28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Romanticism
Romanticism (also known as the Romantic era)
was an artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual
movement that originated in Europe towards the end
of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak
in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850.
Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on
emotion and individualism, idealization of nature,
suspicion of science and industrialization, and
glorification of the past with a strong preference for the
medieval rather than the classical.[1] It was partly a
reaction to the Industrial Revolution,[2] the social and
political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the
scientific rationalization of nature—all components of
modernity.[3] It was embodied most strongly in the
visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major
impact on historiography,[4] education,[5] chess, social
sciences, and the natural sciences.[6] It had a
significant and complex effect on politics, with
romantic thinkers influencing conservatism,
liberalism, radicalism, and nationalism.[7]
Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer above the Sea
The movement emphasized intense emotion as an
of Fog, 1818
authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing new
emphasis on such emotions as fear, horror and terror,
and awe — especially that experienced in confronting
the new aesthetic categories of the sublime and beauty
of nature.[8][9] It elevated folk art and ancient custom
to something noble, but also spontaneity as a desirable
characteristic (as in the musical impromptu). In
contrast to the Rationalism and Classicism of the
Enlightenment, Romanticism revived medievalism[10]
and elements of art and narrative perceived as
authentically medieval in an attempt to escape
population growth, early urban sprawl, and
industrialism.

Although the movement was rooted in the German

Sturm und Drang movement, which preferred Eugène Delacroix, Death of Sardanapalus, 1827,
intuition and emotion to the rationalism of the taking its Orientalist subject from a play by Lord
Enlightenment, [11] the events and ideologies of the Byron
French Revolution were also proximate factors since
many of the early Romantics were cultural
revolutionaries and sympathetic to the revolution.[12] Romanticism assigned a high value to the
achievements of "heroic" individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the
quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 1/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

freedom from classical notions of form in art. There

was a strong recourse to historical and natural
inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its
ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism
was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism.[13]
The decline of Romanticism during this time was
associated with multiple processes, including social
and political changes.[14]

Contents
Defining Romanticism
Basic characteristics
Etymology
Period
Context and place in history
Literature
Germany
Great Britain
Philipp Otto Runge, The Morning, 1808
Scotland
France
Poland
Russia
Spain
Portugal
Italy
South America
United States
Influence of European Romanticism on
American writers
Architecture
Visual arts
Music
Outside the arts
Sciences
Historiography
Theology
Chess
Romantic nationalism
Polish nationalism and messianism
Gallery
Romantic authors
Scholars of Romanticism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 2/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

See also
Related terms
Opposing terms
Related subjects
Related movements
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links

Defining Romanticism

Basic characteristics

The nature of Romanticism may be approached from the primary importance of the free expression of
the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the
remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich, "the artist's feeling is his law".[15] For William
Wordsworth, poetry should begin as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings", which the poet
then "recollect[s] in tranquility", evoking a new but corresponding emotion the poet can then mould
into art.[16]

To express these feelings, it was considered that content of art had to come from the imagination of
the artist, with as little interference as possible from "artificial" rules dictating what a work should
consist of. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were natural laws the imagination—at
least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone.[17]
As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creator's own
imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to
produce his own original work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to
Romanticism, and to be derivative was the worst sin.[18][19][20] This idea is often called "romantic
originality".[21] Translator and prominent Romantic August Wilhelm Schlegel argued in his Lectures
on Dramatic Arts and Letters that the most phenomenal power of human nature is its capacity to
divide and diverge into opposite directions.[22]

Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief and interest
in the importance of nature. This particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is
surrounded by it, preferably alone. In contrast to the usually very social art of the Enlightenment,
Romantics were distrustful of the human world, and tended to believe a close connection with nature
was mentally and morally healthy. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be
felt as the personal voice of the artist. So, in literature, "much of romantic poetry invited the reader to
identify the protagonists with the poets themselves".[23]

According to Isaiah Berlin, Romanticism embodied "a new and restless spirit, seeking violently to
burst through old and cramping forms, a nervous preoccupation with perpetually changing inner
states of consciousness, a longing for the unbounded and the indefinable, for perpetual movement
and change, an effort to return to the forgotten sources of life, a passionate effort at self-assertion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 3/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

both individual and collective, a search after means of expressing

an unappeasable yearning for unattainable goals".[24]

Etymology

The group of words with the root "Roman" in the various

European languages, such as "romance" and "Romanesque", has a
complicated history. By the 18th century, European languages –
notably German, French and Russian – were using the term
"Roman" in the sense of the English word "novel", i.e. a work of
popular narrative fiction.[25] This usage derived from the term
"Romance languages", which referred to vernacular (or popular)
language in contrast to formal Latin.[25] Most such novels took the
form of "chivalric romance", tales of adventure, devotion and
honour.[26]

The founders of Romanticism, critics August Wilhelm Schlegel

and Friedrich Schlegel, began to speak of romantische Poesie
William Blake, The Little Girl Found,
("romantic poetry") in the 1790s, contrasting it with "classic" but
from Songs of Innocence and
in terms of spirit rather than merely dating. Friedrich Schlegel
Experience, 1794
wrote in his 1800 essay Gespräch über die Poesie ("Dialogue on
Poetry"): "I seek and find the romantic among the older moderns,
in Shakespeare, in Cervantes, in Italian poetry, in that age of chivalry, love and fable, from which the
phenomenon and the word itself are derived."[27][28]

The modern sense of the term spread more widely in France by its persistent use by Germaine de
Staël in her De l'Allemagne (1813), recounting her travels in Germany.[29] In England Wordsworth
wrote in a preface to his poems of 1815 of the "romantic harp" and "classic lyre",[29] but in 1820 Byron
could still write, perhaps slightly disingenuously, "I perceive that in Germany, as well as in Italy, there
is a great struggle about what they call 'Classical' and 'Romantic', terms which were not subjects of
classification in England, at least when I left it four or five years ago".[30] It is only from the 1820s
that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, and in 1824 the Académie française took the
wholly ineffective step of issuing a decree condemning it in literature.[31]

Period

The period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic
media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place "roughly
between 1770 and 1848",[32] and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature,
M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, perhaps
a little later than some other critics.[33] Others have proposed 1780–1830.[34] In other fields and
other countries the period denominated as Romantic can be considerably different; musical
Romanticism, for example, is generally regarded as only having ceased as a major artistic force as late
as 1910, but in an extreme extension the Four Last Songs of Richard Strauss are described stylistically
as "Late Romantic" and were composed in 1946–48.[35] However, in most fields the Romantic period
is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 4/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

The early period of the Romantic era was a time of war, with the French Revolution (1789–1799)
followed by the Napoleonic Wars until 1815. These wars, along with the political and social turmoil
that went along with them, served as the background for Romanticism.[36] The key generation of
French Romantics born between 1795 and 1805 had, in the words of one of their number, Alfred de
Vigny, been "conceived between battles, attended school to the rolling of drums".[37] According to
Jacques Barzun, there were three generations of Romantic artists. The first emerged in the 1790s and
1800s, the second in the 1820s, and the third later in the century.[38]

Context and place in history

The more precise characterization and specific definition of Romanticism has been the subject of
debate in the fields of intellectual history and literary history throughout the 20th century, without
any great measure of consensus emerging. That it was part of the Counter-Enlightenment, a reaction
against the Age of Enlightenment, is generally accepted in current scholarship. Its relationship to the
French Revolution, which began in 1789 in the very early stages of the period, is clearly important, but
highly variable depending on geography and individual reactions. Most Romantics can be said to be
broadly progressive in their views, but a considerable number always had, or developed, a wide range
of conservative views,[39] and nationalism was in many countries strongly associated with
Romanticism, as discussed in detail below.

In philosophy and the history of ideas, Romanticism was seen by Isaiah Berlin as disrupting for over a
century the classic Western traditions of rationality and the idea of moral absolutes and agreed
values, leading "to something like the melting away of the very notion of objective truth",[40] and
hence not only to nationalism, but also fascism and totalitarianism, with a gradual recovery coming
only after World War II.[41] For the Romantics, Berlin says,

in the realm of ethics, politics, aesthetics it was the authenticity and sincerity of the
pursuit of inner goals that mattered; this applied equally to individuals and groups—
states, nations, movements. This is most evident in the aesthetics of romanticism, where
the notion of eternal models, a Platonic vision of ideal beauty, which the artist seeks to
convey, however imperfectly, on canvas or in sound, is replaced by a passionate belief in
spiritual freedom, individual creativity. The painter, the poet, the composer do not hold up
a mirror to nature, however ideal, but invent; they do not imitate (the doctrine of
mimesis), but create not merely the means but the goals that they pursue; these goals
represent the self-expression of the artist's own unique, inner vision, to set aside which in
response to the demands of some "external" voice—church, state, public opinion, family
friends, arbiters of taste—is an act of betrayal of what alone justifies their existence for
those who are in any sense creative.[42]

Arthur Lovejoy attempted to demonstrate the difficulty of defining Romanticism in his seminal article
"On The Discrimination of Romanticisms" in his Essays in the History of Ideas (1948); some scholars
see Romanticism as essentially continuous with the present, some like Robert Hughes see in it the
inaugural moment of modernity,[43] and some like Chateaubriand, Novalis and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge see it as the beginning of a tradition of resistance to Enlightenment rationalism—a
"Counter-Enlightenment"—[44][45] to be associated most closely with German Romanticism. An
earlier definition comes from Charles Baudelaire: "Romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice
of subject nor exact truth, but in the way of feeling."[46]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 5/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

The end of the Romantic era is marked in some areas by a new

style of Realism, which affected literature, especially the novel and
drama, painting, and even music, through Verismo opera. This
movement was led by France, with Balzac and Flaubert in
literature and Courbet in painting; Stendhal and Goya were
important precursors of Realism in their respective media.
However, Romantic styles, now often representing the established
and safe style against which Realists rebelled, continued to
flourish in many fields for the rest of the century and beyond. In
music such works from after about 1850 are referred to by some
John William Waterhouse, The Lady
writers as "Late Romantic" and by others as "Neoromantic" or
of Shalott, 1888, after a poem by
Tennyson; like many Victorian
"Postromantic", but other fields do not usually use these terms; in
paintings, romantic but not
English literature and painting the convenient term "Victorian"
Romantic.
avoids having to characterise the period further.

In northern Europe, the Early Romantic visionary optimism and

belief that the world was in the process of great change and improvement had largely vanished, and
some art became more conventionally political and polemical as its creators engaged polemically with
the world as it was. Elsewhere, including in very different ways the United States and Russia, feelings
that great change was underway or just about to come were still possible. Displays of intense emotion
in art remained prominent, as did the exotic and historical settings pioneered by the Romantics, but
experimentation with form and technique was generally reduced, often replaced with meticulous
technique, as in the poems of Tennyson or many paintings. If not realist, late 19th-century art was
often extremely detailed, and pride was taken in adding authentic details in a way that earlier
Romantics did not trouble with. Many Romantic ideas about the nature and purpose of art, above all
the pre-eminent importance of originality, remained important for later generations, and often
underlie modern views, despite opposition from theorists.

Literature
In literature, Romanticism found recurrent themes in the
evocation or criticism of the past, the cult of "sensibility" with its
emphasis on women and children, the isolation of the artist or
narrator, and respect for nature. Furthermore, several romantic
authors, such as Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne, based
their writings on the supernatural/occult and human psychology.
Romanticism tended to regard satire as something unworthy of
serious attention, a prejudice still influential today.[47] The
Henry Wallis, The Death of Romantic movement in literature was preceded by the
Chatterton 1856, by suicide at 17 in Enlightenment and succeeded by Realism.
1770
Some authors cite 16th-century poet Isabella di Morra as an early
precursor of Romantic literature. Her lyrics covering themes of
isolation and loneliness, which reflected the tragic events of her life, are considered "an impressive
prefigurement of Romanticism",[48] differing from the Petrarchist fashion of the time based on the
philosophy of love.

The precursors of Romanticism in English poetry go back to the middle of the 18th century, including
figures such as Joseph Warton (headmaster at Winchester College) and his brother Thomas Warton,
Professor of Poetry at Oxford University.[49] Joseph maintained that invention and imagination were

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 6/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

the chief qualities of a poet. The Scottish poet James Macpherson influenced the early development of
Romanticism with the international success of his Ossian cycle of poems published in 1762, inspiring
both Goethe and the young Walter Scott. Thomas Chatterton is generally considered the first
Romantic poet in English.[50] Both Chatterton and Macpherson's work involved elements of fraud, as
what they claimed was earlier literature that they had discovered or compiled was, in fact, entirely
their own work. The Gothic novel, beginning with Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto (1764), was
an important precursor of one strain of Romanticism, with a delight in horror and threat, and exotic
picturesque settings, matched in Walpole's case by his role in the early revival of Gothic architecture.
Tristram Shandy, a novel by Laurence Sterne (1759–67), introduced a whimsical version of the anti-
rational sentimental novel to the English literary public.

Germany

An early German influence came from Johann Wolfgang von

Goethe, whose 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young Werther had
young men throughout Europe emulating its protagonist, a young
artist with a very sensitive and passionate temperament. At that
time Germany was a multitude of small separate states, and
Goethe's works would have a seminal influence in developing a
unifying sense of nationalism. Another philosophic influence came
from the German idealism of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and
Friedrich Schelling, making Jena (where Fichte lived, as well as
Schelling, Hegel, Schiller and the brothers Schlegel) a centre for
Title page of Volume III of Des
early German Romanticism (see Jena Romanticism). Important
Knaben Wunderhorn, 1808
writers were Ludwig Tieck, Novalis (Heinrich von Ofterdingen,
1799), Heinrich von Kleist and Friedrich Hölderlin. Heidelberg
later became a centre of German Romanticism, where writers and poets such as Clemens Brentano,
Achim von Arnim, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff (Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts) met
regularly in literary circles.

