ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

MODULE : ALGEBRA, ENSIA 2021/2022

OUTLINE
• Binary operations
• Groups
• Subgroups
• Group homomorphisms
• Rings
• Ideals
• Fields
BINARY OPERATIONS
Definition
A binary operation on a set 𝐺 is a function 𝑓: 𝐺 × 𝐺 → 𝐺.
The image 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) of (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐺 × 𝐺 will be denoted by
𝑥 ∗ 𝑦, 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦, 𝑥 ⊥ 𝑦, … , etc.
Therefore, we can talk about operations ∗,∘, ⊥, … , etc.
Example
The addition + is a binary operation on ℕ.
The soustraction − is a binary operation on ℤ, but not on ℕ.
ASSOCIATIVITY AND COMMUTATIVITY
Definition
A binary operation ∗ on a set 𝐺 is said to be associative if
∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧 .
It is said to be commutative if
∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥.

Example
The addition + on ℝ is associative and commutative.
The operation ∗ defined on ℝ by 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is commutative, but not associative.
The operation ∗ defined on ℝ by 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 is associative, but not commutative.
The operation ∗ defined on ℝ by 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = −𝑥 is neither associative, nor commutative.
IDENTITY ELEMENT
Definition
An identity element (or a neutral element) for a binary operation ∗ on
a set 𝐺 is an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 verifying :
∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥.
Example
• For the operation + defined on ℕ, 0 is the identity element.
• For the operation × defined on ℕ, 1 is the identity element.
• The three last operations defined in Example 2 do not have identity
elements.
INVERSE ELEMENT
Definition
Let 𝐺 be a set equipped with a binary operation ∗ that admits an
identity element 𝑒. We say that an element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 is invertible if there exists
an element 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 such that :
𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑒.
We say then that 𝑦 is the inverse of 𝑥.
Remark
When the binary operation is denoted additively : + (resp. multiplicatively :
×), the identity element will be−1denoted by 0 (resp. 1), and the inverse of 𝑥
will be denoted by −𝑥 (resp. 𝑥 ).
However, for the sake of brevity, we also often use the notation 𝑥 −1 in an
arbitrary group.
INVERSE ELEMENTS EXAMPLES

Example
For the operation + defined on ℤ, the inverse of 𝑥 is −𝑥.
If we consider the same operation on ℕ, the inverse of 𝑥 ≠ 0 doesn’t
exist.
GROUPS
Definition
A group is a set 𝐺 equipped with a binary operation ∗ verifying :
1) The operation ∗ is associative.
2) The operation ∗ admits an identity element.
3) Every element of 𝐺 is invertible.

Notation : A group 𝐺 with a binary operation ∗ is denoted by 𝐺,∗ .

When there is no ambiguity, it is denoted simply by 𝐺.
ABELIAN GROUP, EXAMPLES
Definition
A group 𝐺,∗ is commutative (or abelian) if the operation ∗ is
commutative.
Example
1) ℤ, + , (ℚ, +), (ℝ, +) and (ℂ, +) are commutative groups.
2) (ℕ, +) and (ℤ, ×) are not groups.
3) Let 𝐺 be the set of bijective functions from ℝ to ℝ, and let ∘ be the
operation of composition of functions. Then (𝐺, ∘) is a
noncommutative group.
EXAMPLES FROM MODULAR ARITHMETIC
Example
Let 𝐺 = ℤ/5ℤ = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 be the set of integers modulo 5. Set

∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥 ⊕ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦.
This operation is well defined, and (𝐺, ⊕) is an abelian group.
Now, consider 𝐺 ′ = 𝐺\ 0 , and set

∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺′, 𝑥 ⨂𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦.
Once again, this operation is well defined, and (𝐺 ′ , ⨂) is an abelian group.
PROPERTIES
Theorem
Let (𝐺,∗) be a group. Then we have
1) The identity element is unique.
2) For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, we have the cancellation laws
𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏,
and
𝑥 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏.
3) For all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, the inverse of 𝑥 is unique.
4) For all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, the inverse of 𝑥 −1 is 𝑥.
5) For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 −1 = 𝑦 −1 ∗ 𝑥 −1 .
SUBGROUPS
Definition
Let (𝐺,∗) be a group. A subgroup of 𝐺 is a subset 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 that satisfies
the following :
1) 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻.
2) ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻.
3) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
Remark
A subgroup is a group under the induced binary operation, with the
same identity element.
SUBGROUPS
Theorem
Let (𝐺,∗) be a group, and let 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺. Then 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺 if, and
only if we have the following :
1) 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻.
2) ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
Example
1) ℤ, + , (ℚ, +) and (ℝ, +) are subgroups of ℂ, + .
2) ( 0, +∞ , ×) is a subgroup of(ℝ∗ , ×).
INTERSECTION OF SUBGROUPS

