MEE 3031

THERMODYNAMICS-II

Chapter 9
Gas Power Systems

Course Instructor: Dr. C. Ozgur Colpan

Dokuz Eylul University

 Learning Outcomes
►Perform air-standard analyses of internal
combustion engines based on the Otto and
Diesel, including:
►sketching p-v and T-s diagrams and evaluating
property data at principal states.
►applying energy and entropy balances.
►determining net power output, thermal
efficiency, and mean effective pressure.
 Learning Outcomes
►Perform air-standard analyses of gas
turbine power plants based on the Brayton
cycle and its modifications, including:
►sketching T-s diagrams and evaluating
property data at principal states.
►applying mass, energy, and entropy balances.
►determining net power output, thermal
efficiency, back work ratio, and the effects of
compressor pressure ratio.
 Ideal Gas Model Review
►Elementary thermodynamic analyses of reciprocating
internal combustion engines and gas turbines use ideal
model principles, as reviewed in Table 9.1.
Ideal Gas Model Review
Ideal Gas Model Review
 Considering Reciprocating
Internal Combustion Engines
►What are reciprocating internal combustion engines?
►They are reciprocating engines commonly used in
automobiles, trucks, and buses.

►How do reciprocating internal combustion engines

differ from the vapor power plants considered in
Chapter 8 and the gas turbines considered in later
sections of Chapter 9?
►Processes occur within reciprocating piston-
cylinder arrangements rather than by mass flowing
through a series of interconnected components.
 Considering Reciprocating Internal
Combustion Engines – Two Types
►Spark-ignition
►A mixture of fuel and air is ignited by a spark
plug.
►This type is
• advantageous for applications up to about
225 kW.
• lightweight and relatively low cost.
• predominantly used by automobiles in the
U.S.
 Considering Reciprocating Internal
Combustion Engines – Two Types
►Compression-ignition
►Air is compressed to a high pressure and
temperature.
►Combustion occurs spontaneously when fuel is
injected.
►This type is
• preferred for high-power applications and
when fuel economy is required.
• used in heavy trucks and buses, locomotives
and ships, and auxiliary power units.
 Introducing Engine Terminology
► Stroke (Displacement) volume, Vst:
Volume swept by piston when it moves
from top dead center (TDC) to bottom
dead center (BDC)
Top dead center

Stroke (H)
Bottom dead center

Stroke Bore
 Introducing Engine Terminology
► Clearance volume, Vc : The volume left in the
combustion chamber when the piston is at TDC.
►Compression ratio, r : The ratio of the total volume
of the cylinder to the clearance volume.

►Mean effective pressure, pm: a theoretical

constant pressure that if it acted on the piston
during the power stroke would produce the same
net work as actually developed in one cycle.
 Introducing Engine Terminology
►Torque: Torque indicates the engine’s ability to do
work, and for a four-stroke engine, is related to the net
work per cycle as,

►Power: For an engine of N cylinders running at a

speed of n revolutions per second, the power developed
is,
 Introducing Engine Terminology
Example (Kayansayan): An automobile has 2.4 liter
SI four-cylinder engine operating on a four-stroke cycle
at 3800 rpm. At this speed, the torque output of the
engine is 220 Nm, and air enters the cylinder at 90
kPa, 50°C. The engine is square (D=H), and the
compression ratio is 8. Determine,

a. the cylinder bore and the stroke length,

b. the clearance volume of one cylinder,
c. the power produced,
d. the mean effective pressure,
e. the specific work output of the engine.
 Introducing Engine Terminology
Four-stroke cycle
Four strokes of the piston
for every two revolutions of
the crankshaft
►Intake stroke
With the intake valve open,
piston stroke draws a fresh
charge into the cylinder.
► For spark-ignition
engines, the charge
includes fuel and air.
► For compression-ignition
engines, the charge is air
alone.
 Introducing Engine Terminology
►Compression stroke
With both valves closed,
piston compresses charge,
raising the pressure and
temperature, and requiring
work input from the piston to
the cylinder contents.
► For spark-ignition
engines, combustion is
initiated by the spark plug.
► For compression-
ignition engines,
combustion is initiated
by injecting fuel into the hot
compressed air.
 Introducing Engine Terminology

►Power stroke
The gas mixture expands
and work is done on the
piston as it returns to bottom
dead center.