Important motifs in German Romanticism are travelling, nature, for example the German Forest, and
Germanic myths. The later German Romanticism of, for example E. T. A. Hoffmann's Der Sandmann
(The Sandman), 1817, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff's Das Marmorbild (The Marble Statue),
1819, was darker in its motifs and has gothic elements. The significance to Romanticism of childhood
innocence, the importance of imagination, and racial theories all combined to give an unprecedented
importance to folk literature, non-classical mythology and children's literature, above all in Germany.
Brentano and von Arnim were significant literary figures who together published Des Knaben
Wunderhorn ("The Boy's Magic Horn" or cornucopia), a collection of versified folk tales, in 1806–08.
The first collection of Grimms' Fairy Tales by the Brothers Grimm was published in 1812.[51] Unlike
the much later work of Hans Christian Andersen, who was publishing his invented tales in Danish
from 1835, these German works were at least mainly based on collected folk tales, and the Grimms
remained true to the style of the telling in their early editions, though later rewriting some parts. One
of the brothers, Jacob, published in 1835 Deutsche Mythologie, a long academic work on Germanic
mythology.[52] Another strain is exemplified by Schiller's highly emotional language and the depiction
of physical violence in his play The Robbers of 1781.

Great Britain

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 7/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

In English literature, the key figures of the Romantic movement are

considered to be the group of poets including William Wordsworth,
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley
and the much older William Blake, followed later by the isolated figure of
John Clare; also such novelists as Walter Scott from Scotland and Mary
Shelley, and the essayists William Hazlitt and Charles Lamb. The
publication in 1798 of Lyrical Ballads, with many of the finest poems by
Wordsworth and Coleridge, is often held to mark the start of the
movement. The majority of the poems were by Wordsworth, and many
dealt with the lives of the poor in his native Lake District, or his feelings
about nature—which he more fully developed in his long poem The
Prelude, never published in his lifetime. The longest poem in the volume
William Wordsworth
was Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which showed the
(pictured) and Samuel
Gothic side of English Romanticism, and the exotic settings that many Taylor Coleridge helped to
works featured. In the period when they were writing, the Lake Poets launch the Romantic Age in
were widely regarded as a marginal group of radicals, though they were English literature in 1798
supported by the critic and writer William Hazlitt and others. with their joint publication
Lyrical Ballads
In contrast, Lord Byron and Walter Scott
achieved enormous fame and influence
throughout Europe with works exploiting the violence and drama of their
exotic and historical settings; Goethe called Byron "undoubtedly the
greatest genius of our century".[53] Scott achieved immediate success
with his long narrative poem The Lay of the Last Minstrel in 1805,
followed by the full epic poem Marmion in 1808. Both were set in the
distant Scottish past, already evoked in Ossian; Romanticism and
Scotland were to have a long and fruitful partnership. Byron had equal
success with the first part of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage in 1812, followed
by four "Turkish tales", all in the form of long poems, starting with The
Giaour in 1813, drawing from his Grand Tour, which had reached
Portrait of Lord Byron by Ottoman Europe, and orientalizing the themes of the Gothic novel in
Thomas Phillips, c. 1813. verse. These featured different variations of the "Byronic hero", and his
The Byronic hero first own life contributed a further version. Scott meanwhile was effectively
reached the wider public in inventing the historical novel, beginning in 1814 with Waverley, set in
Byron's semi- the 1745 Jacobite rising, which was a highly profitable success, followed
autobiographical epic by over 20 further Waverley Novels over the next 17 years, with settings
narrative poem Childe going back to the Crusades that he had researched to a degree that was
Harold's Pilgrimage (1812– new in literature.[54]
1818).
In contrast to Germany, Romanticism in English literature had little
connection with nationalism, and the Romantics were often regarded
with suspicion for the sympathy many felt for the ideals of the French Revolution, whose collapse and
replacement with the dictatorship of Napoleon was, as elsewhere in Europe, a shock to the movement.
Though his novels celebrated Scottish identity and history, Scott was politically a firm Unionist, but
admitted to Jacobite sympathies. Several Romantics spent much time abroad, and a famous stay on
Lake Geneva with Byron and Shelley in 1816 produced the hugely influential novel Frankenstein by
Shelley's wife-to-be Mary Shelley and the novella The Vampyre by Byron's doctor John William
Polidori. The lyrics of Robert Burns in Scotland, and Thomas Moore from Ireland, reflected in
different ways their countries and the Romantic interest in folk literature, but neither had a fully
Romantic approach to life or their work.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 8/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Though they have modern critical champions such as György Lukács, Scott's novels are today more
likely to be experienced in the form of the many operas that composers continued to base on them
over the following decades, such as Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and Vincenzo Bellini's I
puritani (both 1835). Byron is now most highly regarded for his short lyrics and his generally
unromantic prose writings, especially his letters, and his unfinished satire Don Juan.[55] Unlike many
Romantics, Byron's widely publicised personal life appeared to match his work, and his death at 36 in
1824 from disease when helping the Greek War of Independence appeared from a distance to be a
suitably Romantic end, entrenching his legend.[56] Keats in 1821 and Shelley in 1822 both died in
Italy, Blake (at almost 70) in 1827, and Coleridge largely ceased to write in the 1820s. Wordsworth
was by 1820 respectable and highly regarded, holding a government sinecure, but wrote relatively
little. In the discussion of English literature, the Romantic period is often regarded as finishing
around the 1820s, or sometimes even earlier, although many authors of the succeeding decades were
no less committed to Romantic values.

The most significant novelist in English during the peak Romantic period, other than Walter Scott,
was Jane Austen, whose essentially conservative world-view had little in common with her Romantic
contemporaries, retaining a strong belief in decorum and social rules, though critics such as Claudia
L. Johnson have detected tremors under the surface of many works, such as Northanger Abbey
(1817), Mansfield Park (1814) and Persuasion (1817).[57] But around the mid-century the undoubtedly
Romantic novels of the Yorkshire-based Brontë family appeared. Most notably Charlotte's Jane Eyre
and Emily's Wuthering Heights, both published in 1847, which also introduced more Gothic themes.
While these two novels were written and published after the Romantic period is said to have ended,
their novels were heavily influenced by Romantic literature they had read as children.

Byron, Keats and Shelley all wrote for the stage, but with little success in England, with Shelley's The
Cenci perhaps the best work produced, though that was not played in a public theatre in England until
a century after his death. Byron's plays, along with dramatizations of his poems and Scott's novels,
were much more popular on the Continent, and especially in France, and through these versions
several were turned into operas, many still performed today. If contemporary poets had little success
on the stage, the period was a legendary one for performances of Shakespeare, and went some way to
restoring his original texts and removing the Augustan "improvements" to them. The greatest actor of
the period, Edmund Kean, restored the tragic ending to King Lear;[58] Coleridge said that, "Seeing
him act was like reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning."[59]

Scotland

Although after union with England in 1707 Scotland increasingly adopted

English language and wider cultural norms, its literature developed a
distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation.
Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of
interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for
pastoral poetry, helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic
form.[60] James Macpherson (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain
an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the
ancient bard Ossian, he published translations that acquired
international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the
Classical epics. Fingal, written in 1762, was speedily translated into many
Robert Burns in Alexander
European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and
Nasmyth's portrait of 1787
treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single
work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 9/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

especially in German literature, through its influence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe.[61] It was also popularised in France by figures that included Napoleon.[62]
Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from Scottish Gaelic, but
flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.[63]

Robert Burns (1759–96) and Walter Scott (1771–1832) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle.
Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major
influence on the Romantic movement. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung at
Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficial
national anthem of the country.[64] Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish
ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.[65] It launched
a highly successful career, with other historical novels such as Rob Roy (1817), The Heart of
Midlothian (1818) and Ivanhoe (1820). Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and
popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century.[66] Other major literary figures
connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg (1770–1835), Allan
Cunningham (1784–1842) and John Galt (1779–1839).[67] One of the most significant figures of the
Romantic movement, Lord Byron, was brought up in Scotland until he inherited his family's English
peerage.[68]

Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary
magazines of the era, The Edinburgh Review (founded in 1802) and
Blackwood's Magazine (founded in 1817), which had a major impact on
the development of British literature and drama in the era of
Romanticism.[69][70] Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol suggest that
publications like the novels of Scott and these magazines were part of a
highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth
century, caused Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain
and become central to a wider formation of a "British Isles
nationalism".[71]

Scottish "national drama" emerged in the early 1800s, as plays with Raeburn's portrait of Walter
specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage. Scott in 1822
Theatres had been discouraged by the Church of Scotland and fears of
Jacobite assemblies. In the later eighteenth century, many plays were
written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have
been lost. Towards the end of the century there were "closet dramas", primarily designed to be read,
rather than performed, including work by Scott, Hogg, Galt and Joanna Baillie (1762–1851), often
influenced by the ballad tradition and Gothic Romanticism.[72]

France

Romanticism was relatively late in developing in French literature, more so than in the visual arts.
The 18th-century precursor to Romanticism, the cult of sensibility, had become associated with the
Ancien Régime, and the French Revolution had been more of an inspiration to foreign writers than
those experiencing it at first-hand. The first major figure was François-René de Chateaubriand, a
minor aristocrat who had remained a royalist throughout the Revolution, and returned to France
from exile in England and America under Napoleon, with whose regime he had an uneasy
relationship. His writings, all in prose, included some fiction, such as his influential novella of exile
René (1802), which anticipated Byron in its alienated hero, but mostly contemporary history and

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 10/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

politics, his travels, a defence of religion and the medieval spirit (Génie du christianisme, 1802), and
finally in the 1830s and 1840s his enormous autobiography Mémoires d'Outre-Tombe ("Memoirs
from beyond the grave").[73]

After the Bourbon Restoration, French Romanticism developed in

the lively world of Parisian theatre, with productions of
Shakespeare, Schiller (in France a key Romantic author), and
adaptations of Scott and Byron alongside French authors, several
of whom began to write in the late 1820s. Cliques of pro- and anti-
Romantics developed, and productions were often accompanied
by raucous vocalizing by the two sides, including the shouted
assertion by one theatregoer in 1822 that "Shakespeare, c'est
l'aide-de-camp de Wellington" ("Shakespeare is Wellington's aide-
de-camp").[74] Alexandre Dumas began as a dramatist, with a
series of successes beginning with Henri III et sa cour (1829)
before turning to novels that were mostly historical adventures
somewhat in the manner of Scott, most famously The Three
Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo, both of 1844. Victor
Hugo published as a poet in the 1820s before achieving success on
the stage with Hernani—a historical drama in a quasi-
Shakespearian style that had famously riotous performances on its The "battle of Hernani" was fought
first run in 1830.[75] Like Dumas, Hugo is best known for his nightly at the theatre in 1830
novels, and was already writing The Hunchback of Notre-Dame
(1831), one of the best known works, which became a paradigm of
the French Romantic movement. The preface to his unperformed play Cromwell gives an important
manifesto of French Romanticism, stating that "there are no rules, or models". The career of Prosper
Mérimée followed a similar pattern; he is now best known as the originator of the story of Carmen,
with his novella published 1845. Alfred de Vigny remains best known as a dramatist, with his play on
the life of the English poet Chatterton (1835) perhaps his best work. George Sand was a central figure
of the Parisian literary scene, famous both for her novels and criticism and her affairs with Chopin
and several others;[76] she too was inspired by the theatre, and wrote works to be staged at her private
estate.

French Romantic poets of the 1830s to 1850s include Alfred de Musset, Gérard de Nerval, Alphonse
de Lamartine and the flamboyant Théophile Gautier, whose prolific output in various forms
continued until his death in 1872.

Stendhal is today probably the most highly regarded French novelist of the period, but he stands in a
complex relation with Romanticism, and is notable for his penetrating psychological insight into his
characters and his realism, qualities rarely prominent in Romantic fiction. As a survivor of the French
retreat from Moscow in 1812, fantasies of heroism and adventure had little appeal for him, and like
Goya he is often seen as a forerunner of Realism. His most important works are Le Rouge et le Noir
(The Red and the Black, 1830) and La Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma, 1839).

Poland

Romanticism in Poland is often taken to begin with the publication of Adam Mickiewicz's first poems
in 1822, and end with the crushing of the January Uprising of 1863 against the Russians. It was
strongly marked by interest in Polish history.[77] Polish Romanticism revived the old "Sarmatism"
traditions of the szlachta or Polish nobility. Old traditions and customs were revived and portrayed in
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 11/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

a positive light in the Polish messianic movement and in works of

great Polish poets such as Adam Mickiewicz (Pan Tadeusz), Juliusz
Słowacki and Zygmunt Krasiński. This close connection between
Polish Romanticism and Polish history became one of the defining
qualities of the literature of Polish Romanticism period,
differentiating it from that of other countries. They had not suffered
the loss of national statehood as was the case with Poland.[78]
Influenced by the general spirit and main ideas of European
Romanticism, the literature of Polish Romanticism is unique, as
many scholars have pointed out, in having developed largely outside
of Poland and in its emphatic focus upon the issue of Polish
nationalism. The Polish intelligentsia, along with leading members of
its government, left Poland in the early 1830s, during what is
referred to as the "Great Emigration", resettling in France, Germany, Adam Mickiewicz on the Ayu-
Great Britain, Turkey, and the United States. Dag, by Walenty Wańkowicz,
1828
Their art featured emotionalism and irrationality, fantasy and
imagination, personality cults, folklore and country life, and the
propagation of ideals of freedom. In the second period, many of the
Polish Romantics worked abroad, often banished from Poland by the
occupying powers due to their politically subversive ideas. Their
work became increasingly dominated by the ideals of political
struggle for freedom and their country's sovereignty. Elements of
mysticism became more prominent. There developed the idea of the
poeta wieszcz (the prophet). The wieszcz (bard) functioned as
spiritual leader to the nation fighting for its independence. The most
notable poet so recognized was Adam Mickiewicz.

