STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS

Statistics is the branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, organization, and analysis of
numerical data and with such problems as experiment design and decision making.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

What do we mean by measures or values? (These are: marks, scores, distance, mass, size, time,
speed, weight, e.t.c )
AVERAGES
MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE

The three most types of average used in statistics are the Mean, median and mode.

THE MEAN
The mean of a set of data is the sum of the measures (values) divided by the number of measures
(values)

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
sum of measures
or x
 ( x)
number of measures N
THE MEDIAN
The median is the middle measure when the measures are arranged in hierarchical order or in order
of size. (from smallest to the largest)

THE MODE
The mode is the most frequent measure (the value which occur most often)

Example

1. The following are the sizes of shoes for pupils: 7, 3, 8, 4, 6, 7.

Find (a) the mean (b) median (c) the mode

2. The mean of three numbers is 36, two of them are 20 and 24. What is the third number?

Exercise 1

1. Find the mean, median and mode of the following sets of data.
(a) 8, 5, 4, 6, 8, 3, 4, 8, 2
(b) 163, 149, 155, 162, 168, 168
(c) 74, 73, 71, 76, 80, 66, 89
2. The mean mass of 30 pupils is 50 kg. Two pupils join the class and the masses of these two
pupils are 49 kg and 47 kg respectively. Find the new mean mass correct to 1 decimal place.
3. The mean of 4, 8, 9, x and 2x is 6. Calculate the value of x.

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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
THE MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE FROM A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

UNGROUPED DATA.
Example
The following marks below were obtained by 30 pupils in a Mathematics test.
34 34 23 28 25 28 11 40 22 40
46 25 25 12 32 23 15 28 21 40
28 32 15 46 40 15 28 32 28 12

Find the
(a) mean (b) median (c) mode
Solution
the mean can be found in two ways,
(i) By adding all the marks together and then dividing by 30
(ii) We can construct a frequency distribution table

(a) (b)

Note the following

 the same table can be presented in two ways as shown above in (a) and (b)

 we use the formula x 

 fx to find the mean
f
mean 
 fx  1(11)  2(12)  3(15)  1(21)  1(22)  2(23)  3(25)  6(28)  3(32)  2(34)  4(40)  2(46)
f 30
828
mean = 30

mean = 27.6

Exercise 2
The shoes sizes of 42 learners at Kasempa Boys Secondary School are listed below
6 7 9 5 4 8 5 7 4 9 8 5 9 7
7 4 6 4 9 7 3 3 7 6 5 5 6 9
8 5 3 7 7 4 6 4 8 5 4 4 4 6

By constructing the frequency distribution table, find the

(a) mean (b) median (c) mode
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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
THE MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE FROM OF GROUPED DATA
GROUPED DATA

 The mean from grouped data is called an estimated mean.

This is calculated using the formula x 

 fx where x is the mid-point of each class interval.
f
 The median from grouped data will lie between two limits. (class interval)
 The mode from grouped data is called modal class. This also lies between two limits called
class intervals.

Example
The table shows the ages in years of 120 members of a sports club.

Age ( x years) 5< x  15 15< x  25 25< x  35 35< x  45 45< x  55 55< x  65

Frequency 16 21 24 13 28 18

(i) State the modal class of this distribution [1]

(ii) In which class does the median lie. [1]
(iii) Calculate an estimate of the mean age of the 120 members of
the sports club. [3]

Solution
(i) Modal class: 45< x  55
(ii) Median lie in the class: 25< x  35

(iii) Estimated mean age 

 fx  16(10)  21(20)  24(30)  13(40)  28(50)  18(60)
f 120
 35.8

Exercise 4
1. Each girl in a class was asked how long it took her to solve a problem. The results are shown in
the following table

Time( x minutes) 0< x  2 2< x  3 3< x  4 4< x  5 5< x  8

Frequency 10 8 6 3 3

(i) State the modal class of this distribution [1]

(ii) In which class does the median lie. [1]
(iii) Calculate an estimate of the mean time it took the girls to solve the problem. [3]
2. The numbers of hour per week worked by 40 workers at a factory are shown in the table below.