Theorem
Let 𝐺 be a group, and let 𝐻 and 𝐾 be two subgroups of 𝐺. Then 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾
is a subgroup of 𝐺.
GROUP HOMOMORPHISMS
Definition
Let 𝐺,∗ and (𝐺 ′ , ⊥) be two groups. A function 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is said to be
a group homomorphism if
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 ⊥ 𝑓 𝑦 .
A homomorphism which is bijective is called an isomorphism. Two
groups are isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism between them. A
homomorphism from a group to itself is called an endomorphism.
When the endomorphism is bijective, it is called an automorphism.
EXAMPLE OF HOMOMORPHISM
Example
The function 𝑓: ℝ → 0, +∞ defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 is an isomorphism
from the group (ℝ, +) to the group 0, +∞ , × .
Indeed, we have
∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 × 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 × 𝑓 𝑦 .
Then 𝑓 is a group homomorphism. Furthermore, for all 𝑦 ∈ 0, +∞ ,
there exists a unique 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑦 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 . This shows that
𝑓 is bijective and completes the proof.
PROPERTIES OF HOMOMORPHISMS

Theorem
Let 𝐺,∗ and (𝐺 ′ , ⊥) be two groups with respective identity elements
𝑒 and 𝑒′, and let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ be a group homomorphism. Then we have :
1) 𝑓 𝑒 = 𝑒 ′ .
2) For all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑓 𝑥 −1 = (𝑓 𝑥 )−1 .
IMAGE AND KERNEL OF HOMOMORPHISMS

Definition
Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ be a group homomorphism. We define the image of 𝑓 by
𝐼𝑚 𝑓 = 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 ′ : ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ,
and we define the kernel of 𝑓 by
𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒′ .
OTHER PROPERTIES OF HOMOMORPHISMS

Theorem
Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ be a group homomorphism. Then we have :
1) The image of 𝑓, 𝐼𝑚 𝑓 , is a subgroup of 𝐺 ′ .
2) The kernel of 𝑓, 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓 , is a subgroup of 𝐺.
3) The homomorphism 𝑓 is injective if, and only if, 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓 = 𝑒 .
RINGS
Definition
Let 𝑅 be a nonempty set endowed with two binary operations denoted
by + (addition) and ⋅ (multiplication) that satisfy the following :
1) (𝑅, +) is a commutative group.
2) The multiplication is associative and admits an identity element.
3) The multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, that is
∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐 and 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑏.
Then (𝑅, +, ⋅) is called a ring.
A ring 𝑅 is called a commutative ring when the multiplication is
commutative.
RINGS EXAMPLES

Example
(ℤ, +,⋅), (ℚ, +,⋅), (ℝ, +,⋅) and (ℂ, +,⋅) are commutative rings with usual
operations of addition and multiplication.
Let 𝑅 = 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ , and define for all 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑅 :
𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 , ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ,
𝑓. 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 , ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
Then 𝑅, +,⋅ is a commutative ring.
NOTATION
Notation
For brevity, when there is no ambiguity, we denote
𝑅 ≔ (𝑅, +, ⋅)
𝑎𝑏 ≔ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏
𝑎 − 𝑏 ≔ 𝑎 + (−𝑏).
NOTATION
Notation
By associativity, the following notations make sense :

𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅⋅⋅ 𝑎 𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 > 0

𝑎𝑛 ≔ 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 0
𝑎−1 ⋅ 𝑎−1 ⋅⋅⋅ 𝑎−1 −𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 < 0

𝑎 + 𝑎 +⋅⋅⋅ +𝑎 𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 > 0

𝑛𝑎 ≔ 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 0
(−𝑎) + (−𝑎) +⋅⋅⋅ +(−𝑎) −𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 < 0
THE RING ℤ/𝒏ℤ
Let 𝑛 be a positive integer. Recall that the relation ℛ defined on ℤ by
∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ, 𝑥ℛ𝑦 ⟺ ∃𝑘 ∈ ℤ, 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑛𝑘,
is an equivalence relation, and the quotient set is given by :
ℤ/𝑛ℤ = 0, 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛 − 1 .
We define the two binary operations :
∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ/𝑛ℤ, 𝑥 ⊕ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 and 𝑥 ⨂𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦.
Theorem
(ℤ/𝑛ℤ, ⊕, ⨂) is a commutative ring.
INTEGRAL DOMAINS
Definition
Let 𝑅 be a ring and let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅\ 0 . If there exists 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅\ 0 such that 𝑎𝑏 = 0 or 𝑏𝑎 = 0,
then 𝑎 is said to be a zero-divisor.
Definition
An integral domain is a commutative ring without zero-divisor.
In other words, a commutative ring 𝑅 is an integral domain if, and only if,
∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 0.
Example
ℤ, ℚ, ℝ and ℂ are integral domains.
The ring ℤ/6ℤ is not an integral domain since we have
2 ⊗ 3 = 6 = 0.
ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES
Theorem
Let 𝑅 be a ring, 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 three elements in 𝑅 and 𝑛 ∈ ℤ. Then we
have the following properties :
1) 𝑎 ⋅ 0 = 0 ⋅ 𝑎 = 0.
2) 𝐼𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝑅) > 1, then 0 ≠ 1.
3) −𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎 −𝑏 = − 𝑎𝑏 .
4) −1 𝑎 = −𝑎 and −𝑎 −𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏.
5) 𝑎 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑐 and 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑎 − 𝑐𝑎.
6) 𝑛𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑛𝑏 = 𝑛 𝑎𝑏 .
BINOMIAL FORMULA