Zygmunt Krasiński also wrote to inspire political and religious hope

in his countrymen. Unlike his predecessors, who called for victory at
whatever price in Poland's struggle against Russia, Krasinski Juliusz Słowacki, a Polish poet
emphasized Poland's spiritual role in its fight for independence, considered one of the "Three
advocating an intellectual rather than a military superiority. His National Bards" of Polish
works best exemplify the Messianic movement in Poland: in two literature—a major figure in the
early dramas, Nie-boska komedia (1835; The Undivine Comedy) and Polish Romantic period, and the
Irydion (1836; Iridion), as well as in the later Psalmy przyszłości father of modern Polish drama.
(1845), he asserted that Poland was the Christ of Europe: specifically
chosen by God to carry the world's burdens, to suffer, and eventually
be resurrected.

Russia

Early Russian Romanticism is associated with the writers Konstantin Batyushkov (A Vision on the
Shores of the Lethe, 1809), Vasily Zhukovsky (The Bard, 1811; Svetlana, 1813) and Nikolay Karamzin
(Poor Liza, 1792; Julia, 1796; Martha the Mayoress, 1802; The Sensitive and the Cold, 1803).
However the principal exponent of Romanticism in Russia is Alexander Pushkin (The Prisoner of the
Caucasus, 1820–1821; The Robber Brothers, 1822; Ruslan and Ludmila, 1820; Eugene Onegin,
1825–1832). Pushkin's work influenced many writers in the 19th century and led to his eventual

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 12/45
28/1/22 09:27 Romanticism - Wikipedia

recognition as Russia's greatest poet.[79] Other Russian Romantic poets include Mikhail Lermontov
(A Hero of Our Time, 1839), Fyodor Tyutchev (Silentium!, 1830), Yevgeny Baratynsky (Eda, 1826),
Anton Delvig, and Wilhelm Küchelbecker.

Influenced heavily by Lord Byron, Lermontov sought to explore the Romantic emphasis on
metaphysical discontent with society and self, while Tyutchev's poems often described scenes of
nature or passions of love. Tyutchev commonly operated with such categories as night and day, north
and south, dream and reality, cosmos and chaos, and the still world of winter and spring teeming with
life. Baratynsky's style was fairly classical in nature, dwelling on the models of the previous century.

Spain

Romanticism in Spanish literature developed a well-known literature

with a huge variety of poets and playwrights. The most important
Spanish poet during this movement was José de Espronceda. After him
there were other poets like Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Mariano José de
Larra and the dramatists Ángel de Saavedra and José Zorrilla, author of
Don Juan Tenorio. Before them may be mentioned the pre-romantics
José Cadalso and Manuel José Quintana.[81] The plays of Antonio García
Gutiérrez were adapted to produce Giuseppe Verdi's operas Il trovatore
and Simon Boccanegra. Spanish Romanticism also influenced regional
literatures. For example, in Catalonia and in Galicia there was a national
boom of writers in the local languages, like the Catalan Jacint Verdaguer
and the Galician Rosalía de Castro, the main figures of the national
El escritor José de
revivalist movements Renaixença and Rexurdimento, respectively.[82]
Espronceda, portrait by
Antonio María Esquivel
There are scholars who consider Spanish Romanticism to be Proto-
(c. 1845) (Museo del Prado,
Existentialism because it is more anguished than the movement in other
Madrid)[80]
European countries. Foster et al., for example, say that the work of
Spain's writers such as Espronceda, Larra, and other writers in the 19th
century demonstrated a "metaphysical crisis".[83] These observers put
more weight on the link between the 19th-century Spanish writers with the existentialist movement
that emerged immediately after. According to Richard Caldwell, the writers that we now identify with
Spain's romanticism were actually precursors to those who galvanized the literary movement that
emerged in the 1920s.[84] This notion is the subject of debate for there are authors who stress that
Spain's romanticism is one of the earliest in Europe,[85] while some assert that Spain really had no
period of literary romanticism.[86] This controversy underscores a certain uniqueness to Spanish
Romanticism in comparison to its European counterparts.

Portugal

Romanticism began in Portugal with the publication of the poem Camões (1825), by Almeida Garrett,
who was raised by his uncle D. Alexandre, bishop of Angra, in the precepts of Neoclassicism, which
can be observed in his early work. The author himself confesses (in Camões' preface) that he
voluntarily refused to follow the principles of epic poetry enunciated by Aristotle in his Poetics, as he
did the same to Horace's Ars Poetica. Almeida Garrett had participated in the 1820 Liberal
Revolution, which caused him to exile himself in England in 1823 and then in France, after the Vila-
Francada. While living in Great Britain, he had contacts with the Romantic movement and read
authors such as Shakespeare, Scott, Ossian, Byron, Hugo, Lamartine and de Staël, at the same time
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 13/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

visiting feudal castles and ruins of Gothic churches and abbeys, which
would be reflected in his writings. In 1838, he presented Um Auto de Gil
Vicente ("A Play by Gil Vicente"), in an attempt to create a new national
theatre, free of Greco-Roman and foreign influence. But his masterpiece
would be Frei Luís de Sousa (1843), named by himself as a "Romantic
drama" and it was acclaimed as an exceptional work, dealing with themes
as national independence, faith, justice and love. He was also deeply
interested in Portuguese folkloric verse, which resulted in the publication
of Romanceiro ("Traditional Portuguese Ballads") (1843), that recollect a
great number of ancient popular ballads, known as "romances" or
"rimances", in redondilha maior verse form, that contained stories of
chivalry, life of saints, crusades, courtly love, etc. He wrote the novels
Viagens na Minha Terra, O Arco de Sant'Ana and Helena.[87][88][89] Portuguese poet, novelist,
politician and playwright
Alexandre Herculano is, alongside Almeida Garrett, one of the founders Almeida Garrett (1799–
of Portuguese Romanticism. He too was forced to exile to Great Britain 1854)
and France because of his liberal ideals. All of his poetry and prose are
(unlike Almeida Garrett's) entirely Romantic, rejecting Greco-Roman
myth and history. He sought inspiration in medieval Portuguese poems and chronicles as in the Bible.
His output is vast and covers many different genres, such as historical essays, poetry, novels,
opuscules and theatre, where he brings back a whole world of Portuguese legends, tradition and
history, especially in Eurico, o Presbítero ("Eurico, the Priest") and Lendas e Narrativas ("Legends
and Narratives"). His work was influenced by Chateaubriand, Schiller, Klopstock, Walter Scott and
the Old Testament Psalms.[90]

António Feliciano de Castilho made the case for Ultra-Romanticism, publishing the poems A Noite no
Castelo ("Night in the Castle") and Os Ciúmes do Bardo ("The Jealousy of the Bard"), both in 1836,
and the drama Camões. He became an unquestionable master for successive Ultra-Romantic
generations, whose influence would not be challenged until the famous Coimbra Question. He also
created polemics by translating Goethe's Faust without knowing German, but using French versions
of the play. Other notable figures of Portuguese Romanticism are the famous novelists Camilo Castelo
Branco and Júlio Dinis, and Soares de Passos, Bulhão Pato and Pinheiro Chagas.[89]

Romantic style would be revived in the beginning of the 20th century, notably through the works of
poets linked to the Portuguese Renaissance, such as Teixeira de Pascoais, Jaime Cortesão, Mário
Beirão, among others, who can be considered Neo-Romantics. An early Portuguese expression of
Romanticism is found already in poets such as Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage (especially in his
sonnets dated at the end of the 18th century) and Leonor de Almeida Portugal, Marquise of
Alorna.[89]

Italy

Romanticism in Italian literature was a minor movement although some important works were
produced; it began officially in 1816 when Germaine de Staël wrote an article in the journal Biblioteca
italiana called "Sulla maniera e l'utilità delle traduzioni", inviting Italian people to reject
Neoclassicism and to study new authors from other countries. Before that date, Ugo Foscolo had
already published poems anticipating Romantic themes. The most important Romantic writers were
Ludovico di Breme, Pietro Borsieri and Giovanni Berchet.[92] Better known authors such as
Alessandro Manzoni and Giacomo Leopardi were influenced by Enlightenment as well as by
Romanticism and Classicism.[93]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 14/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

South America

Spanish-speaking South American Romanticism was influenced

heavily by Esteban Echeverría, who wrote in the 1830s and 1840s.
His writings were influenced by his hatred for the Argentine dictator
Juan Manuel de Rosas, and filled with themes of blood and terror,
using the metaphor of a slaughterhouse to portray the violence of
Rosas' dictatorship.

Brazilian Romanticism is characterized and divided in three

different periods. The first one is basically focused on the creation of
a sense of national identity, using the ideal of the heroic Indian.
Some examples include José de Alencar, who wrote Iracema and O
Guarani, and Gonçalves Dias, renowned by the poem "Canção do Italian poet Isabella di Morra,
exílio" (Song of the Exile). The second period, sometimes called sometimes cited as a precursor of
Ultra-Romanticism, is marked by a profound influence of European Romantic poets[91]
themes and traditions, involving the melancholy, sadness and
despair related to unobtainable love. Goethe and Lord Byron are
commonly quoted in these works. Some of the most notable
authors of this phase are Álvares de Azevedo, Casimiro de Abreu,
Fagundes Varela and Junqueira Freire. The third cycle is marked
by social poetry, especially the abolitionist movement, and it
includes Castro Alves, Tobias Barreto and Pedro Luís Pereira de
Sousa.[94]

United States
A print exemplifying the contrast
In the United States, at least by 1818 with William Cullen Bryant's between neoclassical vs. romantic
"To a Waterfowl", Romantic poetry was being published. styles of landscape and architecture
American Romantic Gothic literature made an early appearance (or the "Grecian" and the "Gothic" as
with Washington Irving's "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (1820) they are termed here), 1816
and "Rip Van Winkle" (1819), followed from 1823 onwards by the
Leatherstocking Tales of James Fenimore Cooper, with their
emphasis on heroic simplicity and their fervent landscape descriptions of an already-exotic
mythicized frontier peopled by "noble savages", similar to the philosophical theory of Rousseau,
exemplified by Uncas, from The Last of the Mohicans. There are picturesque "local colour" elements
in Washington Irving's essays and especially his travel books. Edgar Allan Poe's tales of the macabre
and his balladic poetry were more influential in France than at home, but the romantic American
novel developed fully with the atmosphere and melodrama of Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet
Letter (1850). Later Transcendentalist writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo
Emerson still show elements of its influence and imagination, as does the romantic realism of Walt
Whitman. The poetry of Emily Dickinson—nearly unread in her own time—and Herman Melville's
novel Moby-Dick can be taken as epitomes of American Romantic literature. By the 1880s, however,
psychological and social realism were competing with Romanticism in the novel.

Influence of European Romanticism on American writers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 15/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

The European Romantic movement reached America in the early

19th century. American Romanticism was just as multifaceted and
individualistic as it was in Europe. Like the Europeans, the
American Romantics demonstrated a high level of moral
enthusiasm, commitment to individualism and the unfolding of
the self, an emphasis on intuitive perception, and the assumption
that the natural world was inherently good, while human society
was filled with corruption.[95]

Romanticism became popular in American politics, philosophy Dennis Malone Carter, Decatur
and art. The movement appealed to the revolutionary spirit of Boarding the Tripolitan Gunboat,
America as well as to those longing to break free of the strict 1878. Romanticist vision of the
religious traditions of early settlement. The Romantics rejected Battle of Tripoli, during the First
rationalism and religious intellect. It appealed to those in Barbary War. It represents the
opposition of Calvinism, which includes the belief that the destiny moment when the American war
of each individual is preordained. The Romantic movement gave hero Stephen Decatur was fighting
rise to New England Transcendentalism, which portrayed a less hand-to-hand against the Muslim
restrictive relationship between God and Universe. The new pirate captain.
philosophy presented the individual with a more personal
relationship with God. Transcendentalism and Romanticism
appealed to Americans in a similar fashion, for both privileged
feeling over reason, individual freedom of expression over the
restraints of tradition and custom. It often involved a rapturous
response to nature. It encouraged the rejection of harsh, rigid
Calvinism, and promised a new blossoming of American
culture.[95][96]

American Romanticism embraced the individual and rebelled Thomas Cole, The Course of
against the confinement of neoclassicism and religious tradition. Empire: The Savage State (1 of 5),
The Romantic movement in America created a new literary genre 1836
that continues to influence American writers. Novels, short
stories, and poems replaced the sermons and manifestos of yore.
Romantic literature was personal, intense, and portrayed more emotion than ever seen in neoclassical
literature. America's preoccupation with freedom became a great source of motivation for Romantic
writers as many were delighted in free expression and emotion without so much fear of ridicule and
controversy. They also put more effort into the psychological development of their characters, and the
main characters typically displayed extremes of sensitivity and excitement.[97]

The works of the Romantic Era also differed from preceding works in that they spoke to a wider
audience, partly reflecting the greater distribution of books as costs came down during the period.[36]