Number of hours per week (x) Number of workers

34 < x  38 11
38 < x  42 14
42 < x  46 9
46 < x  50 6

(i) Write down the modal class of this distribution. [1]

(ii) Calculate an estimate of the mean number of hours
worked per week. [3]

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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
MEASURES OF DISPERSION OR SPREAD
Measures of dispersion or spread shows how the data is grouped around the average.( i.e mean,
median and mode).
It shows whether data is clustered or scattered.
Measures of spread include range, quartiles and the interquartile range, percentile, variance and the
standard deviation.
RANGE
Range = highest value – lowest value
QUARTILES
Quartiles are measures of dispersion that divide an ordered data set into 4 equal parts (quartiles).
This means that there are three quartiles, namely:-
1. The Upper quartile Q3
2. The Middle quartile or Median Q2
3. The Lower quartile Q1
INTER-QUARTILE RANGE
The inter quartile range = upper quartile – lower quartile
I.Q.R = Q3 – Q1
SEMI – INTERQUARTILE RANGE
1
The Semi – interquartile range = ( upper quartile – lower quartile)
2
1
Semi – I.Q.R = (Q3 – Q1)
2
Examples 6
Find the median, lower quartile, upper quartile and interquartile range of the following sets of data.
(a) 8, 5, 4, 6, 8, 3, 4, 8, 2
(b) 163, 149, 155, 162, 168, 168
(c) 74, 73, 71, 76, 80, 66, 89
(d) 2, 4, 3, 11, 8, 6, 9
(e) 9, 2, 8, 3, 6, 4
VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION
 The variance and standard deviation are the most commonly used measures of dispersion.
 These measures give us information about how far the data values in a data set are from the
mean of the data set.
 The variance (𝜎 2 ) is a measure of the average difference between each number in a data set
and the mean.
 The standard deviation is the square root of variance √(𝜎 2 )
Note the following important points about variance and standard deviation:
 The smaller the variance and standard deviation, the closer the data values are to the mean.
So, the data values are close together.
 The larger the variation and standard deviation, the further the data values are from the mean.
So, the data values are spread out.
Ungrouped Data
  ( x  x) 2 
2
 The formula for finding the variance is: (𝑆𝐷) =   for grouped data, where x is each
 n 
score, x is the mean and n is the total frequency.
 x
 
2

 OR the formula (𝑆𝐷)2 =   (x) 2  can also be used.

 n 

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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
Example
1. The following set of scores were recorded: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Find (a) The mean
(b) The variance
(c) The standard deviation
2. Calculate the standard deviation for the following data: 10, 5, 25, 32, 8.
Exercise 5
1. Find the mean, variance and standard deviation of the following sets data.
(a) 6, 8, 20, 32, 64
(b) 18, 25, 34, 64, 82, 105, 120.
2. Given that: 𝑛 = 5, ∑ 𝑥 2 = 13825 and ∑ 𝑥 = 255, find the standard deviation.
3. Find the standard deviation of the set of numbers in the arithmetic progression
8, 12, 16, ………. 44
Data is in the form of a Frequency Distribution
When data is in the form of a Frequency Distribution, we use the formula for grouped

Mean ( x ) 
 fx ,  f xx

SD = 
   =   fx  x  
2 2
2
  
f  f   f 
Example
The table shows the number of children per family for a group of 20 families.
Find the standard deviation
Number of children per family, x 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency, f 3 4 8 2 3

Method 1
Step 1: Find the mean ( x )

3(1)+4(2)+(8)+2(4)+3(5)
( x )=
20

3+ 8+24+ 8+15
( x )=
20
( x )= 2.9
Step 2: Compute (SD)
3(1)2 +4(2)2 +8(3)2 +2(4)2 +3(5)2
(SD) = √{ − (2.9)2 }
20