►Exhaust stroke
The burned gases are
purged from the cylinder
through the open exhaust
valve.
4-Stroke Cycle

17
 Air-Standard Analysis of Reciprocating
Internal Combustion Engines
►To conduct elementary analyses of reciprocating internal
combustion engines, simplifications are required. Although
highly idealized, an air-standard analysis can provide insights
and qualitative information about actual performance.
►An air-standard analysis has the following elements:
►A fixed amount of air modeled as an ideal gas is the
working fluid. Ideal gas relations are reviewed in Table 9.1.
►The combustion process is replaced by heat transfer from
an external source. Combustion is studied in Chapter 13.
►There are no intake and exhaust processes. The cycle is
completed by a constant-volume heat transfer process while
the piston is at bottom dead center.
►All processes are internally reversible.
►In a cold air-standard analysis, the specific heats are
assumed constant at their ambient temperature values.
 Air-Standard Analysis of Reciprocating
Internal Combustion Engines
►For reciprocating internal combustion engines, two
cycles that adhere to air-standard cycle idealizations
are the Otto and Diesel cycles. These cycles differ
only in the way the heat addition process that
replaces combustion in the actual cycle is modeled:

►Otto cycle: Heat addition at constant volume.

►Diesel cycle: Heat addition at constant

pressure.
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►The Otto cycle consists of four internally reversible
processes in series:
►Process 1-2: isentropic compression.
►Process 2-3: constant-volume heat addition to the air
from an external source.
►Process 3-4: isentropic expansion.
►Process 4-1: constant-volume heat transfer from the
air.
►The Otto cycle
compression ratio is:
V1 V4
r 
V2 V3
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►Ignoring kinetic and potential energy effects,
closed system energy balances for the four
processes of the Otto cycle reduce to give

W12 W34
 u2  u1 ,  u3  u 4
m m (Eq. 9.2)
Q23 Q41
 u3  u 2 ,  u4  u1
m m

►The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the net

work to the heat added:
(Eq. 9.3)
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►Since the air-standard Otto cycle is composed of
internally reversible processes, areas on the T-s and
p-v diagrams can be interpreted as heat and work,
respectively:
►On the T-s diagram, heat transfer per unit of
mass is ∫Tds. Thus,
• Area 2-3-a-b-2 represents heat
added per unit of mass.
• Area 1-4-a-b-1 is the heat rejected
per unit of mass.
• The enclosed area is the net heat
added, which equals the net work
output.
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►On the p-v diagram, work per unit of mass is
∫pdv. Thus,
• Area 1-2-a-b-1 represents
work input per unit of mass
during the compression
process.
• Area 3-4-b-a-3 is the work
done per unit of mass in the
expansion process.
• The enclosed area is the net
work output, which equals the
net heat added.
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►When air table data are used to conduct an
analysis (variable specific heat approach)
involving an air-standard Otto cycle, the
specific internal energy values can be obtained
from Table A-22 as appropriate.
►The following relationships apply for the
isentropic processes 1–2 and 3–4
 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
►Otto cycle analysis on a cold air-standard basis
(constant specific heat approach)
 Example 9.1

The temperature at the beginning of the compression

process of an air-standard Otto cycle with a compression
ratio of 8 is 300 K, the pressure is 1 bar, and the cylinder
volume is 560 cm3. The maximum temperature during
the cycle is 2000 K. Determine
(a) the temperature and pressure at the end of each
process of the cycle,
(b) the thermal efficiency, and
(c) the mean effective pressure, in bars.