Architecture
Romantic architecture appeared in the late 18th century in a reaction against the rigid forms of
neoclassical architecture. Romantic architecture reached its peak in the mid-19th century, and
continued to appear until the end of the 19th century. It was designed to evoke an emotional reaction,
either respect for tradition or nostalgia for a bucolic past. It was frequently inspired by the
architecture of the Middle Ages, especially Gothic architecture, It was strongly influenced by

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 16/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

romanticism in literature, particularly the historical novels of Victor Hugo and Walter Scott. It
sometimes moved into the domain of eclecticism, with features assembled from different historic
periods and regions of the world.[98]

Gothic Revival architecture was a popular variant of the romantic style, particularly in the
construction of churches, Cathedrals, and university buildings. Notable examples include the
completion of Cologne Cathedral in Germany, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel. The cathedral had been
begun in 1248, but work was halted in 1473. The original plans for the façade were discovered in 1840,
and it was decided to recommence. Schinkel followed the original design as much as possible, but
used modern construction technology, including an iron frame for the roof. The building was finished
in 1880.[99]

In Britain, notable examples include the Royal Pavilion in Brighton, a romantic version of traditional
Indian architecture by John Nash (1815–1823), and the Houses of Parliament in London, built in a
Gothic revival style by Charles Barry between 1840 and 1876.[100]

In France, one of the earliest examples of romantic architecture is the Hameau de la Reine, the small
rustic hamlet created at the Palace of Versailles for Queen Marie Antoinette between 1783 and 1785 by
the royal architect Richard Mique with the help of the romantic painter Hubert Robert. It consisted of
twelve structures, ten of which still exist, in the style of villages in Normandy. It was designed for the
Queen and her friends to amuse themselves by playing at being peasants, and included a farmhouse
with a dairy, a mill, a boudoir, a pigeon loft, a tower in the form of a lighthouse from which one could
fish in the pond, a belvedere, a cascade and grotto, and a luxuriously furnished cottage with a billiard
room for the Queen.[101]

French romantic architecture in the 19th century was strongly influenced by two writers; Victor Hugo,
whose novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame inspired a resurgence in interest in the Middle Ages; and
Prosper Mérimée, who wrote celebrated romantic novels and short stories and was also the first head
of the commission of Historic Monuments in France, responsible for publicizing and restoring (and
sometimes romanticizing) many French cathedrals and monuments desecrated and ruined after the
French Revolution. His projects were carried out by the architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. These
included the restoration (sometimes creative) of the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris, the fortified
city of Carcassonne, and the unfinished medieval Château de Pierrefonds.[99][102]

The romantic style continued in the second half of the 19th century. The Palais Garnier, the Paris
opera house designed by Charles Garnier was a highly romantic and eclectic combination of artistic
styles. Another notable example of late 19th century romanticism is the Basilica of Sacré-Cœur by
Paul Abadie, who drew upon the model of Byzantine architecture for his elongated domes (1875–
1914).[100]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 17/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Hameau de la Reine, Royal Pavilion in Brighton Cologne Grand Staircase of the

Palace of Versailles by John Nash (1815–1823) Cathedral Paris Opera by Charles
(1783–1785) (1840–80) Garnier (1861–75)

Basilica of
Sacré-Cœur
by Paul
Abadie (1875–
1914)

Visual arts
In the visual arts, Romanticism first showed itself in landscape
painting, where from as early as the 1760s British artists began to
turn to wilder landscapes and storms, and Gothic architecture,
even if they had to make do with Wales as a setting. Caspar David
Friedrich and J. M. W. Turner were born less than a year apart in
1774 and 1775 respectively and were to take German and English
landscape painting to their extremes of Romanticism, but both
their artistic sensibilities were formed when forms of
Romanticism was already strongly present in art. John Constable, Thomas Jones, The Bard, 1774, a
born in 1776, stayed closer to the English landscape tradition, but prophetic combination of
Romanticism and nationalism by the
in his largest "six-footers" insisted on the heroic status of a patch
Welsh artist
of the working countryside where he had grown up—challenging
the traditional hierarchy of genres, which relegated landscape
painting to a low status. Turner also painted very large landscapes,
and above all, seascapes. Some of these large paintings had contemporary settings and staffage, but
others had small figures that turned the work into history painting in the manner of Claude Lorrain,
like Salvator Rosa, a late Baroque artist whose landscapes had elements that Romantic painters
repeatedly turned to. Friedrich often used single figures, or features like crosses, set alone amidst a
huge landscape, "making them images of the transitoriness of human life and the premonition of
death".[103]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 18/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Other groups of artists expressed feelings that verged on the

mystical, many largely abandoning classical drawing and
proportions. These included William Blake and Samuel Palmer
and the other members of the Ancients in England, and in
Germany Philipp Otto Runge. Like Friedrich, none of these artists
had significant influence after their deaths for the rest of the 19th
century, and were 20th-century rediscoveries from obscurity,
though Blake was always known as a poet, and Norway's leading
painter Johan Christian Dahl was heavily influenced by Friedrich.
The Rome-based Nazarene movement of German artists, active
from 1810, took a very different path, concentrating on
medievalizing history paintings with religious and nationalist
themes.[104]
Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-
Trioson, Ossian receiving the The arrival of Romanticism in French art was delayed by the
Ghosts of the French Heroes, 1800–
strong hold of Neoclassicism on the academies, but from the
02
Napoleonic period it became increasingly popular, initially in the
form of history paintings propagandising for the new regime, of
which Girodet's Ossian receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes,
for Napoleon's Château de Malmaison, was one of the earliest. Girodet's old teacher David was
puzzled and disappointed by his pupil's direction, saying: "Either Girodet is mad or I no longer know
anything of the art of painting".[105] A new generation of the French school,[106] developed personal
Romantic styles, though still concentrating on history painting with a political message. Théodore
Géricault (1791–1824) had his first success with The Charging Chasseur, a heroic military figure
derived from Rubens, at the Paris Salon of 1812 in the years of the Empire, but his next major
completed work, The Raft of the Medusa of 1818-19, remains the greatest achievement of the
Romantic history painting, which in its day had a powerful anti-government message.

Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) made his first Salon hits with The Barque of Dante (1822), The
Massacre at Chios (1824) and Death of Sardanapalus (1827). The second was a scene from the Greek
War of Independence, completed the year Byron died there, and the last was a scene from one of
Byron's plays. With Shakespeare, Byron was to provide the subject matter for many other works of
Delacroix, who also spent long periods in North Africa, painting colourful scenes of mounted Arab
warriors. His Liberty Leading the People (1830) remains, with the Medusa, one of the best-known
works of French Romantic painting. Both reflected current events, and increasingly "history
painting", literally "story painting", a phrase dating back to the Italian Renaissance meaning the
painting of subjects with groups of figures, long considered the highest and most difficult form of art,
did indeed become the painting of historical scenes, rather than those from religion or mythology.[107]

Francisco Goya was called "the last great painter in whose art thought and observation were balanced
and combined to form a faultless unity".[108] But the extent to which he was a Romantic is a complex
question. In Spain, there was still a struggle to introduce the values of the Enlightenment, in which
Goya saw himself as a participant. The demonic and anti-rational monsters thrown up by his
imagination are only superficially similar to those of the Gothic fantasies of northern Europe, and in
many ways he remained wedded to the classicism and realism of his training, as well as looking
forward to the Realism of the later 19th century.[109] But he, more than any other artist of the period,
exemplified the Romantic values of the expression of the artist's feelings and his personal imaginative
world.[110] He also shared with many of the Romantic painters a more free handling of paint,
emphasized in the new prominence of the brushstroke and impasto, which tended to be repressed in
neoclassicism under a self-effacing finish.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 19/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Sculpture remained largely impervious to Romanticism, probably

partly for technical reasons, as the most prestigious material of
the day, marble, does not lend itself to expansive gestures. The
leading sculptors in Europe, Antonio Canova and Bertel
Thorvaldsen, were both based in Rome and firm Neoclassicists,
not at all tempted to allow influence from medieval sculpture,
which would have been one possible approach to Romantic
sculpture. When it did develop, true Romantic sculpture—with the
exception of a few artists such as Rudolf Maison—[111] rather oddly
was missing in Germany, and mainly found in France, with
François Rude, best known from his group of the 1830s from the
Arc de Triomphe in Paris, David d'Angers, and Auguste Préault.
Préault's plaster relief entitled Slaughter, which represented the
horrors of wars with exacerbated passion, caused so much scandal
at the 1834 Salon that Préault was banned from this official
annual exhibition for nearly twenty years.[112] In Italy, the most
Cavalier gaulois by Antoine-
important Romantic sculptor was Lorenzo Bartolini.[113]
Augustin Préault, Pont d'Iéna, Paris

George Stubbs, A Lion John Henry Fuseli, The

Attacking a Horse (1770), Nightmare (1781), oil on
oil on canvas, 38 in. x 49 canvas, 101.6 cm × 127
1/2in., Yale Center for cm., Detroit Institute of
British Art Arts

Francisco Goya, The Théodore Géricault, The Eugène Delacroix, Liberty

Third of May 1808, 1814 Raft of the Medusa, 1819 Leading the People 1830

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 20/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

J. M. W. Turner, The
Fighting Téméraire
tugged to her last Berth to
be broken up, 1839

In France, historical painting on idealized medieval and Renaissance themes is known as the style
Troubadour, a term with no equivalent for other countries, though the same trends occurred there.
Delacroix, Ingres and Richard Parkes Bonington all worked in this style, as did lesser specialists such
as Pierre-Henri Révoil (1776–1842) and Fleury-François Richard (1777–1852). Their pictures are
often small, and feature intimate private and anecdotal moments, as well as those of high drama. The
lives of great artists such as Raphael were commemorated on equal terms with those of rulers, and
fictional characters were also depicted. Fleury-Richard's Valentine of Milan weeping for the death of
her husband, shown in the Paris Salon of 1802, marked the arrival of the style, which lasted until the
mid-century, before being subsumed into the increasingly academic history painting of artists like
Paul Delaroche.[114]

Another trend was for very large apocalyptic history

paintings, often combining extreme natural events, or divine
wrath, with human disaster, attempting to outdo The Raft of
the Medusa, and now often drawing comparisons with
effects from Hollywood. The leading English artist in the
style was John Martin, whose tiny figures were dwarfed by
enormous earthquakes and storms, and worked his way
through the biblical disasters, and those to come in the final
days. Other works such as Delacroix's Death of Francesco Hayez, Crusaders Thirsting
Sardanapalus included larger figures, and these often drew near Jerusalem
heavily on earlier artists, especially Poussin and Rubens,
with extra emotionalism and special effects.

Elsewhere in Europe, leading artists adopted Romantic styles: in Russia there were the portraitists
Orest Kiprensky and Vasily Tropinin, with Ivan Aivazovsky specializing in marine painting, and in
Norway Hans Gude painted scenes of fjords. In Italy Francesco Hayez (1791–1882) was the leading
artist of Romanticism in mid-19th-century Milan. His long, prolific and extremely successful career
saw him begin as a Neoclassical painter, pass right through the Romantic period, and emerge at the
other end as a sentimental painter of young women. His Romantic period included many historical
pieces of "Troubadour" tendencies, but on a very large scale, that are heavily influenced by Gian
Battista Tiepolo and other late Baroque Italian masters.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 21/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Literary Romanticism had its counterpart in the American visual arts, most especially in the
exaltation of an untamed American landscape found in the paintings of the Hudson River School.
Painters like Thomas Cole, Albert Bierstadt and Frederic Edwin Church and others often expressed
Romantic themes in their paintings. They sometimes depicted ancient ruins of the old world, such as
in Fredric Edwin Church's piece Sunrise in Syria. These works reflected the Gothic feelings of death
and decay. They also show the Romantic ideal that Nature is powerful and will eventually overcome
the transient creations of men. More often, they worked to distinguish themselves from their
European counterparts by depicting uniquely American scenes and landscapes. This idea of an
American identity in the art world is reflected in W. C. Bryant's poem To Cole, the Painter, Departing
for Europe, where Bryant encourages Cole to remember the powerful scenes that can only be found in
America.

Some American paintings (such as Albert Bierstadt's The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak) promote
the literary idea of the "noble savage" by portraying idealized Native Americans living in harmony
with the natural world. Thomas Cole's paintings tend towards allegory, explicit in The Voyage of Life
series painted in the early 1840s, showing the stages of life set amidst an awesome and immense
nature.