3(1)+4(4)+8(9)+2(16)+3(25)
(SD) = √{ − (2.9)2 }
20

3+ 16+72+ 32+75
(SD) = √ − 8.41
20

198
(SD) = √ − 8.41
20

Standard deviation (𝑺𝑫) = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟔𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟔𝟐

Note that the Variance (𝑆𝐷)2 = 1.49
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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
Alternatively
We can do most of the calculations by construction of tables as follows

x f fx x2 fx2
1 3 3 1 3
2 4 8 4 16
3 8 24 9 72
4 2 8 16 32
5 3 15 25 75
∑ 𝑓 = 20 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 58 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 = 198

Method 2

Step 1: Find the mean ( x )

3(1)+4(2)+(8)+2(4)+3(5)
( x )=
20

3+ 8+24+ 8+15
( x )=
20
( x )= 2.9

Step 2: Compute (SD) = √

 f ( x  x) 2

f
3(1−2.9)2 +4(2−2.9)2 +8( 3−2.9)2 +2(4−2.9)2 +3(5−2.9)2
(SD) = √
20

3(3.61)+ 4(0.81)+8(0.01)+ 2(1.210+3(4.41)

(SD) = √
20

10.83 + 3.24 + 0.08 + 2.42 + 13.3

(SD) = √
20

29.8
(SD) = √
20

Standard deviation (𝑺𝑫) = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟔𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟔𝟐

Note that the Variance (𝑆𝐷)2 = 1.49

Alternatively
We can do most of the calculations by construction of tables as follows
(Teacher to guide)

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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
Exercise 6
Find the standard deviation for each of the following sets of data
(a)
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
f 2 6 11 15 8 3
(b)
x 10 20 30 40 50 60
f 3 9 14 10 6 4

Grouped Data
The formula for finding the mean and standard deviation is:

Mean ( x ) 
 fx ,  f xx

SD = 
   =   fx  x  
2 2
2
  
f  f  f  

for grouped data, where x is the midpoint of each class interval, x is the mean and n is
the total frequency.

Example
The following frequency table below shows the distribution of lengths of residential plots in a
village.

Length of 6< x  10 11< x  15 16< x  20 21< x  25 26< x  30 31< x  35

plots(m)
Frequency 2 13 47 33 10 6

For the data above, calculate

(a) the mean The midpoint of class interval 6< x  10 is
(b) the variance found by
6+10
=8
2
(c) the standard deviation The midpoint of class interval 11< x  15 is
11+15
found by = 13
Solution 2

Find the midpoint of each class interval then use the formula above for finding standard
deviation
Exercise
1. The frequency table below shows the distribution of marks obtained by 90 learners on a test.

Marks (x) 10 < x ≤ 20 20 < x ≤ 30 30 < x ≤ 40 40 < x ≤ 50 50 < x ≤ 60 60 < x ≤ 70

Frequency 2 10 15 23 30 10

Calculate the standard deviation. [6]

2. The lengths of 32 leaves were measured correct to the nearest mm. The frequency table
below shows the distribution of length. Find the mean length and the standard deviation.

Length ( mm) 20< x  22 23< x  25 26< x  28 29< x  31 32< x  34

Frequency 3 6 12 9 2
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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS

THE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY TABLE

A cumulative frequency table is a table that has three columns:

 First column data values (measures) , for example, shoe sizes

 Second column is for total of tallies called frequencies,
 Third column is for cumulative frequencies the sum total of all frequencies up to and including
the frequency of that value.

NOTE THAT
The relative cumulative frequency is each cumulative frequency divided by the total cumulative
frequency

Examples
1. The number of litres of milk sold per day by a shop was noted for 20 days as follows:

25 23 23 25 22 22 21 29 27 23
25 27 28 25 29 28 25 24 28 25

(a) What is the range of this data?