Note: Use variable specific heat approach

 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
►The Diesel cycle consists of four internally
reversible processes in series:
►Process 1-2: isentropic compression.
►Process 2-3: constant-pressure heat addition to the
air from an external source.
►Process 3-4: isentropic expansion.
►Process 4-1: constant-volume heat transfer from
the air.
►The Diesel cycle
has a two-step
power stroke:
process 2-3 followed
by process 3-4.
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
V1
►The Diesel cycle compression ratio is: r 
V2

V3
►The Diesel cycle cut-off ratio is: rc 
V2
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
►Process 2-3 is heat addition at constant pressure.
Accordingly, the process involves both heat and work.
►The work is given by (Eq. 9.9)
►Introducing Eq. 9.9 into the closed system energy balance
for process 2-3 and solving for Q23/m gives
(Eq. 9.10)
Note: Enthalpy appears only for notational convenience and
does not signal use of control volume concepts.
►The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the net work to the
heat added:
(Eq. 9.11)

Like the Otto cycle, thermal efficiency increases with

increasing compression ratio.
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
►As for the Otto cycle, areas on the T-s and p-v
diagrams of the Diesel cycle can be interpreted as
heat and work, respectively:
►On the T-s diagram, heat transfer per unit of
mass is ∫Tds. Thus,
• Area 2-3-a-b-2 represents
heat added per unit of mass.
• Area 1-4-a-b-1 is the heat
rejected per unit of mass.
• The enclosed area is the net
heat added, which equals the
net work output.
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
►On the p-v diagram, work per unit of mass is
∫pdv. Thus,
• Area 1-2-a-b-1 represents work
input per unit of mass during the
compression process.
• Area 2-3-4-b-a-2 is the work
done per unit of mass in the
two-step power stroke: process
2-3 followed by process 3-4.
• The enclosed area is the net
work output, which equals the
net heat added.
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
Variable specific heat approach
►To find the temperature at state 2, use the
isentropic relationship

►To find the temperature at state 3, use the

ideal gas law (P3=P2)

►The volume ratio for the isentropic process 3-4:

►To find the temperature at state

4, use the isentropic relationship
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
►Diesel cycle analysis on a cold air-standard basis
(constant specific heat approach)
 Example 9.2

At the beginning of the compression process of an air-

standard Diesel cycle operating with a compression ratio
of 18, the temperature is 300 K and the pressure is 0.1
MPa. The cutoff ratio for the cycle is 2. Determine

(a) The temperature and pressure at the end of each

process of the cycle,
(b) the thermal efficiency,
(c) the mean effective pressure, in MPa.