Thomas Cole, Childhood Thomas Cole, The William Blake, Albion

(1842), one of the four Voyage of Life
Rose, 1794–95
scenes in The Voyage of Old Age (1842)
Life

Louis Janmot, from his

series The Poem of the
Soul, before 1854

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 22/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Music
Musical Romanticism is predominantly a German phenomenon—so
much so that one respected French reference work defines it entirely in
terms of "The role of music in the aesthetics of German
romanticism".[115] Another French encyclopedia holds that the German
temperament generally "can be described as the deep and diverse action
of romanticism on German musicians", and that there is only one true
representative of Romanticism in French music, Hector Berlioz, while in
Italy, the sole great name of musical Romanticism is Giuseppe Verdi, "a
sort of [Victor] Hugo of opera, gifted with a real genius for dramatic
effect". Similarly, in his analysis of Romanticism and its pursuit of
harmony, Henri Lefebvre posits that, "But of course, German
romanticism was more closely linked to music than French romanticism Ludwig van Beethoven,
was, so it is there we should look for the direct expression of harmony as painted by Joseph Karl
Stieler, 1820
the central romantic idea."[116] Nevertheless, the huge popularity of
German Romantic music led, "whether by imitation or by reaction", to an
often nationalistically inspired vogue amongst Polish, Hungarian,
Russian, Czech, and Scandinavian musicians, successful "perhaps more because of its extra-musical
traits than for the actual value of musical works by its masters".[117]

Although the term "Romanticism" when

applied to music has come to imply the
period roughly from 1800 until 1850, or else
until around 1900, the contemporary
application of "romantic" to music did not
coincide with this modern interpretation.
Indeed, one of the earliest sustained
applications of the term to music occurs in
1789, in the Mémoires of André Grétry.[118]
This is of particular interest because it is a
French source on a subject mainly
dominated by Germans, but also because it
explicitly acknowledges its debt to Jean- Frédéric Chopin in 1838 by
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Jacques Rousseau (himself a composer, Eugène Delacroix
Ingres, Portrait of Niccolò amongst other things) and, by so doing,
Paganini, 1819 establishes a link to one of the major
influences on the Romantic movement generally.[119] In 1810 E. T. A.
Hoffmann named Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven as "the three masters of
instrumental compositions" who "breathe one and the same romantic spirit". He justified his view on
the basis of these composers' depth of evocative expression and their marked individuality. In
Haydn's music, according to Hoffmann, "a child-like, serene disposition prevails", while Mozart (in
the late E-flat major Symphony, for example) "leads us into the depths of the spiritual world", with
elements of fear, love, and sorrow, "a presentiment of the infinite ... in the eternal dance of the
spheres". Beethoven's music, on the other hand, conveys a sense of "the monstrous and
immeasurable", with the pain of an endless longing that "will burst our breasts in a fully coherent
concord of all the passions".[120] This elevation in the valuation of pure emotion resulted in the
promotion of music from the subordinate position it had held in relation to the verbal and plastic arts
during the Enlightenment. Because music was considered to be free of the constraints of reason,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 23/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

imagery, or any other precise concept, it came to be regarded, first in the writings of Wackenroder and
Tieck and later by writers such as Schelling and Wagner, as preeminent among the arts, the one best
able to express the secrets of the universe, to evoke the spirit world, infinity, and the absolute.[121]

This chronologic agreement of musical and literary Romanticism continued as far as the middle of the
19th century, when Richard Wagner denigrated the music of Meyerbeer and Berlioz as "neoromantic":
"The Opera, to which we shall now return, has swallowed down the Neoromanticism of Berlioz, too, as
a plump, fine-flavoured oyster, whose digestion has conferred on it anew a brisk and well-to-do
appearance."[122]

It was only toward the end of the 19th century that the newly emergent discipline of
Musikwissenschaft (musicology)—itself a product of the historicizing proclivity of the age—attempted
a more scientific periodization of music history, and a distinction between Viennese Classical and
Romantic periods was proposed. The key figure in this trend was Guido Adler, who viewed Beethoven
and Franz Schubert as transitional but essentially Classical composers, with Romanticism achieving
full maturity only in the post-Beethoven generation of Frédéric Chopin, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert
Schumann, Hector Berlioz and Franz Liszt. From Adler's viewpoint, found in books like Der Stil in
der Musik (1911), composers of the New German School and various late-19th-century nationalist
composers were not Romantics but "moderns" or "realists" (by analogy with the fields of painting and
literature), and this schema remained prevalent through the first decades of the 20th century.[119]

By the second quarter of the 20th century, an awareness that radical changes in musical syntax had
occurred during the early 1900s caused another shift in historical viewpoint, and the change of
century came to be seen as marking a decisive break with the musical past. This in turn led historians
such as Alfred Einstein[123] to extend the musical "Romantic era" throughout the 19th century and
into the first decade of the 20th. It has continued to be referred to as such in some of the standard
music references such as The Oxford Companion to Music[124] and Grout's History of Western
Music[125] but was not unchallenged. For example, the prominent German musicologist Friedrich
Blume, the chief editor of the first edition of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart (1949–86),
accepted the earlier position that Classicism and Romanticism together constitute a single period
beginning in the middle of the 18th century, but at the same time held that it continued into the 20th
century, including such pre-World War II developments as expressionism and neoclassicism.[126]
This is reflected in some notable recent reference works such as the New Grove Dictionary of Music
and Musicians[119] and the new edition of Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart.[127]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 24/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Felix Mendelssohn, 1839 Robert Schumann, 1839 Franz Liszt, 1847

Daniel Auber, c. 1868 Hector Berlioz by Gustave Giovanni Boldini, Portrait

Courbet, 1850 of Giuseppe Verdi, 1886

Richard Wagner, c. 1870s Giacomo Meyerbeer,

1847

In the contemporary music culture, the romantic musician followed a public career depending on
sensitive middle-class audiences rather than on a courtly patron, as had been the case with earlier
musicians and composers. Public persona characterized a new generation of virtuosi who made their
way as soloists, epitomized in the concert tours of Paganini and Liszt, and the conductor began to
emerge as an important figure, on whose skill the interpretation of the increasingly complex music
depended.[128]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 25/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Outside the arts

Sciences

The Romantic movement affected most aspects of intellectual life, and

Romanticism and science had a powerful connection, especially in the
period 1800–1840. Many scientists were influenced by versions of the
Naturphilosophie of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph
von Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and others, and
without abandoning empiricism, sought in their work to uncover what
they tended to believe was a unified and organic Nature. The English
scientist Sir Humphry Davy, a prominent Romantic thinker, said that
understanding nature required "an attitude of admiration, love and
worship, [...] a personal response".[129] He believed that knowledge was Akseli Gallen-Kallela, The
only attainable by those who truly appreciated and respected nature. Self- Forging of the Sampo,
understanding was an important aspect of Romanticism. It had less to do 1893. An artist from Finland
with proving that man was capable of understanding nature (through his deriving inspiration from the
budding intellect) and therefore controlling it, and more to do with the Finnish "national epic", the
emotional appeal of connecting himself with nature and understanding it Kalevala
through a harmonious co-existence.[130]

Historiography

History writing was very strongly, and many would say harmfully, influenced by Romanticism.[131] In
England, Thomas Carlyle was a highly influential essayist who turned historian; he both invented and
exemplified the phrase "hero-worship",[132] lavishing largely uncritical praise on strong leaders such
as Oliver Cromwell, Frederick the Great and Napoleon. Romantic nationalism had a largely negative
effect on the writing of history in the 19th century, as each nation tended to produce its own version of
history, and the critical attitude, even cynicism, of earlier historians was often replaced by a tendency
to create romantic stories with clearly distinguished heroes and villains.[133] Nationalist ideology of
the period placed great emphasis on racial coherence, and the antiquity of peoples, and tended to
vastly over-emphasize the continuity between past periods and the present, leading to national
mysticism. Much historical effort in the 20th century was devoted to combating the romantic
historical myths created in the 19th century.

Theology

To insulate theology from scientism or reductionism in science, 19th-century post-Enlightenment

German theologians developed a modernist or so-called liberal conception of Christianity, led by
Friedrich Schleiermacher and Albrecht Ritschl. They took the Romantic approach of rooting religion
in the inner world of the human spirit, so that it is a person's feeling or sensibility about spiritual
matters that comprises religion.[134]

Chess

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 26/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Romantic chess was the style of chess which emphasized quick, tactical maneuvers characterized by
aesthetic beauty rather than long-term strategic planning, which was considered to be of secondary
importance.[135] The Romantic era in chess is generally considered to have begun around the 18th
century (although a primarily tactical style of chess was predominant even earlier),[136] and to have
reached its peak with Joseph MacDonnell and Pierre LaBourdonnais, the two dominant chess players
in the 1830s. The 1840s were dominated by Howard Staunton, and other leading players of the era
included Adolf Anderssen, Daniel Harrwitz, Henry Bird, Louis Paulsen, and Paul Morphy. The
"Immortal Game", played by Anderssen and Lionel Kieseritzky on 21 June 1851 in London—where
Anderssen made bold sacrifices to secure victory, giving up both rooks and a bishop, then his queen,
and then checkmating his opponent with his three remaining minor pieces—is considered a supreme
example of Romantic chess.[137] The end of the Romantic era in chess is considered to be the 1873
Vienna Tournament where Wilhelm Steinitz popularized positional play and the closed game.

Romantic nationalism
One of Romanticism's key ideas and most enduring legacies is the
assertion of nationalism, which became a central theme of
Romantic art and political philosophy. From the earliest parts of
the movement, with their focus on development of national
languages and folklore, and the importance of local customs and
traditions, to the movements that would redraw the map of
Europe and lead to calls for self-determination of nationalities,
nationalism was one of the key vehicles of Romanticism, its role,
expression and meaning. One of the most important functions of Egide Charles Gustave Wappers,
medieval references in the 19th century was nationalist. Popular Episode of the Belgian Revolution of
and epic poetry were its workhorses. This is visible in Germany 1830, 1834, Musée d'Art Ancien,
and Ireland, where underlying Germanic or Celtic linguistic Brussels. A romantic vision by a
substrates dating from before the Romanization-Latinization were Belgian painter.
sought out.

Early Romantic nationalism was strongly inspired by Rousseau,

and by the ideas of Johann Gottfried von Herder, who in 1784
argued that the geography formed the natural economy of a
people, and shaped their customs and society.[138]

The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after

the French Revolution with the rise of Napoleon, and the reactions
in other nations. Napoleonic nationalism and republicanism were,
at first, inspirational to movements in other nations: self-
determination and a consciousness of national unity were held to Hans Gude, Fra Hardanger, 1847.
be two of the reasons why France was able to defeat other Example of Norwegian romantic
countries in battle. But as the French Republic became Napoleon's nationalism.
Empire, Napoleon became not the inspiration for nationalism, but
the object of its struggle. In Prussia, the development of spiritual
renewal as a means to engage in the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others, Johann
Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word Volkstum, or nationality, was coined in German as part
of this resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte expressed the unity of language and nation
in his address "To the German Nation" in 1806:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 27/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible
bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other
and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly;
they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole. ...Only when each
people, left to itself, develops and forms itself in accordance with its own peculiar quality,
and only when in every people each individual develops himself in accordance with that
common quality, as well as in accordance with his own peculiar quality—then, and then
only, does the manifestation of divinity appear in its true mirror as it ought to be.[139]

This view of nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm, the
revival of old epics as national, and the construction of new epics as if they were old, as in the
Kalevala, compiled from Finnish tales and folklore, or Ossian, where the claimed ancient roots were
invented. The view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources, were preserved
in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists, but fit in well
with their views that such tales expressed the primordial nature of a people. For instance, the
Brothers Grimm rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by Charles
Perrault, which they thought proved they were not truly German tales;[140] Sleeping Beauty survived
in their collection because the tale of Brynhildr convinced them that the figure of the sleeping princess
was authentically German. Vuk Karadžić contributed to Serbian folk literature, using peasant culture
as the foundation. He regarded the oral literature of the peasants as an integral part of Serbian
culture, compiling it to use in his collections of folk songs, tales and proverbs, as well as the first
dictionary of vernacular Serbian.[141] Similar projects were undertaken by the Russian Alexander
Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, and the Englishman Joseph
Jacobs.[142]

Polish nationalism and messianism

Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of

many Central European peoples lacking their own national states,
not least in Poland, which had recently failed to restore its
independence when Russia's army crushed the Polish Uprising
under Nicholas I. Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths,
customs and traditions by Romantic poets and painters helped to
distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of the dominant
nations and crystallise the mythography of Romantic nationalism.
Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed struggle for
independence also became popular themes in the arts of this The November Uprising (1830–31),
period. Arguably, the most distinguished Romantic poet of this in the Kingdom of Poland, against
the Russian Empire
part of Europe was Adam Mickiewicz, who developed an idea that
Poland was the Messiah of Nations, predestined to suffer just as
Jesus had suffered to save all the people. The Polish self-image as
a "Christ among nations" or the martyr of Europe can be traced back to its history of Christendom and
suffering under invasions. During the periods of foreign occupation, the Catholic Church served as
bastion of Poland's national identity and language, and the major promoter of Polish culture. The
partitions came to be seen in Poland as a Polish sacrifice for the security for Western civilization.
Adam Mickiewicz wrote the patriotic drama Dziady (directed against the Russians), where he depicts
Poland as the Christ of Nations. He also wrote "Verily I say unto you, it is not for you to learn
civilization from foreigners, but it is you who are to teach them civilization ... You are among the
foreigners like the Apostles among the idolaters". In Books of the Polish Nation and Polish
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 28/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Pilgrimage Mickiewicz detailed his vision of Poland as a Messias and a Christ of Nations, that would
save mankind. Dziady is known for various interpretation. The most known ones are the moral aspect
of part II, individualist and romantic message of part IV, as well as deeply patriotic, messianistic and
Christian vision in part III of the poem. Zdzisław Kępiński, however, focuses his interpretation on
Slavic pagan and occult elements found in the drama. In his book Mickiewicz hermetyczny he writes
about hermetic, theosophic and alchemical philosophy on the book as well as Masonic symbols.