(b) Display the given data in a cumulative frequency table

Solution
(a) Range = Highest value – Lowest value
(b)

Litres of milk Frequency Cumulative

per day frequency note
21 1 1 0+1=1
22 2 3 1+2=3
23 3 6 3+3=6
24 1 7 6+1=7
25 6 13 7 + 6 = 13
26 0 13 13 + 0 = 13
27 2 15 13 + 2 = 15
28 3 18 15 + 3 = 18
29 2 20 18 + 2 = 20

2. A farmer planted 60 fruit trees. In a certain month, the number of fruits per tree was recorded and
the results were as shown in the table below.
Fruits per tree 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency 1 5 4 6 10 16 18

Using the table above, copy and complete the relative cumulative frequency table below.

Fruits per tree 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Cumulative Frequency 1 6
Relative cumulative frequency 0.02 0.1 0.17

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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
3. The frequency table below shows the distribution of marks obtained by 90 learners on a test.

Marks (x) 10 < x ≤ 20 20 < x ≤ 30 30 < x ≤ 40 40 < x ≤ 50 50 < x ≤ 60 60 < x ≤ 70

Frequency 2 10 15 23 30 10

Using the table above, copy and complete the relative cumulative frequency table below.

Marks (x) ≤ 10 ≤ 20 ≤ 30 ≤ 40 ≤ 50 ≤ 60 ≤ 70
Cumulative frequency 0 2 12
Relative cumulative frequency 0 0.02 0.13 0.3

Exercise

1. The table shows the number of days that the52 learners in a class were absent from school in
one school term.

Days absent 0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9
Frequency 2 3 6 7 6 9 11 6 0 2

Using the table above, copy and complete the relative cumulative frequency table below.

Days absent 0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9
Cumulative frequency 2 5 11
Relative cumulative frequency

2. About 800 candidates had attended interviews at a certain secondary teachers college. The
following table illustrates the frequency distribution of scores obtained in the interview
Score (x%) 30< x  40 40< x  50 50< x  60 60< x  70 70< x  80 80< x  100
Frequency 65 149 206 180 125 75
Copy and complete the following table showing the cumulative frequency distribution.
Score (x%)  30  40  50  60  70  80  100
Frequency 0 65 214 420

3. The table below shows the masses of 100 babies at birth, recorded at a hospital.

Mass (x kg) 1.5< x  2.0 2.0< x  2.5 2.5< x  3.0 3.0< x  3.5 3.5< x  4.0 4.0< x  4.5 4.5< x  5.0
Number of babies 3 12 20 24 25 14 2

Copy and complete the cumulative frequency table for the time taken to travel. [2]
Mass (x kg)  1.5  2.0  2.5  3.0  3.5  4.0  4.5  5.0
Number of babies 0 3 15 100

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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
MEASURES OF DISPERSION OR SPREAD FROM
THE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE (OGIVE CURVE)
1. The graph below shows a cumulative frequency curve representing 80 boxers and their
average weights in kg.

Use the graph to answer the following questions:

(a) Estimate the
(i) Median weight [1]
(ii) Interquartile range [2]
(b) A Boxing Board would only allow a boxer to participate in a tournament if their weight
is 65 kg or more. How may boxers would qualify for tournament? [1]
(c) A boxer weighing 50 kg would be in the feather weight category. If a boxer is chosen at
random, what is the probability that the boxer is in this category? [2]

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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
Exercise 8
2. Mr. Matipa takes notes of the speeds of 520 cars as they pass a certain point. The
cumulative frequency curve below shows the speed, vkm/h, and the number of cars
whose peed is less than or equal to vkm/h. [ for example 390 cars have a speed of less
than or equal to 45 km/h.