Note: Use variable specific heat approach

 Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants
►Gas turbine power plants are more quickly
constructed, less costly, and more compact than the
vapor power plants considered in Chapter 8.
►Gas turbines are suited for stationary power
generation as well as for powering vehicles,
including aircraft propulsion and marine power
plants.
►Gas turbines are
►increasingly used for large-scale power
generation, and
►for such applications fueled primarily by
natural gas, which is relatively abundant today.
 Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants
►Gas turbines may operate on an open or closed basis, as
shown in the figures.
►The open gas turbine is more commonly used and is the
main focus of our study of gas turbines.
►Study of the individual components of these configurations
requires the control volume forms of the mass, energy, and
entropy balances.
Open to the atmosphere Closed
 Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants
►The open mode gas turbine is an internal combustion
power plant.
►Air is continuously drawn into
the compressor where it is
compressed to a high pressure.
►Air then enters the combustion
chamber (combustor) where it
mixes with fuel and combustion
occurs.
►Combustion products exit
at elevated temperature and
The remainder is
pressure. Part of the available as net work
►Combustion products turbine work output to drive an
is used to electric generator, to
expand through the turbine drive the propel a vehicle, or
and then are discharged to the compressor. for other uses.
surroundings.
 Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants
►The closed gas turbine operates as follows:
►A gas circulates through four components: turbine,
compressor, and two heat exchangers at higher and lower
operating temperatures, respectively.
►The turbine and compressor play the same roles as in the
open gas turbine.
►As the gas passes through the
higher-temperature heat
exchanger, it receives energy by
heat transfer from an external
source.
►The thermodynamic cycle is
completed by heat transfer to the
surroundings as the gas passes
through the lower-temperature
heat exchanger.
 Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants
►The heat transfer associated with the higher-
temperature heat exchanger of the closed gas
turbine originates from an external source, which
may include
►External combustion of
biomass, municipal solid
waste, fossil fuels such as
natural gas, and other
combustibles.
►Waste heat from industrial
processes.
►Solar thermal energy.
►A gas-cooled nuclear
reactor.
 Air-Standard Analysis of
Open Gas Turbine Power Plants
►To conduct elementary analyses of open gas turbine power
plants, simplifications are required. Although highly idealized,
an air-standard analysis can provide insights and qualitative
information about actual performance.
►An air-standard analysis has the following elements:
►The working fluid is air which behaves as an ideal gas.
Ideal gas relations are reviewed in Table 9.1.
►The temperature rise that would be brought about by
combustion is accomplished by heat transfer from an
external source.
►With an air-standard analysis, we avoid the complexities of
the combustion process and the change in composition
during combustion, which simplifies the analysis
considerably. Combustion is studied in Chapter 13.
►In a cold air-standard analysis, the specific heats are
assumed constant at their ambient temperature values.
 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
►The schematic of a simple open air-standard gas turbine
power plant is shown in the figure.
►The energy transfers by heat and work are in the
directions of the arrows.
►Air circulates through the components:
►At state 1, air is drawn into the
compressor from the surroundings.
►Process 1-2: the air is
compressed from state 1 to
state 2.
►Process 2-3: The
temperature rise that would be
achieved in the actual power
plant with combustion is
realized here by heat transfer, Q in .
 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
►Process 3-4: The high-pressure, high-temperature air
expands through the turbine. The turbine drives the
compressor and develops net power, W cycle .
►Air returns to the
surroundings at state 4 with a
temperature typically much
greater than at state 1.
►After interacting with the
surroundings, each unit of mass
returns to the same condition as
the air entering at state 1,
thereby completing a
thermodynamic cycle.
 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
►Process 3-4: The high-pressure, high-temperature air
expands through the turbine from state 3 to state 4. The
turbine drives the compressor and develops net power, W cycle .
►Air returns to the
surroundings at state 4 with a
temperature typically much
greater than at state 1.
►After interacting with the
surroundings, each unit of mass
returns to the same condition as
the air entering at state 1,
thereby completing a
thermodynamic cycle.
►We imagine process 4-1 being
achieved by a heat exchanger, as
shown by the dashed line in the figure.
 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
►Cycle 1-2-3-4-1 is called the Brayton cycle.
►The compressor pressure ratio, p2/p1, is a key
Brayton cycle operating parameter.
 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
►Analyzing each component as a control
volume at steady state, assuming the
compressor and turbine operate
adiabatically, and neglecting kinetic and
potential energy effects, we get the following
expressions for the principal work and heat
transfers, which are positive in accord with
our convention for cycle analysis.
Turbine Heat addition
(Eq. 9.15) (Eq. 9.17)

Compressor Heat rejection

(Eq. 9.16) (Eq. 9.18)
 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
►The thermal efficiency is

(Eq. 9.19)

►The back work ratio is

(Eq. 9.20)