Gallery
Emerging Romanticism in the 18th century

Joseph Vernet, 1759, Joseph Wright, 1774, Henry Fuseli, 1781, The
Shipwreck; the 18th- Cave at evening, Smith Nightmare, a classical
century "sublime" College Museum of Art, artist whose themes often
Northampton, anticipate the Romantic
Massachusetts

Philip James de
Loutherbourg,
Coalbrookdale by Night,
1801, a key location of the
English Industrial
Revolution

French Romantic painting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 29/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Théodore Géricault, The Ingres, The Death of Eugène Delacroix,

Charging Chasseur, c. Leonardo da Vinci, 1818, Collision of Moorish
1812 one of his Troubadour Horsemen, 1843–44
style works

Eugène Delacroix, The

Bride of Abydos, 1857,
after the poem by Byron

Other

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 30/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Joseph Anton Koch, James Ward, 1814–1815, John Constable, 1821,

Waterfalls at Subiaco, Gordale Scar The Hay Wain, one of
1812–1813, a "classical" Constable's large "six
landscape to art historians footers"

J. C. Dahl, 1826, Eruption William Blake, c. 1824– Karl Bryullov, The Last
of Vesuvius, by Friedrich's 27, The Wood of the Self- Day of Pompeii, 1833,
closest follower Murderers: The Harpies The State Russian
and the Suicides, Tate Museum, St. Petersburg,
Russia

Isaac Levitan, Pacific, J. M. W. Turner, The Hans Gude, Winter

1898, State Russian Burning of the Houses of Afternoon, 1847, National
Museum, St.Petersburg Lords and Commons Gallery of Norway, Oslo
(1835), Philadelphia
Museum of Art

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 31/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Ivan Aivazovsky, 1850, John Martin, 1852, The Frederic Edwin Church,
The Ninth Wave, Russian Destruction of Sodom and 1860, Twilight in the
Museum, St. Petersburg Gomorrah, Laing Art Wilderness, Cleveland
Gallery Museum of Art

Albert Bierstadt, 1863,

The Rocky Mountains,
Lander's Peak

Romantic authors
Jane Austen Maria Edgeworth
Nikoloz Baratashvili Ralph Waldo Emerson
Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer Mihai Eminescu
William Blake Ugo Foscolo
Charlotte Brontë Aleksander Fredro
Emily Brontë Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Anne Brontë Nikolai Gogol
Robert Burns Nathaniel Hawthorne
Lord Byron Victor Hugo
Thomas Carlyle Washington Irving
Alexander Chavchavadze John Keats
Samuel Taylor Coleridge Zygmunt Krasiński
Emily Dickinson Józef Ignacy Kraszewski
Alexandre Dumas Herman Melville
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 32/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Adam Mickiewicz Ion Heliade Rădulescu

Friedrich Nietzsche Mary Robinson
Cyprian Kamil Norwid George Sand
Mikhail Lermontov Walter Scott
Alessandro Manzoni Mary Shelley
Gérard de Nerval Percy Bysshe Shelley
Grigol Orbeliani Juliusz Słowacki
Petar II Petrović-Njegoš Henry David Thoreau
Edgar Allan Poe William Wordsworth
Alexander Pushkin

Scholars of Romanticism
Gerald Abraham Peter Kitson
M. H. Abrams Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe
Donald Ault Arthur Oncken Lovejoy
Jacques Barzun Paul de Man
Frederick C. Beiser Tilar J. Mazzeo
Ian Bent Jerome McGann
Isaiah Berlin Anne K. Mellor
Tim Blanning Jean-Luc Nancy
Harold Bloom Ashton Nichols
Friedrich Blume Leon Plantinga
James Chandler Christopher Ricks
Jeffrey N. Cox Charles Rosen
Carl Dahlhaus René Wellek
Northrop Frye Susan J. Wolfson
Maria Janion

See also

Related terms Related subjects Related movements

Goethean science Coleridge's theory of Arts and Crafts
Humboldtian science life movement
Sentimentalism Dark Romanticism Decadent movement
(literature) List of romantics Düsseldorf School
Mal du siècle Pre-Raphaelite
Middle Ages in history Brotherhood
Opposing terms Vegetarianism and
Neo-romanticism
Romanticism
The Academy Post-romanticism
Positivism
Opium and
Utilitarianism Romanticism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 33/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Plagiarism and
Literary Property in
the Romantic Period
Romantic ballet
Romantic
epistemology
Romantic hero
Romantic medicine
Romantic poetry
List of Romantic
poets

References

Citations
1. Damrosch, Leopold (1985). Adventures in English Literature. Orlando, Florida: Holt McDougal.
pp. 405–424. ISBN 0153350458.
2. Encyclopædia Britannica. "Romanticism. Retrieved 30 January 2008, from Encyclopædia
Britannica Online" (https://web.archive.org/web/20051013060413/http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
icle-9083836). Britannica.com. Archived from the original (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-90
83836) on 13 October 2005. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
3. Casey, Christopher (October 30, 2008). " "Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time":
Britain, the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090
513053304/http://ww2.jhu.edu/foundations/?p=8). Foundations. Volume III, Number 1. Archived
from the original (http://ww2.jhu.edu/foundations/?p=8) on May 13, 2009. Retrieved 2014-05-14.
4. David Levin, History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, and Parkman (1967)
5. Gerald Lee Gutek, A history of the Western educational experience (1987) ch. 12 on Johann
Heinrich Pestalozzi
6. Ashton Nichols, "Roaring Alligators and Burning Tygers: Poetry and Science from William Bartram
to Charles Darwin," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 2005 149(3): 304–15
7. Morrow, John (2011). "Romanticism and political thought in the early 19th century" (https://www.ca
mbridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/EEBC9BBCC0907F899DC10DE7A4
ED87A9/9780511973581c2_p39-76_CBO.pdf/romanticism_and_political_thought_in_the_early_ni
neteenth_century.pdf) (PDF). In Stedman Jones, Gareth; Claeys, Gregory (eds.). The Cambridge
History of Nineteenth-Century Political Thought. The Cambridge History of Political Thought.
Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–76.
doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521430562 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521430562).
ISBN 978-0-511-97358-1. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
8. Coleman, Jon T. (2020). Nature Shock: Getting Lost in America. Yale University Press. p. 214.
ISBN 978-0-300-22714-7.
9. Barnes, Barbara A. (2006). Global Extremes: Spectacles of Wilderness Adventure, Endless
Frontiers, and American Dreams. Santa Cruz: University of California Press. p. 51.
10. Perpinya, Núria. Ruins, Nostalgia and Ugliness. Five Romantic perceptions of Middle Ages and a
spoon of Game of Thrones and Avant-garde oddity (http://www.logos-verlag.de/cgi-bin/buch/isbn/
3794). Berlin: Logos Verlag. 2014

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 34/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

11. Hamilton, Paul (2016). The Oxford Handbook of European Romanticism. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-19-969638-3.
12. Blechman, Max (1999). Revolutionary Romanticism: A Drunken Boat Anthology. San Francisco,
CA: City Lights Books. pp. 84–85. ISBN 0-87286-351-4.
13. "'A remarkable thing,' continued Bazarov, 'these funny old Romantics! They work up their nervous
system into a state of agitation, then, of course, their equilibrium is upset.'" (Ivan Turgenev,
Fathers and Sons, chap. 4 [1862])
14. Szabolcsi, B. (1970). "The Decline of Romanticism: End of the Century, Turn of the Century--
Introductory Sketch of an Essay". Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 12
(1/4): 263–289. doi:10.2307/901360 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F901360). JSTOR 901360 (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/901360).
15. Novotny, 96
16. From the Preface to the 2nd edition of Lyrical Ballads, quoted Day, 2
17. Day, 3
18. Ruthven (2001) p. 40 quote: "Romantic ideology of literary authorship, which conceives of the text
as an autonomous object produced by an individual genius."
19. Spearing (1987) quote: "Surprising as it may seem to us, living after the Romantic movement has
transformed older ideas about literature, in the Middle Ages authority was prized more highly than
originality."
20. Eco (1994) p. 95 quote:
Much art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is
a contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical art was in vast measure serial, and the
"modern" avant-garde (at the beginning of this century) challenged the Romantic idea of "creation
from nothingness", with its techniques of collage, mustachios on the Mona Lisa, art about art, and
so on.
21. Waterhouse (1926), throughout; Smith (1924); Millen, Jessica Romantic Creativity and the Ideal of
Originality: A Contextual Analysis, in Cross-sections, The Bruce Hall Academic Journal – Volume
VI, 2010 PDF (http://eview.anu.edu.au/cross-sections/vol6/pdf/ch07.pdf); Forest Pyle, The
Ideology of Imagination: Subject and Society in the Discourse of Romanticism (Stanford
University Press, 1995) p. 28.
22. 1963–, Breckman, Warren (2008). European Romanticism: A Brief History with Documents.
Rogers D. Spotswood Collection. (1st ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martins. ISBN 978-0-312-45023-
6. OCLC 148859077 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/148859077).
23. Day 3–4; quotation from M.H. Abrams, quoted in Day, 4
24. Berlin, 92
25. Schellinger, Paul (8 April 2014). "Novel and Romance: Etymologies" (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=FPdRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA942). Encyclopedia of the Novel. Routledge. p. 942. ISBN 978-
1-135-91826-2.
26. Saul, Nicholas (9 July 2009). The Cambridge Companion to German Romanticism (https://books.
google.com/books?id=vy5AAw9ODMgC&pg=PA1). Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–.
ISBN 978-0-521-84891-6.
27. Ferber, 6–7

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 35/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

28. Athenaeum (https://books.google.com/books?id=AGgyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA122). Bey F. Vieweg

dem Älteren. 1800. p. 122. "Ich habe ein bestimmtes Merkmahl des Gegensatzes zwischen dem
Antiken und dem Romantischen aufgestellt. Indessen bitte ich Sie doch, nun nicht sogleich
anzunehmen, daß mir das Romantische und das Moderne völlig gleich gelte. Ich denke es ist
etwa ebenso verschieden, wie die Gemählde des Raphael und Correggio von den Kupferstichen
die jetzt Mode sind. Wollen Sie sich den Unterschied völlig klar machen, so lesen Sie gefälligst
etwa die Emilia Galotti die so unaussprechlich modern und doch im geringsten nicht romantisch
ist, und erinnern sich dann an Shakspeare, in den ich das eigentliche Zentrum, den Kern der
romantischen Fantasie setzen möchte. Da suche und finde ich das Romantische, bey den ältern
Modernen, bey Shakspeare, Cervantes, in der italiänischen Poesie, in jenem Zeitalter der Ritter,
der Liebe und der Mährchen, aus welchem die Sache und das Wort selbst herstammt. Dieses ist
bis jetzt das einzige, was einen Gegensatz zu den classischen Dichtungen des Alterthums
abgeben kann; nur diese ewig frischen Blüthen der Fantasie sind würdig die alten Götterbilder zu
umkränzen. Und gewiß ist es, daß alles Vorzüglichste der modernen Poesie dem Geist und selbst
der Art nach dahinneigt; es müßte denn eine Rückkehr zum Antiken seyn sollen. Wie unsre
Dichtkunst mit dem Roman, so fing die der Griechen mit dem Epos an und löste sich wieder darin
auf."
29. Ferber, 7
30. Christiansen, 241.
31. Christiansen, 242.
32. in her Oxford Companion article, quoted by Day, 1
33. Day, 1–5
34. Mellor, Anne; Matlak, Richard (1996). British Literature 1780–1830. NY: Harcourt Brace &
Co./Wadsworth. ISBN 978-1-4130-2253-7.
35. Edward F. Kravitt, The Lied: Mirror of Late Romanticism (https://books.google.com/books?id=WpR
6Ja9eQzYC&pg=PA47&dq=%22Four+Last+Songs%22+%22Late+Romantic%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei
=FC92T8K_JIWA8gPP3JCeDQ&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Four%20Last%20So
ngs%22%20%22Late%20Romantic%22&f=false) (New Haven and London: Yale University Press,
1996): 47. ISBN 0-300-06365-2.
36. Greenblatt et al., Norton Anthology of English Literature, eighth edition, "The Romantic Period –
Volume D" (New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc., 2006):
37. Johnson, 147, inc. quotation
38. Barzun, 469
39. Day, 1–3; the arch-conservative and Romantic is Joseph de Maistre, but many Romantics swung
from youthful radicalism to conservative views in middle age, for example Wordsworth. Samuel
Palmer's only published text was a short piece opposing the Repeal of the corn laws.
40. Berlin, 57
41. Several of Berlin's pieces dealing with this theme are collected in the work referenced. See in
particular: Berlin, 34–47, 57–59, 183–206, 207–37.
42. Berlin, 57–58
43. "Linda Simon The Sleep of Reason by Robert Hughes" (http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/publi
c/2004/february/bkpub1.asp).
44. Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder, Pimlico, 2000 ISBN 0-7126-6492-0
was one of Isaiah Berlin's many publications on the Enlightenment and its enemies that did much
to popularise the concept of a Counter-Enlightenment movement that he characterised as
relativist, anti-rationalist, vitalist and organic,
45. Darrin M. McMahon, "The Counter-Enlightenment and the Low-Life of Literature in Pre-
Revolutionary France" Past and Present No. 159 (May 1998:77–112) p. 79 note 7.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 36/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

46. "Baudelaire's speech at the "Salon des curiosités Estethiques" (https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Salon