Theorem
Let 𝑅 be a ring. If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are elements in 𝑅 which commute
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 , then we have for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ ∶
𝑛
𝑛
𝑘 𝑘 𝑛−𝑘
𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏 .
𝑛
𝑘=0
UNITS OF A RING
Definition
Let 𝑅 be a ring. An element 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 is said to be invertible, or a unit, if
there exists 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 = 1.
The set of units in 𝑅 is denoted by 𝑈 𝑅 .
Theorem
The set of units 𝑈(𝑅) forms a group under multiplication.
Example
𝑈 ℤ = 1, −1 .
𝑈 ℤ/8ℤ = 1, 3, 5, 7 .
SUBRINGS
Definition
Let (𝑅, +, ∙) a ring. A subset 𝑆 of 𝑅 is a subring of (𝑅, +, ∙) if we have :
1) 1 ∈ 𝑆.
2) (𝑆, +) is a subgroup of (𝑅, +).
3) 𝑆 is closed under multiplication : ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑆.
SUBRINGS EXAMPLES

Example
1) ℤ is the only subring of ℤ.
2) ℤ is a subring of ℚ, which is a subring of ℝ, which is a subring of ℂ …
3) ℤ 𝑖 ≔ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑖 2 = −1 is a subring of ℂ. It’s called the
ring of Gaussian integers.
RING HOMOMORPHISMS
Definition
Let 𝑅 and 𝑅′ be two rings. A function 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅′ is said to be a ring
homomorphism if it satisfies the following :
1) 𝑓 1 = 1′ .
2) ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑦 .
3) ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑓 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑦 .

Isomorphisms, endomorphisms and automorphisms are defined

similarly to those of groups.
PROPERTIES OF RING HOMOMORPHISMS
Theorem
Let 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅′ be a ring homomorphism. Then we have :
1) 𝑓 0 = 0′ .
2) 𝑓 𝑛𝑎 = 𝑛𝑓 𝑎 , ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
3) 𝑓 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑛 , ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
4) 𝑓 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑛 , ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑈 𝑅 , ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
5) 𝑓 𝐴 is a subring of 𝑅′ , for all subring 𝐴 of 𝑅.
6) 𝑓 −1 𝐵 is a subring of 𝑅, for all subring 𝐵 of 𝑅′.
IDEALS
Definition
Let 𝑅 be a commutative ring. A subset 𝐼 of 𝑅 is said to be an ideal of 𝑅
if it satisfies the two following conditions :
1) 𝐼, + is a subgroup of 𝑅, + .
2) ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐼, 𝑎𝑥 ∈ 𝐼.
Example
For all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 𝑛ℤ is an ideal of ℤ.
QUOTIENT RING

Let 𝑅 be a commutative ring, and let 𝐼 be an ideal of 𝑅. The relation ℛ

defined on 𝑅 by
∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥ℛ𝑦 ⟺ 𝑥 − 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼,
is an equivalence relation. The quotient set will be denoted by 𝑅/𝐼.
We define on 𝐴/𝐼 the two binary operations :
∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴/𝐼, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 and 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦.
Theorem
𝑅/𝐼 is a commutative ring under the operations defined above. It is called
the quotient ring.
FIELDS
Definition
A field is a commutative ring in which every nonzero element is
invertible.
A subfield of a field is a subring which is itself a field.
Example
ℚ, ℝ and ℂ, endowed with usual operations, are fields.
ℤ is not a field.
THE FIELD ℤ/𝒑ℤ, 𝒑 PRIME

Theorem
The ring ℤ/𝑝ℤ is a field if, and only if, 𝑝 is prime.
Theorem
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ/𝑝ℤ, where 𝑝 is prime, and let 𝑘 ∈ ℕ. Then we have
𝑝𝑘 𝑝 𝑘 𝑝 𝑘
𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑎 +𝑏 .