity is a function of
frequency, the pulse duration changes from point-
to-point inside the structure. This change is because
each harmonic of the particular input pulse packet
travels at a different wave velocity and the summa-
tion of the harmonics at later times creates the dis-
persive effect. There’s a decrease in amplitude of the
waveform and an increase in pulse duration, but
energy is still conserved with the assumption that
energy absorption by the material is insignificant.

Dispersion Curves
Consider the general development of a phase veloc-
Figure 4: Nondispersive wave propagation as it travels along a
ity computation in a waveguide, such as a plate or
structure.
pipe, having boundary conditions for a traction-free

tan(qh ) 4 k 2 pq
for symmetric modes
upper and lower surface, for example. [Rose 1999]

tan( ph ) (q − k 2 )2
If we now consider some form of a governing (Eq. 1) =− 2
Navier’s wave equation in rectangular coordinates
and an assumed harmonic solution for displace-
ment, we can through elasticity theory derive the for symmetric modes
equations to satisfy the boundary conditions of the

tan(qh ) q2 − k 2
2

for asymmetric modes

problem being studied. This leads to a transcenden-
( )
tan( ph ) 4 k 2 pq
tal equation, or a characteristic equation that most
often requires a numerical solution. In extracting
(Eq. 2) =−
the roots from the characteristic equation, usually
associated with a system of homogeneous equa- for asymmetric modes
tions, the determinant of the coefficient matrix
where
must be set equal to zero. The roots are the eigen
h = 1/2 the plate thickness (d/2)
values associated with the solution to the set of
k = the wave number (2π/λ)
homogeneous equations and the eigen vectors leads
p and q are defined by Eq. 3.
to the wave structures by employing elasticity theo-
ry. The resulting characteristic equations for a plate
are as follows:

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Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7

where
cplate = plate velocity
E = modulus of elasticity
ρ = material density
ν = Poison’s ratio

The A0 mode at high frequency approaches the

rayleigh surface wave velocity. All other modes at
new high frequency converge to the shear wave
velocity for the plate. Notice the cut-off frequencies
at high phase velocities Cρ. The group velocity
curves are derived from the phase velocity curves
and represent the velocity of a packet of waves of
similar frequency. (See Figure 7.) The group veloci-
ty formula is as follows.

dc p 
−1

cg = c  c p − ( fd )
2

d ( fd ) 

(Eq. 5) p


where
cg = group velocity
cρ = phase velocity (fλ)
Figure 5: Dispersive wave propagation as it travels along a d = thickness
structure.
All guided wave applications have associated
with them the development of appropriate disper-
2 2

p =   − k 2 and q 2 =   − k 2
sion curves and corresponding wave structures. Of
2

 cL   cT 
ω ω thousands of points on a dispersion curve, only cer-
(Eq. 3)
tain ones lead to a successful inspection — for
example, those with greatest penetration power;
maximum displacement on the outer, center, or
where inner surface; with only in-plane vibration on the
ω = circular frequency (2πf) surface to avoid leakage into a fluid; or with mini-
f = frequency mum power at an interface between a pipe and a
cL = longitudinal bulk wave velocity coating.
cT = shear bulk wave velocity Note that wave structure across the thickness of
a waveguide changes moving along frequencies for
In this case, the roots extracted determine the a particular mode. Sample results are shown in
phase velocity versus frequency values that can be Figure 8. Note that for an fd (frequency, f, times
plotted, as illustrated in Figure 6. In the figure, the thickness, d) value of 0.15 MHz · 6.22 mm
phase velocity dispersion curves for a particular (0.245 in.) the in-plane displacement on the outer
traction-free steel plate are shown. The modes are surface of the plate is a maximum, whereas for an fd
labeled as asymmetric A0, A1, A2, A3, etc., or sym- value of 1 MHz · 6.22 mm (0.245 in.), the in-plane
metric as S0, S1, S2, S3, etc. The S0 mode intersects displacement is maximum on the outer surface.
the zero frequency axis at the plate velocity value Wave structure considerations and mode and fre-
for the plate. The plate velocity formula is as follows: quency choice have serious consequences in defect

E
1/2

c plate
detection sensitivity, penetration power, and influ-

 ρ (1 − υ ) 
  ence to water-loading situations as an example.
2 
(Eq. 4) =

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Guided Waves

If a steel plate is under water, there will be ener- liquid media since this would be like shear loading
gy leakage as the wave travels along the plate on the fluid. If you solve this wave propagation
because of an out-of-plane displacement compo- problem, or as another example the wave propaga-
nent that would load the liquid. The in-plane dis- tion associated with bitumen coating on a plate,
placement components would not travel into the there would also be leakage of ultrasonic energy as

12
A4 S4 S8 A8
A1 S1 A5 A6 S7
10 A2 A3 S5 A7
S6
S2 S3

8
CΡ (mm/µsec)

S0
4

2 A0

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
f·d (MHz·mm)

Figure 6: Phase velocity dispersion curve for a carbon steel plate.

S4 S5
S1 S2 S3
5 S0

A5 A6
A4
4 A1 A2
Cg (mm/µsec)

3 A0

2 S8
S6 S7
A7 A8
1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
f·d (MHz·mm)

Figure 7: Group velocity dispersion curves for a carbon steel plate.

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Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7

4 4
3 3
Out
2 In 2 Out
In
1 1
0 0
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4

150 kHz S0 mode 1 MHz S0 mode

[f·d = 0.15 MHz·6.22 mm (0.245 in.)] [f·d = 1 MHz·6.22 mm (0.245 in.)]

Figure 8: Sample normalized wave structures of the S0 mode in a 6.22 mm (0.245 in.) thick steel
plate. Solid line: out-of-plane displacement; dotted line: in-plane displacement.

the wave propagates along the plate. Following the waveguide. Because of a bounded transducer prob-
phase and group velocity dispersion curves, the lem, though, we must study a source influence
complex roots from the characteristic equation problem for a particular size sensor. The finite size
would then lead to a set of attenuation dispersion of a transducer and various vibration characteristics
curves. Propagation distance is reduced. gives rise to a phase velocity spectrum. Therefore,
Note that dispersion curve examples for other in addition to the ordinary frequency spectrum
waveguides can be found in Rose [1999]. Of partic- there is a phase velocity spectrum, and because of
ular interest might be the closed-form solution pos- these two spectral bandwidths of frequency and
sibility for shear horizontal waves in a plate. phase velocity, it makes it difficult to excite a specif-
ic point on a dispersion curve. Mode separation in
Bulk vs. Guided Waves the dispersion curve space then becomes useful for
single mode excitation potential.
A general comparison of bulk and guided waves can Guided wave energy can be induced into a
be seen in Table 1. Key elements of the differences waveguide by a variety of different techniques
between isotropic and anisotropic media are listed including piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, electro-
in Table 2. magnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT), laser, or
Note that not all metals are isotropic. For exam- physically controlled impact. The challenge is to
ple, columnar dendritic centrifugally cast stainless excite a particular mode at a specific frequency.
steel is anisotropic. This must be considered in any Normal piezoelectric beam probes can be used.
wave propagation studies. Angle beam piezoelectric sensors can also be used to
A further practical comparison of the use of impart beams that lead to desired kinds of guided
bulk and guided waves is presented in Table 3, in waves in a pipe or plate. Commercial systems also
particular for plate and pipe inspections. use in-plane motion from shear-polarized piezoelec-
tric transducers. A comb transducer can also be
Source Influence used, either piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, EMAT,
considering a number of different elements at a spe-
The ability to generate a specific mode and frequen- cific spacing, that together pump ultrasonic energy
cy is often quite challenging. Theory and experi- into the plate, hence causing wave propagation of a
ment are not always perfect or sure, so practical certain wavelength in the waveguide. The excitation
aspects of an inspection must be considered. The zones in the phase velocity dispersion curve can be
development of the dispersion curves discussed so evaluated by the source being considered in the
far employs a harmonic plane wave excitation in the problem. (Rose [1999] and Rose, et al. [1994])

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Table 1: Ultrasonic bulk vs. guided wave propagation considerations.

Bulk Guided

Phase velocities Constant Function of frequency

Group velocities Same as phase velocities Generally not equal to phase velocity

Pulse shape Nondispersive Generally dispersives

Table 2: Ultrasonic wave considerations for isotropic vs. anisotropic media.

Isotropic Anisotropic

Wave velocities Not function of launch direction Function of launch direction

Skew Angles No Yes

Table 3: A comparison of the currently used ultrasonic bulk wave technique and the proposed
ultrasonic guided wave procedure for plate and pipe inspection.

Bulk Wave Guided Wave

Point by point scan

Global in nature (approximate line scan)
(accurate rectangular grid scan)

Part coverage (can miss points) Full (volumetric coverage)

High level training required for inspection Minimal training for data gathering
Interpretation can be complex
Any reasonable distance from reflector
Fixed distance from reflector required
acceptable

Reflector must be accessible and seen Reflector can be hidden

A comb transducer, as an example, could be Applications

wrapped completely around a pipe or laid out as
fingers or an inter-digital transducer design on a Pipe
plate.
Because of a phase velocity spectrum and a fre- There has been a considerable uptake in the use of
quency spectrum, the excitation zone is not a single guided wave examination for pipes and pipelines to
point in the phase velocity dispersion curve; it is a exploit the ability to inspect long lengths, up to
region as generally illustrated in Figure 9. Note that 30.5 m (100 ft) or more, from a small number of
θ = sin–1 cw/cp, where cw is the longitudinal bulk test points and to inspect hidden areas, for example
wave velocity in the wedge. [Rose 1999] under road crossings and other inaccessible lengths.
Phased array systems have improved perform- Frequencies used in this work are generally from
ance in the NDT field for ultrasonic bulk waves 20 kHz to 100 kHz.
because of electronic beam scanning with one All current commercial systems are designed to
transducer array compared to manual scanning control the wave modes excited to enable well con-
with many different angle beam probes. trolled test conditions and ensure interpretable
results. Wave mode control is achieved by using a

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Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7

bracelet or encircling tool around the pipe to gener- analysis process. Testing is usually carried out at a
ate axisymmetric waves. Figure 10 shows an exam- number of excitation frequencies in order to exploit
ple of such a tool. Wave propagation characteristics, the frequency dependence of responses from dis-
notably dispersion, are further controlled by careful continuities and pipe features such as girth welds
selection of excitation frequency, excitation pulse and supports.
shape (usually a tone-burst excitation is used) and As different wave modes have differing vibra-
transducer orientation. Multi-ring tools are used to tional shapes and velocities, one available technique
enable the ultrasound to be directed in a specific is the selective staggered transmission of a set of
direction along the pipe. Pulse-echo testing is nor- wave modes to achieve a spot of focused acoustic
mally used. energy at a particular axial and circumferential
Specialized, multi-channel discontinuity detec- position to interrogate localized regions for the
tors have been developed to achieve the necessary presence of defects. A similar technique uses the
control over the excitation sequence and also to combined analysis of the reception of a range of
enable incoming signals to be detected and ana- wave modes to quickly produce feature maps of
lyzed. Figure 11 shows an example of such a discon- pipes that make interpretation of the location and
tinuity detector. Detection of mode conversions significance of features more straightforward.
resulting from the excited wave interacting with dis- Static shot finite elements method simulations,
continuities is an essential part of the detection and at different times of an axisymmetric guided wave

Acvaon line
Phase velocity spectrum

20
18
16
14
12
CΡ

10
8
6
4
2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Frequency

θ = sin–1 cw /cp
Frequency spectrum

Figure 9: Source for a typical angle beam excitation or an ability to generate a specific mode and
frequency.

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Guided Waves

propagation in a pipe are shown in Figure 10. To be moved anywhere axially and circumferentially
go beyond the axisymmetric wave to focusing in the pipe.
considerations, the methods of focusing include Wave propagation into a pipe elbow and beyond
frequency tuning for axisymmetric excitation and can create blind spots at a specific frequency due to
receiving, and phased array focusing for multi- mode conversion. Pipe coating and buried pipes
element array excitation and receiving with time can also seriously reduce penetration distances.
delay and amplitude tuning. A static shot example
of a real-time phased array result is illustrated in Conclusion
Figure 11. Notice the development of the focal
spot in the fifth frame. The focal spot can be Great breakthroughs on the use of ultrasonic guid-
changed in size by changing the probe and instru- ed waves in NDT and structural health monitoring
ment design parameters. The focal spot can then are underway. Advances are possible because of

• Transducer array located at

pipe end
• Axisymmetric loading, no
time delay applied

Figure 10: Axisymmetric guided wave propagation along a pipe.

• Transducer array located at pipe end

• Array can be segmented into 4 or 8 channels
• Time delays are applied

Focused guided
wave beam

Focus beam forming

Figure 11: Guided wave active focusing in pipe FE simulation.

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Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7

increased understanding and significant advances challenges remain. Many of the challenges are
in computational power. Very few investigators focused on technology transfer work tasks to a real-
were involved from 1985 to 2000, but since 2000 the istic practical environment. New and sophisticated
work and interest has exploded. work efforts in both guided wave NDT and struc-
Ultrasonic guided waves for aircraft and com- tural health monitoring (SHM) are underway with
posite material inspections have come a long way in hopes of a great future. Guided wave instrumenta-
the past decade or so. Many successes have come tion will eventually emerge with energy harvesting
about, but many challenges remain. The same is and wireless technology to simplify its implementa-
true for pipeline inspection. tion and use.
Finally, although many promising methods are
evolving into promising inspection tools, numerous

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Guided Waves

Review Questions

1. Guided wave propagation is possible because of: 5. A phase velocity spectrum is primarily a function of:

a. the use of low frequency ultrasound. a. frequency.

b. the presence of structural boundaries to create b. frequency bandwidth.
wave interference. c. transducer material.
c. an application on thin structures. d. transducer size.
d. isotropic homogenous structures.
6. Generation of ultrasonic guided wave in a thicker
2. Dispersive wave propagation refers to: structure cannot take place with:

a. absorption of high frequency components. a. piezoelectric devices.

b. overall attenuation of the wave form as it b. magnetostrictive devices.
propagates. c. mechanical loading devices.
c. pulse spreading because of individual frequency d. a laser source.
harmonics in the wave form travelling at different
phase velocities. 7. A disadvantage of guided waves can be associated
d. constant pulse duration as the wave propagates in with:
a structure.
a. axial resolution for multiple defects.
3. Penetration power would be poorest for which b. ability to inspect large volumes of material from a
structure? single sensor position.
c. ability to inspect hidden structures.
a. Soft, thick, viscous bitumen coated pipe. d. an ability to inspect coated structures.
b. Hard, thin coated pipe.
c. Calcium silicate insulation on a pipe. 8. Which process cannot be used to focus ultrasonic
d. An uncoated pipe. guided wave energy?

4. An angle beam transducer can produce a guided a. Phased array from a series of activators.
wave in a plate under the following conditions: b. Synthetic focusing using an array of sensors.
c. Frequency tuning to search for a wave resonance
a. longitudinal velocity in the test specimen is less of a reflector.
than that in the wedge used in the angle beam d. Material selection for transducer design.
transducer.
b. longitudinal velocity in the test specimen is 9. Which wave is not a classically known guided wave?
greater than that in the wedge and the wavelength
induced is 1/4 the thickness of the plate. a. Guitar wave.
c. longitudinal velocity in the test specimen is b. Raleigh surface wave.
greater than that in the wedge and the wavelength c. Lamb wave.
induced is 2× the thickness of the plate. d. Stonely wave.
d. use of high frequency.

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Ultrasonic Testing Method l Chapter 7

10. Which frequency range is most common for 11. When would the use of guided waves for volumetric
long-range pipe inspection? defect detection ordinarily not be used?

a. Less than 20 KHz. a. Very thin structures.

b. 20 KHz to 200 KHz. b. Very thick structures.
c. 200 KHz to 1 MHz. c. Composite materials.
d. 1 MHz to 10 MHz. d. Coated structures.

Answers
1b 2c 3a 4c 5d 6d 7a 8d 9a 10b 11b

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