Use the curve to estimate

(i) the median speed, [1]
(ii) the interquartile range, [2]
(iii) the number of cars whose speed is less than or equal to 30 km/h, [1]
(iv) the fraction of the total number of cars whose speed is more than 50 km/h. [2]

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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
SPECIMEN PAPER 2

The table below shows the number of days that 52 learners in a Grade 12 class at Kasempa
Boys Boarding Secondary School were absent in one school term.

Days absent 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
Frequency 2 3 6 7 6 9 11 6 2
(a) Calculate the standard deviation
(b) Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of plain paper.

(i) Using the table above, copy and complete the relative cumulative frequency table below.

Days absent 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
Frequency 2 3 6 7 6 9 11 6 2
Relative cumulative frequency 0.04 0.10 0.21 0.35 0.46

(ii) Using a scale of 1 cm to represent 1 unit on each axis, draw the relative cumulative
frequency curve. [3]
(iii) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the
50th percentile. [2]
OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2016

The ages of people living at Pamozi Village are recorded in the following frequency table below.
Ages 0<x  10 10<x  20 20<x  30 30<x  40 40<x  50 50<x  60
Number of 7 22 28 23 15 5
people
(a) Calculate the standard deviation. [6]
(b) Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of plain paper.
(i) Using the information in the table above, copy and complete the cumulative frequency
table below.
Ages  10  20  30  40  50  60
Number of people 7 29
(ii) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 10 units on both axes, draw a smooth cumulative
frequency curve where 0  x  60 and 0  y  100. [3]
(iii) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the
semi-interquartile range. [3]
JULY/AUGUST 2017

The frequency table below shows the number of copies of newspapers allocated to 48 newspaper
vendors.

Copies of newspapers 25<x  30 30<x  35 35<x  40 40<x  45 45<x  50 50<x  55 55<x  60

Number of vendors 5 4 7 11 12 8 1

(a) Calculate the standard deviation. [6]

(b)
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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
(c) Answer this part of the question on a sheet of graph paper.
(i) Using the information in the table above, copy and complete the cumulative frequency
table below. [1]
 25  30  35  40  45  50  55 0
Copies of newspapers
0 5 9 16 27
Number of vendors
(ii) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 10 newspapers on the x-axis and 2cm
for 0  x  60 and a vertical scale of 4cm to represent 10 vendors on the
y-axis for 0  y  50 , draw a smooth cumulative frequency curve. [3]
(iii) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the 50th percentile. [2]

OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2017

The table below shows the amount of money spent by 100 learners at school on a particular day
Amount in Kwacha 0<x  5 5<x  10 10<x  15 15<x  20 20<x  25 25<x  30
Frequency 13 27 35 16 7 2

(a) Calculate the standard deviation. [6]

(b) Answer this part of the question on a sheet of graph paper.
(i) Using the table above, copy and complete the cumulative frequency table below. [1]
Amount in Kwacha 0 5  10  15  20  25  30
Frequency 0 13 40 100
(ii) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 5 units on the horizontal axis and 2cm to represent

10 nits on the vertical axis, draw a smooth cumulative frequency curve. [3]

(iii) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the

semi-interquartile range. [2]

JULY/AUGUST 2018

A farmer planted 60 fruit trees. In a certain month, the number of fruits per tree was recorded and the
results were as shown in the table below.
Fruits per tree 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Frequency 1 5 4 6 10 16 18

(a) Calculate the standard deviation. [6]

(b) Answer this part of the question on a sheet of graph paper.

Using the table above, copy and complete the relative cumulative frequency table below.

Fruits per tree 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Frequency 1 6 10 16 26 42 60

Relative cumulative frequency 0.02 0.1 0.17 0.27

[1]
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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS
(i) Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1 unit on the x-axis for 0  x  8 and 2cm to represent
0.1units on the y-axis for 0  y  1, draw a smooth relative cumulative
frequency curve. [3]

(ii) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the 70th percentile. [2]

OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2018
The frequency table below shows the distribution of marks obtained by 90 learners on a test.