Note: A relatively large portion of the work developed by the

turbine is required to drive the compressor. For gas turbines,
back work ratios range from 20% to 80% compared to only 1-2%
for vapor power plants.
►Since Eqs. 9.15 through 9.20 have been developed from mass
and energy balances, they apply equally when irreversibilities
are present and in the absence of irreversibilities.
 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
►The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle provides an
especially simple setting for study of gas turbine power
plant performance. The ideal cycle adheres to additional
modeling assumptions:
►Frictional pressure drops are absent during flows through
the heat exchangers. These processes occur at constant
pressure. These processes are isobaric.
►Flows through the turbine and pump occur adiabatically
and without irreversibility. These processes are isentropic.
►Accordingly, the ideal Brayton cycle consists of two
isentropic processes alternated with two isobaric processes.
In this respect, the ideal Brayton cycle is in harmony with
the ideal Rankine cycle, which also consists of two
isentropic processes alternated with two isobaric processes
(Sec. 8.2.2).
 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
►The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle consists of four
internally reversible processes:
Process1-2: Isentropic compression of air flowing through the
compressor.
Process 2-3: Heat transfer to the air as it flows at constant pressure
through the higher-temperature heat exchanger.
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion of the air through the turbine.
Process 4-1: Heat transfer from the air as it flows at constant
pressure through the lower-temperature heat exchanger.
 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
►Since the ideal Brayton cycle involves internally
reversible processes, results from Sec. 6.13 apply.
►On the p-v diagram, the work per unit of mass
flowing is –∫vdp. Thus on a per unit of mass flowing
basis,
►Area 1-2-a-b-1
represents the
compressor work input.
►Area 3-4-b-a-3
represents the turbine
work output.
►Enclosed area 1-2-3-4-1
represents the net work
developed.
 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle
►On the T-s diagram, the heat transfer per unit of
mass flowing is ∫Tds. Thus, on a per unit of mass
flowing basis,
►Area 2-3-a-b-2 represents
the heat added.
►Area 4-1-b-a-4 represents
the heat rejected.
►Enclosed area 1-2-3-4-1
represents the net heat
added or equivalently, the
net work developed.
 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

►For the isentropic processes 1-2 and 3-4

►When air table data are used (variable specific heat
approach)

►When the specific heats are taken as constant (cold air-

standard analysis)
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance

• For constant specific heat approach

60

th (%)
• Re-arranging the above equation
2 4 6 8 10
Compressor
Pressure Ratio

• As , the above equation reduces to

or
 Example 9.4
Air enters the compressor of an ideal air-standard
Brayton cycle at 100 kPa, 300 K, with a volumetric
flow rate of 5 m3/s. The compressor pressure ratio
is 10. The turbine inlet temperature is 1400 K.
Determine
(a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
(b) the back work ratio,
(c) the net power developed, in kW.
 Gas Turbine Power Plant Irreversibility
►The most significant irreversibility by far is the
irreversibility of combustion. This type of irreversibility is
considered in Chap. 13, where combustion fundamentals
are developed.
►Irreversibilities related to flow through the turbine and
compressor also significantly impact gas turbine
performance. They act to
►decrease the work developed by the turbine and
►increase the work required by the compressor,
►thereby decreasing the net work of the power plant.

W net W t W c irreversiblities increase

  compressor work
m m m
marked decrease in net irreversibilites decrease
work of the power plant turbine work
 Gas Turbine Power Plant Irreversibility
►Isentropic turbine efficiency, introduced in Sec. 6.12.1,
accounts for the effects of irreversibilities within the turbine in
terms of actual and isentropic turbine work, each per unit of
mass flowing through the turbine.
work developed in the actual
expansion from turbine inlet state
to the turbine exit pressure

(W t / m ) (h3  h4 )
t   
(Wt / m ) s (h3  h4s )

work developed in an isentropic

expansion from turbine inlet
state to exit pressure
 Gas Turbine Power Plant Irreversibility
►Isentropic compressor efficiency, introduced in Sec.
6.12.3, accounts for the effects of irreversibilities within the
compressor in terms of actual and isentropic compressor work
input, each per unit of mass flowing through the compressor.

work input for an isentropic process from

compressor inlet state to exit pressure

(W c / m ) s (h2s  h1 )
c   
(Wc / m ) (h2  h1 )

work input for the actual process from compressor

inlet state to the compressor exit pressure
 Example 9.6
Reconsider Example 9.4, but include in the
analysis that the turbine and compressor each
have an isentropic efficiency of 80%. Determine for
the modified cycle
(a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
(b) the back work ratio,
(c) the net power developed, in kW.
 Gas Turbine Power Plant Loss

►The exhaust gas temperature of a simple gas

turbine is typically well above the ambient
temperature. Thus, the exhaust gas has
considerable thermodynamic utility (exergy) that
would be irrevocably lost were the gas discharged
directly to the ambient.
►Regenerative gas turbines (Sec. 9.7) and gas
turbine-based combined cycles (Sec. 9.9) aim to
avoid such a significant loss by using the hot
exhaust gas cost-effectively.
 Regenerative Gas Turbines
►The hot turbine exhaust can be utilized with a preheater
called a regenerator.
►The regenerator allows air exiting the
compressor to be preheated, process 2-x,
as the turbine exhaust gas cools, process
4-y.
►Preheating reduces the heat added per
unit of mass flowing (and thus the amount
of fuel that must be burned):
With Regeneration Without Regeneration
Q in Q in
 (h3  hx )  (h3  h2 )
m m

►The net work per unit of mass flowing is not altered with the
inclusion of a regenerator. Accordingly, since the heat added is
reduced, thermal efficiency increases.
 Regenerator Effectiveness
►Since a finite temperature difference must exist
between the two streams of the regenerator for heat
transfer to take place between the streams, the cold-
side exiting temperature, Tx, must be less than the
hot-side entering temperature, T4.
►As the stream-to-stream
temperature difference becomes
small Tx approaches T4, but
cannot exceed it. Accordingly, T4
Tx ≤ T4.
►As the enthalpy of the air
varies only with temperature, we
also have hx ≤ h4.
 Regenerator Effectiveness
►The regenerator effectiveness is defined as
the ratio of the actual enthalpy increase of the air
flowing through the cold side of the regenerator,
hx – h2, to the maximum theoretical enthalpy
increase, h4 – h2.
(Eq. 9.27)

►The thermal efficiency of the cycle

qout hy  h1
th  1   1 OR
qin h3  hx
wnet wt  wc h3  h4   h2  h1 
th   
qin qin h3  hx
 Example 9.7
A regenerator is incorporated in the cycle of
Example 9.4. Determine the thermal efficiency for
a regenerator effectiveness of 80%.
 Gas Turbines with Reheat
►A modification of the Brayton cycle that increases
the net work developed is multistage expansion
with reheat.
►The figure shows a cycle with two turbine stages
and a reheat combustor between the stages.
 Gas Turbines with Reheat
►The ideal Brayton cycle with reheat is 1-2-3-a-b-4-1.
The ideal Brayton cycle without reheat is 1-2-3-4′-1.
►The reheat cycle has a larger enclosed area than
the cycle without reheat and thus a greater net work
developed per unit of mass flowing, which is the aim.
Cycle without reheat

Cycle with reheat

Gas Turbines with Reheat and Regeneration

►The figure also shows that the temperature at the exit

of the second-stage turbine, state 4, is greater than at
the exit of the single turbine of the cycle without reheat,
state 4′. Accordingly, with reheat the potential for
regeneration is also enhanced.

T4
T4′
Gas Turbines with Reheat and Regeneration
►When reheat and regeneration are used together, the
thermal efficiency can increase significantly over that for
the cycle without reheat.
 Example 9.8
Consider a modification of the cycle of Example
9.4 involving reheat and regeneration. Air enters
the compressor at 100 kPa, 300 K and is
compressed to 1000 kPa. The temperature at the
inlet to the first turbine stage is 1400 K. The
expansion takes place isentropically in two stages,
with reheat to 1400 K between the stages at a
constant pressure of 300 kPa. A regenerator
having an effectiveness of 100% is also
incorporated in the cycle. Determine the thermal
efficiency.
 Gas Turbines with Intercooling
►Another modification of the Brayton cycle that
increases the net work developed is compression
with intercooling.
►The figure shows two compressor stages and an
intercooler between the stages.
 Gas Turbines with Intercooling
►The accompanying p-v diagram
shows the processes for internally
reversible operation:
►Process 1-c. Isentropic
compression from state 1, where
pressure is p1, to state c, where
pressure is pi.
►Process c-d. Constant-pressure
cooling from temperature Tc to
temperature Td.
►Process d-2. Isentropic
compression to state 2, where
pressure is p2.
►Isentropic compression without intercooling is
represented by process 1-c-2′.
 Gas Turbines with Intercooling
►Recalling that for such internally reversible processes the
work input per unit of mass flowing is given by ∫vdp, the
following area interpretations apply, each per unit of mass
flowing:
►With intercooling, area 1-c-d-2-a-b-1
represents the work input.
►Without intercooling, area 1-2′-a-b-1
represents the work input.
►The cross-hatched area c-d-2-2′-c
represents the reduction in work
achieved with intercooling.
►If the total turbine work remains the same, a reduction in
compressor work results in an increase in the net work
developed, which is the aim.
 Example 9.9
Air is compressed from 100 kPa, 300 K to 1000
kPa in a two-stage compressor with intercooling
between stages. The intercooler pressure is 300
kPa. The air is cooled back to 300 K in the
intercooler before entering the second compressor
stage. Each compressor stage is isentropic. For
steady-state operation and negligible changes in
kinetic and potential energy from inlet to exit,
determine (a) the temperature at the exit of the
second compressor stage and (b) the total
compressor work input per unit of mass flow. (c)
Repeat for a single stage of compression from the
given inlet state to the final pressure.
 Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration
►While compression with and without intercooling each
bring the air to the same final pressure, p2, the final
temperature with intercooling, T2, is lower than the final
temperature without intercooling, T2′.
►Comparing states 2 and 2′ on the T-s diagram, T2 < T2′.
►The lower temperature at the compressor exit with
intercooling enhances the potential for regeneration.

T2′
T2
 Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration
►When compression with intercooling is used together with
regeneration, the thermal efficiency can increase significantly
over that for the cycle without intercooling.
►The T-s diagram also shows that for cooling to the
surroundings the temperature Td at the intercooler exit
cannot be less than T1, the temperature of the air entering
the compressor from the surroundings: Td ≥ T1.

Td
T1
 Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling
►Shown here is a regenerative gas turbine that
incorporates reheat and intercooling.
►With these modifications to the basic Brayton cycle:
►The net work
output is
increased.
►The thermal
efficiency is
increased.
 Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling
►Applying mass and energy rate
balances at steady state, we
obtain the following expressions,
each per unit of mass flowing:
►Total turbine work:
W t
= (h6 – h7) + (h8 – h9) = t1(h6 – h7s) + t2(h8 – h9s)
m
where t1 and t2 denote the isentropic efficiencies of turbines 1 and 2,
respectively.
►Total compressor work:
W c
= (h2 – h1) + (h4 – h3) = (h2s – h1)/c1 + (h4s – h3)/c2
m
where c1 and c2 denote the isentropic efficiencies of compressors 1
and 2, respectively.
 Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling
►Applying mass and energy rate
balances at steady state, we
obtain the following expressions,
each per unit of mass flowing:
►Total heat added:
Q in

= (h6 – h5) + (h8 – h7)
m
►In this application, the regenerator effectiveness is:
reg = (h5 – h4)/(h9 – h4)
►For cooling to the surroundings, the temperature at the
exit of the intercooler, T3, cannot be less than the
temperature of the air entering the compressor from the
surroundings: T3 ≥ T1.
 Example 9.11
Practice Problem

 c1   c 2  t1  t 2  0.80
 reg  0.80
a )  th  ?
b) bwr  ?
c) W net  ?