_de_1846_%28Curiosit%C3%A9s_esth%C3%A9tiques%29#II._.E2.80.94_Qu.E2.80.99est-ce_qu
e_le_romantisme.3F) (in French). Fr.wikisource.org. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
47. Sutherland, James (1958) English Satire (https://books.google.com/books?id=4kc4AAAAIAAJ&pg
=PA1) p. 1. There were a few exceptions, notably Byron, who integrated satire into some of his
greatest works, yet shared much in common with his Romantic contemporaries. Bloom, p. 18.
48. Paul F. Grendler, Renaissance Society of America, Encyclopedia of the Renaissance, Scribner,
1999, p. 193
49. John Keats. By Sidney Colvin, p. 106. Elibron Classics
50. Thomas Chatterton, Grevel Lindop, 1972, Fyffield Books, p. 11
51. Zipes, Jack (1988). The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World (https://ar
chive.org/details/brothersgrimmfro0000zipe/page/7) (1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 7–8 (https://archive.
org/details/brothersgrimmfro0000zipe/page/7). ISBN 978-0-415-90081-2.
52. Zipes, Jack (2000). The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales (https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompa
niont0000zipe/page/13). Oxford University Press. pp. 13–14, 218–19 (https://archive.org/details/o
xfordcompaniont0000zipe/page/13). ISBN 978-0-19-860115-9.
53. Christiansen, 215.
54. Christiansen, 192–96.
55. Christiansen, 197–200.
56. Christiansen, 213–20.
57. Christiansen, 188–89.
58. Or at least he tried to; Kean played the tragic Lear for a few performances. They were not well
received, and with regret, he reverted to Nahum Tate's version with a comic ending, which had
been standard since 1689. See Stanley Wells, "Introduction" from King Lear Oxford University
Press, 2000, p. 69.
59. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, Table Talk, 27 April 1823 in Coleridge, Samuel Taylor; Morley, Henry
(1884). Table Talk of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Christobel,
&c (https://archive.org/details/tabletalksamuel01morlgoog). New York: Routledge. p. 38 (https://ar
chive.org/details/tabletalksamuel01morlgoog/page/n44).
60. J. Buchan, Crowded with Genius (London: Harper Collins, 2003), ISBN 0-06-055888-1, p. 311.
61. J. Buchan, Crowded with Genius (London: Harper Collins, 2003), ISBN 0-06-055888-1, p. 163.
62. H. Gaskill, The Reception of Ossian in Europe (Continuum, 2004), ISBN 0-8264-6135-2, p. 140.
63. D. Thomson, The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's "Ossian" (Aberdeen: Oliver & Boyd, 1952).
64. L. McIlvanney, "Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature", Eighteenth-
Century Life, vol. 29 (2), Spring 2005, pp. 25–46.
65. K. S. Whetter, Understanding Genre and Medieval Romance (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), ISBN 0-
7546-6142-3, p. 28.
66. N. Davidson, The Origins of Scottish Nationhood (Pluto Press, 2008), ISBN 0-7453-1608-5, p.
136.
67. A. Maunder, FOF Companion to the British Short Story (Infobase Publishing, 2007), ISBN 0-8160-
7496-8, p. 374.
68. P. MacKay, E. Longley and F. Brearton, Modern Irish and Scottish Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2011), ISBN 0-521-19602-7, p. 59.
69. A. Jarrels, "'Associations respect[ing] the past': Enlightenment and Romantic historicism", in J. P.
Klancher, A Concise Companion to the Romantic Age (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 2009),
ISBN 0-631-23355-5, p. 60.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 37/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

70. A. Benchimol, ed., Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish
Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010),
ISBN 0-7546-6446-5, p. 210.
71. A. Benchimol, ed., Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish
Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010),
ISBN 0-7546-6446-5, p. 209.
72. I. Brown, The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and Empire (1707–
1918) (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-2481-3, pp. 229–30.
73. Christiansen, 202–03, 241–42.
74. Christiansen, 239–46, 240 quoted.
75. Christiansen, 244–46.
76. Christiansen
77. Leon Dyczewski, Values in the Polish cultural tradition (2002) p. 183
78. Christopher J. Murray, Encyclopedia of the romantic era, 1760–1850 (2004) vol. 2. p. 742
79. "Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799–1837)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190401220028/htt
p://www.faculty.virginia.edu/dostoevsky/texts/devil_pushkinbio.html). University of Virginia Slavic
Department. Archived from the original (http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/dostoevsky/texts/devil_pus
hkinbio.html) on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
80. "El escritor José de Espronceda" (https://www.museodelprado.es/coleccion/obra-de-arte/jose-de-
espronceda/e97beaab-f0a3-4f73-8302-1c8185110410). Museo del Prado (in Spanish). Madrid.
Retrieved March 27, 2013.
81. Philip W. Silver, Ruin and restitution: reinterpreting romanticism in Spain (1997) p. 13
82. Gerald Brenan, The literature of the Spanish people: from Roman times to the present (1965) p.
364
83. Foster, David; Altamiranda, Daniel; de Urioste, Carmen (2001). Spanish Literature : Current
debates on Hispanism. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8153-3563-4.
84. Caldwell, Richard (1970). "The Persistence of Romantic Thought in Spain". Modern Language
Review. 65 (4): 803–12. doi:10.2307/3722555 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3722555).
JSTOR 3722555 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3722555).
85. Sebold, Russell (1974). El primer romantico 'europeo' de España (https://archive.org/details/cadal
soelprimerr0000sebo). Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-0591-0.
86. Shaw, Donald (1963). "Towards an Understanding of Spanish Romanticism". Modern Language
Review. 58 (2): 190–95. doi:10.2307/3721247 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3721247).
JSTOR 3721247 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3721247).
87. Almeida Garrett, João Baptista (1990). Obras Completas de Almeida Garrett – 2 Volumes. Porto:
Lello Editores. ISBN 978-972-48-0192-6.
88. Infopédia. "Artigo de apoio Infopédia – Almeida Garrett" (https://www.infopedia.pt/$almeida-garret
t). Infopédia – Dicionários Porto Editora (in European Portuguese). Retrieved 2018-04-03.
89. José., Saraiva, António (1996). História da literatura portuguesa. Lopes, Oscar (17a ed.). [Porto,
Portugal]: Porto Editora. ISBN 978-972-0-30170-3. OCLC 35124986 (https://www.worldcat.org/ocl
c/35124986).
90. Infopédia. "Artigo de apoio Infopédia – Alexandre Herculano" (https://www.infopedia.pt/$alexandre
-herculano). Infopédia – Dicionários Porto Editora (in European Portuguese). Retrieved
2018-04-03.
91. Gaetana Marrone, Paolo Puppa, Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies: A–J, Taylor & Francis,
2007, p. 1242

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 38/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

92. Garofalo, Piero (2005). "Italian Romanticisms". In Ferber, Michael (ed.). Companion to European
Romanticism. London: Blackwell. pp. 238–255.
93. La nuova enciclopedia della letteratura. Milan: Garzanti. 1985. p. 829.
94. Roberto González Echevarría and Enrique Pupo-Walker, The Cambridge History of Latin
American Literature: Brazilian Literature (1996) vol. 2 p. 367
95. George L. McMichael and Frederick C. Crews, eds. Anthology of American Literature: Colonial
through romantic (6th ed. 1997) p. 613
96. "Romanticism, American", in The Oxford Dictionary of American Art and Artists ed by Ann Lee
Morgan (Oxford University Press, 2007) online (http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.ht
ml?subview=Main&entry=t238.e1140)
97. The relationship of the American poet Wallace Stevens to Romanticism is raised in the poem
"Another Weeping Woman" and its commentary.
98. Weber, Patrick, Histoire de l'Architecture (2008), p. 63
99. Weber, Patrick, Histoire de l'Architecture (2008), pp. 64
100. Weber, Patrick, Histoire de l'Architecture (2008), pp. 64–65
101. Saule 2014, p. 92.
102. Poisson, Georges; Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (in French) (2014)
103. Novotny, 96–101, 99 quoted
104. Novotny, 112–21
105. Honour, 184–190, 187 quoted
106. Walter Friedlaender, From David to Delacroix, 1974, remains the best available account of the
subject.
107. "Romanticism" (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roma/hd_roma.htm). metmuseum.org.
108. Novotny, 142
109. Novotny, 133–42
110. Hughes, 279–80
111. McKay, James, The Dictionary of Sculptors in Bronze, Antique Collectors Club, London, 1995
112. Novotny, 397, 379–84
113. Dizionario di arte e letteratura. Bologna: Zanichelli. 2002. p. 544.
114. Noon, throughout, especially pp. 124–155
115. Boyer 1961, 585.
116. Lefebvre, Henri (1995). Introduction to Modernity: Twelve Preludes September 1959 – May 1961
(https://www.versobooks.com/books/1062-introduction-to-modernity). London: Verso. p. 304.
ISBN 1-85984-056-6.
117. Ferchault 1957.
118. Grétre 1789.
119. Samson 2001.
120. Hoffmann 1810, col. 632.
121. Boyer 1961, 585–86.
122. Wagner 1995, 77.
123. Einstein 1947.
124. Warrack 2002.
125. Grout 1960, 492.
126. Blume 1970; Samson 2001.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 39/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

127. Wehnert 1998.

128. Christiansen, 176–78.
129. Cunningham, A., and Jardine, N., ed. Romanticism and the Sciences, p. 15.
130. Bossi, M., and Poggi, S., ed. Romanticism in Science: Science in Europe, 1790–1840, p.xiv;
Cunningham, A., and Jardine, N., ed. Romanticism and the Sciences, p. 2.
131. E. Sreedharan (2004). A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 (https://books.google.
com/books?id=jJVoi3PIejwC&pg=PR9). Orient Blackswan. pp. 128–68. ISBN 978-81-250-2657-0.
132. in his published lectures On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History of 1841
133. Ceri Crossley (2002). French Historians and Romanticism: Thierry, Guizot, the Saint-Simonians,
Quinet, Michelet (https://books.google.com/books?id=ovaIAgAAQBAJ). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-
134-97668-3.
134. Philip Clayton and Zachary Simpson, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science (2006)
p. 161
135. David Shenk (2007). The Immortal Game: A History of Chess (https://archive.org/details/isbn_978
0385510103). Knopf Doubleday. p. 99 (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780385510103/page/99).
ISBN 978-0-307-38766-0.
136. Swaner, Billy (2021-01-08). "Chess History Guide : Chess Style Evolution" (https://www.chess-ga
me-strategies.com/chess-history-guide-chess-style-evolution/). Chess Game Strategies.
Retrieved 2021-04-20.
137. Hartston, Bill (1996). Teach Yourself Chess (https://archive.org/details/chess0000hart_g7f1/page/
150). Hodder & Stoughton. p. 150 (https://archive.org/details/chess0000hart_g7f1/page/150).
ISBN 978-0-340-67039-2.
138. Hayes, Carlton (July 1927). "Contributions of Herder to the Doctrine of Nationalism". The
American Historical Review. 32 (4): 722–723. doi:10.2307/1837852 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1
837852). JSTOR 1837852 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1837852).
139. Fichte, Johann (1806). "Address to the German Nation" (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/180
6fichte.asp). Fordham University. Retrieved October 1, 2013.
140. Maria Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales, p. 31 ISBN 0-691-06722-8
141. Prilozi za književnost, jezik, istoriju i folklor (https://books.google.com/books?id=CnpHAQAAIAAJ
&q=%22%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8+%D1%83+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B
0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83%22) (in Serbian). Државна штампарија
Краљевине Срба, Хрвата и Словенаца. 1965. p. 264. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
142. Jack Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p.
846, ISBN 0-393-97636-X

Sources
Adler, Guido. 1911. Der Stil in der Musik. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel.
Adler, Guido. 1919. Methode der Musikgeschichte. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel.
Adler, Guido. 1930. Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, second, thoroughly revised and greatly
expanded edition. 2 vols. Berlin-Wilmersdorf: H. Keller. Reprinted, Tutzing: Schneider, 1961.
Barzun, Jacques. 2000. From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life, 1500 to
the Present. ISBN 978-0-06-092883-4.
Berlin, Isaiah. 1990. The Crooked Timber of Humanity: Chapters in the History of Ideas, ed. Henry
Hardy. London: John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-4789-X.
Bloom, Harold (ed.). 1986. George Gordon, Lord Byron. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 40/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Blume, Friedrich. 1970. Classic and Romantic Music, translated by M. D. Herter Norton from two
essays first published in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. New York: W.W. Norton.
Black, Joseph, Leonard Conolly, Kate Flint, Isobel Grundy, Don LePan, Roy Liuzza, Jerome J.
McGann, Anne Lake Prescott, Barry V. Qualls, and Claire Waters. 2010. The Broadview
Anthology of British Literature Volume 4: The Age of Romanticism Second Edition (https://broadvi
ewpress.com/product/the-broadview-anthology-of-british-literature-second-edition-6).
Peterborough: Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-404-0.
Bowra, C. Maurice. 1949. The Romantic Imagination (in series, "Galaxy Book[s]"). New York:
Oxford University Press.
Boyer, Jean-Paul. 1961. "Romantisme". Encyclopédie de la musique, edited by François Michel,
with François Lesure and Vladimir Fédorov, 3:585–87. Paris: Fasquelle.
Christiansen, Rupert. 1988. Romantic Affinities: Portraits From an Age, 1780–1830. London:
Bodley Head. ISBN 0-370-31117-5. Paperback reprint, London: Cardinal, 1989 ISBN 0-7474-
0404-6. Paperback reprint, London: Vintage, 1994. ISBN 0-09-936711-4. Paperback reprint,
London: Pimlico, 2004. ISBN 1-84413-421-0.
Cunningham, Andrew, and Nicholas Jardine (eds.) (1990). Romanticism and the Sciences.
Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-35602-4 (cloth); ISBN 0-521-
35685-7 (pbk.); another excerpt-and-text-search source (https://books.google.com/books?id=0jc4
AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Cunningham+%22Romanticism+and+the+Sciences%22&hl=
en&sa=X&ei=y3GhT6bEHMKw2gW_wYDdCQ&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Cunningha
m%20%22Romanticism%20and%20the%20Sciences%22&f=false).
Day, Aidan. Romanticism, 1996, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-08378-8, 978-0-415-08378-2.
Eco, Umberto. 1994. "Interpreting Serials", in his The Limits of Interpretation (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=H4q8ZosSvB8C), pp. 83–100. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-
253-20869-6. excerpt (http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Innovation+%26+repetition%3A+between+m
odern+%26+postmodern+aesthetics.-a0138814075) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110
721201226/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Innovation+%26+repetition%3A+between+modern+%26
+postmodern+aesthetics.-a0138814075) 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine
Einstein, Alfred. 1947. Music in the Romantic Era. New York: W.W. Norton.
Ferber, Michael. 2010. Romanticism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford and New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956891-8.
Friedlaender, Walter, David to Delacroix, (Originally published in German; reprinted 1980) 1952.
Greenblatt, Stephen, M. H. Abrams, Alfred David, James Simpson, George Logan, Lawrence
Lipking, James Noggle, Jon Stallworthy, Jahan Ramazani, Jack Stillinger, and Deidre Shauna
Lynch. 2006. Norton Anthology of English Literature, eighth edition, The Romantic Period –
Volume D. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-92720-7.
Grétry, André-Ernest-Modeste. 1789. Mémoires, ou Essai sur la musique. 3 vols. Paris: Chez
l'auteur, de L'Imprimerie de la république, 1789. Second, enlarged edition, Paris: Imprimerie de la
république, pluviôse, 1797. Republished, 3 vols., Paris: Verdiere, 1812; Brussels: Whalen, 1829.
Facsimile of the 1797 edition, Da Capo Press Music Reprint Series. New York: Da Capo Press,
1971. Facsimile reprint in 1 volume of the 1829 Brussels edition, Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis,
Sezione III no. 43. Bologna: Forni Editore, 1978.
Grout, Donald Jay. 1960. A History of Western Music. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Hoffmann, Ernst Theodor Amadeus. 1810. "Recension: Sinfonie pour 2 Violons, 2 Violes,
Violoncelle e Contre-Violon, 2 Flûtes, petite Flûte, 2 Hautbois, 2 Clarinettes, 2 Bassons,
Contrabasson, 2 Cors, 2 Trompettes, Timbales et 3 Trompes, composée et dediée etc. par Louis
van Beethoven. à Leipsic, chez Breitkopf et Härtel, Oeuvre 67. No. 5. des Sinfonies. (Pr. 4 Rthlr.
12 Gr.)". Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 12, no. 40 (4 July), cols. 630–42 [Der Beschluss folgt.];
12, no. 41 (11 July), cols. 652–59.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 41/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Honour, Hugh, Neo-classicism, 1968, Pelican.