Marks (x) 10 < x ≤ 20 20 < x ≤ 30 30 < x ≤ 40 40 < x ≤ 50 50 < x ≤ 60 60 < x ≤ 70

Frequency 2 10 15 23 30 10

(a) Calculate the standard deviation. [6]

(b) Answer this part of the question on a sheet of graph paper.
(iv) Using the table above, copy and complete the relative cumulative frequency table below.
Marks (x) ≤ 10 ≤ 20 ≤ 30 ≤ 40 ≤ 50 ≤ 60 ≤ 70

Frequency 0 2 12 27 50 80 90

Relative cumulative frequency 0 0.02 0.13 0.3

[1]
(i) Using a scale of 2 cm to represent 10 unit on the x-axis for 0  x  70 and 2cm to
represent 0.1units on the y-axis for 0  y  1, draw a smooth relative
cumulative frequency curve. [3]
(ii) th
Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the 65 percentile. [2]

JULY/AUGUST 2019
The frequency table below shows the distribution of 30 football players at a school.

Age (x) years 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Frequency 0 2 5 7 8 6 2

(a) Calculate the standard deviation. [6]

(b) Answer this part of the question on a sheet of graph paper.
(i) Using the table above, copy and complete the relative cumulative frequency table
below.
Marks (x) ≤ 10 ≤ 11 ≤ 12 ≤ 13 ≤ 14 ≤ 15 ≤ 16
Frequency 0 2 7 14 22 28 30

Relative cumulative frequency 0.00 0.07 1.00

[1]
(ii) Using a scale of 2 cm to represent 1 unit on the x-axis for 10  x  16 and a scale of
2cm to represent 0.1units on the y-axis for 0.0  y  1.0, draw a smooth relative
cumulative frequency curve. [3]
(iii) th
Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the 90 percentile. [2]

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 STATISTICS TEACHING NOTES FOR EXAMS

OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2019
The table below shows the expenditure of 90 famers in a particular farming season.

Amount (K) 0 < x ≤ 100 100 < x ≤ 200 200< x ≤ 300 300 < x ≤ 400 400 < x ≤ 500 500 < x ≤ 600 600 < x ≤ 700 700 < x ≤ 800
No. of
5 16 17 17 14 12 7 2
farmers

(a) Calculate the standard deviation. [6]

(b) Answer this part of the question on a sheet of graph paper.
(i) Using the table above, copy and complete the cumulative frequency table below.
Amount (K) ≤0 ≤ 100 ≤ 200 ≤ 300 ≤ 400 ≤ 500 ≤ 600 ≤ 700 ≤ 800

Frequency 0 5 21 38 55 69
[1]
(ii) Using a scale of 2 cm to represent 100 units on the horizontal axis for and 2cm to
represent 10units on the vertical axis, draw a smooth relative cumulative frequency curve.
[3]
(iii) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the interquartile range. [2]

BONUS QUESTION
Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of graph paper.
The table below shows the masses of 100 babies at birth, recorded at a hospital.

Mass (x kg) 1.5< x  2.0 2.0< x  2.5 2.5< x  3.0 3.0< x  3.5 3.5< x  4.0 4.0< x  4.5 4.5< x  5.0
Number of babies 3 12 20 24 25 14 2

(a) Copy and complete the cumulative frequency table for the time taken to travel. [2]
Mass (x kg)  1.5  2.0  2.5  3.0  3.5  4.0  4.5  5.0
Number of babies 0 3 15 100
(b) Using a horizontal scale of 2 cm to represent 0.5kg for masses from 1.5kg to 5kg and a
vertical scale of 2cm to represent 10 babies, draw a cumulative frequency curve. [3]
(c) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to find:
(i) the median mass
(ii) the interquartile range [2]
(iii) the 40th percentile [1]
(d) How many babies weighed more than 4.3kg? [3]

BY B. MATIPA @2020 15 | P a g e