Answers
a )  th  44.3%
b) bwr  45.4%
c) W net  2046 kW
 Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling

►Hint: Follow the steps shown below.

1. Specific enthalpies of the states 1, 3, 6, and 8 can be
found using the given input data and Table A.22.
2. Specific enthalpies of the states 2s, 4s, 7s, and 9s
can be found using the following isentropic relations
and Table A.22.
P2 P4 P7 P9
Pr 2 s  Pr1 Pr 4 s  Pr 3 Pr 7 s  Pr 6 Pr 9 s  Pr 8
P1 P3 P6 P8

3. Specific enthalpy at state 2 and 4 can be determined

using the isentropic efficiency of the compressor
h2 s  h1 h4 s  h3
 c1  c 2 
h2  h1 h4  h3
 Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling

►Hint: Follow the steps shown below.

4. Specific enthalpy at state 7 and 9 can be determined
using the isentropic efficiency of the turbine
h6  h7 h8  h9
 t1  t 2 
h6  h7 s h8  h9 s

5. Specific enthalpy at state 5 can be determined using

the regenerator effectiveness
h5  h4

h9  h4
 Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling

►Hint: Follow the steps shown below.

6. The thermal efficiency of the cycle can be found as

 th 
W
t1 / m   Wt 2 / m   W c1 / m   Wc 2 / m 
   
Q in ,1 / m  Q in , 2 / m

 th 
h6  h7   h8  h9   h2  h1   h4  h3 
h6  h5   h8  h7 
7. Back work ratio can be found as
bwr 
W c1 / m   W c 2 / m  h2  h1   h4  h3 

W t 1 / m   Wt 2 / m 
   h6  h7   h8  h9 
8. Net power developed can be found as
W net  Wt1  Wt 2  Wc1  Wc 2  m  h6  h7   h8  h9   h2  h1   h4  h3 
 Gas Turbine-Based Combined Cycle
►The exhaust temperature of the simple gas turbine
is typically well above the ambient temperature, and
thus the hot gas exiting the turbine has significant
thermodynamic utility (exergy) that can be used cost-
effectively.
►Ways to utilize this potential include:
►The regenerative cycle previously considered.
►A combined cycle – namely, a cycle that
couples two power cycles such that the energy
discharged by heat transfer from the higher-
temperature cycle is used as a heat input for the
lower-temperature cycle.
 Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle
►Illustrated here is a combined cycle
involving gas and vapor power cycles:
►The cycles are combined using an
interconnecting heat-recovery
steam generator that serves as the
boiler for the vapor power cycle.
►The combined cycle has the gas
turbine’s high average temperature of
heat addition and the vapor power
cycle’s low average temperature of
heat rejection.
►Thermal efficiency is greater than
either cycle would have individually.
►Increasingly, combined gas turbine-vapor power plants are
being used world-wide for electric power generation.
Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle
►The net power developed by the
combined cycle is the sum of the net
power developed by each cycle.
►The thermal efficiency of the
combined cycle is the net power
output divided by the rate of heat
addition.

(Eq. 9.28)

►For an adiabatic heat recovery steam

generator, mass and energy rate
balances reduce to give the following relationship involving the
mass flow rates of the two cycles:
(Eq. 9.29)
 Combined-cycle District Heating
►Shown here is a combined gas turbine-vapor power cycle
applied for district heating. District heating plants are
located within communities to deliver steam or hot water
together with electricity for domestic,
commercial, and industrial use.
►Alternatively, steam exiting
the turbine may be sent
directly to the community
while its condensate returns
to the pump, thereby
eliminating the condenser.