Hughes, Robert. Goya. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. ISBN 0-394-58028-1.
Joachimides, Christos M. and Rosenthal, Norman and Anfam, David and Adams, Brooks (1993)
American Art in the 20th Century: Painting and Sculpture 1913–1993 (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=vc_pAAAAMAAJ).
Macfarlane, Robert. 2007. 'Romantic' Originality (http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/oso/310
5617/2007/00000001/00000001/art00002), in Original Copy: Plagiarism and Originality in
Nineteenth-Century Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=Pt9mAAAAMAAJ), March
2007, pp. 18–50(33)
Noon, Patrick (ed), Crossing the Channel, British and French Painting in the Age of Romanticism,
2003, Tate Publishing/Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Novotny, Fritz, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780–1880 (Pelican History of Art), Yale
University Press, 2nd edn. 1971 ISBN 0-14-056120-X.
Ruthven, Kenneth Knowles. 2001. Faking Literature. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-66015-7, 0-521-66965-0.
Poisson, Georges; Poisson, Olivier (2014). Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (in French). Paris: Picard.
ISBN 978-2-7084-0952-1.
Samson, Jim. 2001. "Romanticism". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Saule, Béatrix; Meyer, Daniel (2014). Versailles Visitor's Guide. Versailles: Éditions Art-Lys.
ISBN 9782854951172.
Smith, Logan Pearsall (1924) Four Words: Romantic, Originality, Creative, Genius. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Spearing, A. C. 1987. Introduction section to Chaucer's The Franklin's Prologue and Tale
Steiner, George. 1998. "Topologies of Culture", chapter 6 of After Babel: Aspects of Language
and Translation, third revised edition. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-
19-288093-2.
Wagner, Richard. Opera and Drama, translated by William Ashton Ellis. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press, 1995. Originally published as volume 2 of Richard Wagner's Prose Works
(London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1900), a translation from Gesammelte Schriften und
Dichtungen (Leipzig, 1871–73, 1883).
Warrack, John. 2002. "Romanticism". The Oxford Companion to Music, edited by Alison Latham.
Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866212-2.
Waterhouse, Francis A. 1926. Romantic 'Originality' (https://www.jstor.org/stable/27533952) in
The Sewanee Review, Vol. 34, No. 1 (January 1926), pp. 40–49.
Weber, Patrick, Histoire de l'Architecture de l'Antiquité à Nos Jours, Librio, Paris, (2008)
ISBN 978-229-0-158098.
Wehnert, Martin. 1998. "Romantik und romantisch". Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart:
allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Musik, begründet von Friedrich Blume, second revised edition.
Sachteil 8: Quer–Swi, cols. 464–507. Basel, Kassel, London, Munich, and Prague: Bärenreiter;
Stuttgart and Weimar: Metzler.

Further reading
Abrams, Meyer H. 1971. The Mirror and the Lamp. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
501471-5.
Abrams, Meyer H. 1973. Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic
Literature. New York: W.W. Norton.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 42/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Barzun, Jacques. 1943. Romanticism and the Modern Ego. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
Barzun, Jacques. 1961. Classic, Romantic, and Modern. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-
0-226-03852-0.
Berlin, Isaiah. 1999. The Roots of Romanticism. London: Chatto and Windus. ISBN 0-691-08662-
1.
Blanning, Tim. The Romantic Revolution: A History (2011) 272pp
Breckman, Warren, European Romanticism: A Brief History with Documents. New York:
Bedford/St. Martin's, 2007. Breckman, Warren (2008). European Romanticism: A Brief History
with Documents. ISBN 978-0-312-45023-6.
Cavalletti, Carlo. 2000. Chopin and Romantic Music, translated by Anna Maria Salmeri Pherson.
Hauppauge, New York: Barron's Educational Series. (Hardcover) ISBN 0-7641-5136-3, 978-0-
7641-5136-1.
Chaudon, Francis. 1980. The Concise Encyclopedia of Romanticism. Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell
Books. ISBN 0-89009-707-0.
Ciofalo, John J. 2001. "The Ascent of Genius in the Court and Academy." The Self-Portraits of
Francisco Goya. Cambridge University Press.
Clewis, Robert R., ed. The Sublime Reader. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019.
Cox, Jeffrey N. 2004. Poetry and Politics in the Cockney School: Keats, Shelley, Hunt and Their
Circle. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-60423-9.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1979. "Neo-Romanticism". 19th-Century Music 3, no. 2 (November): 97–105.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1980. Between Romanticism and Modernism: Four Studies in the Music of the
Later Nineteenth Century, translated by Mary Whittall in collaboration with Arnold Whittall; also
with Friedrich Nietzsche, "On Music and Words", translated by Walter Arnold Kaufmann. California
Studies in 19th Century Music 1. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03679-4, 0-
520-06748-7. Original German edition, as Zwischen Romantik und Moderne: vier Studien zur
Musikgeschichte des späteren 19. Jahrhunderts. Munich: Musikverlag Katzber, 1974.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1985. Realism in Nineteenth-Century Music, translated by Mary Whittall.
Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-26115-5, 0-521-27841-4.
Original German edition, as Musikalischer Realismus: zur Musikgeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts.
Munich: R. Piper, 1982. ISBN 3-492-00539-X.
Fabre, Côme, and Felix Krämer (eds.). 2013. L'ange du bizarre: Le romantisme noire de Goya a
Max Ernst, à l'occasion de l'Exposition, Stadel Museum, Francfort, 26 septembre 2012 – 20
janvier 2013, Musée d'Orsay, Paris, 5 mars – 9 juin 2013. Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz. ISBN 978-3-
7757-3590-2.
Fay, Elizabeth. 2002. Romantic Medievalism. History and the Romantic Literary Ideal.
Houndsmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Gaull, Marilyn. 1988. English Romanticism: The Human Context. New York and London: W.W.
Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-95547-7.
Garofalo, Piero. 2005. "Italian Romanticisms." Companion to European Romanticism, ed. Michael
Ferber. London: Blackwell Press, 238–255.
Geck, Martin. 1998. "Realismus". Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Allgemeine
Enzyklopädie der Musik begründe von Friedrich Blume, second, revised edition, edited by Ludwig
Finscher. Sachteil 8: Quer–Swi, cols. 91–99. Kassel, Basel, London, New York, Prague:
Bärenreiter; Suttgart and Weimar: Metzler. ISBN 3-7618-1109-8 (Bärenreiter); ISBN 3-476-41008-
0 (Metzler).
Grewe, Cordula. 2009. Painting the Sacred in the Age of German Romanticism. Burlington:
Ashgate. Grewe, Cordula (2009). Painting the Sacred in the Age of Romanticism. ISBN 978-0-
7546-0645-1.
Hamilton, Paul, ed. The Oxford Handbook of European Romanticism (2016).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 43/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

Hesmyr, Atle. 2018. From Enlightenment to Romanticism in 18th Century Europe

Holmes, Richard. 2009. The Age of Wonder: How the Romantic Generation Discovered the
Beauty and Terror of Science. London: HarperPress. ISBN 978-0-00-714952-0. New York:
Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42222-5. Paperback reprint, New York: Vintage Books.
ISBN 978-1-4000-3187-0
Honour, Hugh. 1979. Romanticism. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-433336-1, 0-06-
430089-7.
Kravitt, Edward F. 1992. "Romanticism Today". The Musical Quarterly 76, no. 1 (Spring): 93–109.
Lang, Paul Henry. 1941. Music in Western Civilization. New York: W.W. Norton
McCalman, Iain (ed.). 2009. An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press. Online at Oxford Reference Online (http://www.oxfordreference.com/pag
es/Subjects_and_titles__t285) (subscription required)
Mason, Daniel Gregory. 1936. The Romantic Composers. New York: Macmillan.
Masson, Scott. 2007. "Romanticism", Chapt. 7 in The Oxford Handbook of English Literature and
Theology, (Oxford University Press).
Murray, Christopher, ed. Encyclopedia of the romantic era, 1760–1850 (2 vol 2004); 850 articles
by experts; 1600pp
Mazzeo, Tilar J. 2006. Plagiarism and Literary Property in the Romantic Period. University of
Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-812-20273-1
O'Neill, J, ed. (2000). Romanticism & the school of nature : nineteenth-century drawings and
paintings from the Karen B. Cohen collection (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/
p15324coll10/id/102063). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Plantinga, Leon. 1984. Romantic Music: A History of Musical Style in Nineteenth-Century Europe.
A Norton Introduction to Music History. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-95196-0, 978-0-393-
95196-7
Reynolds, Nicole. 2010. Building Romanticism: Literature and Architecture in Nineteenth-century
Britain. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11731-4.
Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. 1992. The Emergence of Romanticism. New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507341-6
Rosen, Charles. 1995. The Romantic Generation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
Press. ISBN 0-674-77933-9.
Rosenblum, Robert, Modern Painting and the Northern Romantic Tradition: Friedrich to Rothko,
(Harper & Row) 1975.
Rummenhöller, Peter. 1989. Romantik in der Musik: Analysen, Portraits, Reflexionen. Munich:
Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag; Kassel and New York: Bärenreiter.
Ruston, Sharon. 2013. Creating Romanticism: Case Studies in the Literature, Science and
Medicine of the 1790s. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-26428-2.
Schenk, H. G. 1966. The Mind of the European Romantics: An Essay in Cultural History.:
Constable.
Spencer, Stewart. 2008. "The 'Romantic Operas' and the Turn to Myth". In The Cambridge
Companion to Wagner, edited by Thomas S. Grey, 67–73. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-64299-X, 0-521-64439-9.
Tekiner, Deniz. 2000. Modern Art and the Romantic Vision. Lanham, Maryland. University Press of
America. ISBN 978-0-7618-1528-0, 978-0-7618-1529-7.
Tong, Q. S. 1997. Reconstructing Romanticism: Organic Theory Revisited. Poetry Salzburg.
Workman, Leslie J. 1994. "Medievalism and Romanticism". Poetica 39–40: 1–34.
Black Letter Press (https://www.blackletter-press.com). 2019. "Oh, Death!" Anthology of English
Romantic Poetry, selected by Claudio Rocchetti

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 44/45
28/1/22 09:28 Romanticism - Wikipedia

External links
Romantics & Victorians (http://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians) explored on the British Library
Discovering Literature website
The Romantic Poets (https://web.archive.org/web/20050412013028/http://www.poetseers.org/the
_romantics)
The Great Romantics (http://www.thehypertexts.com/Best%20Romantic%20Poetry.htm)
"Romanticism" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090914233216/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/
DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv4-26), Dictionary of the History of Ideas
"Romanticism in Political Thought" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081001234406/http://etext.lib.vi
rginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv4-27), Dictionary of the History of Ideas
Romantic Circles (https://romantic-circles.org/)—Electronic editions, histories, and scholarly
articles related to the Romantic era
Romantic Rebellion (http://www.pyramidmedia.com/homepage/search-by-title/humanities/romanti
c-rebellion-detail.html)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romanticism&oldid=1067644417"

This page was last edited on 24 January 2022, at 13:27 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism 45/45