The most versatile machine tool in a modern ma-

chine shop is the screw-cutting engine lathe. Its

oldest ancestor is the potter's wheel, which can be
traced back in history to 4000 B.C. By turning the
potter's wheel onto its side, the andents made the
first horizontal lathe. It was followed by the pole
lathe, which could be operated by a cord and ·a foot

chapter treadle. In the fifteenth century, the driving cord

was connected to a springy lath, whidrwas attached
to the ceiling. From this development/ame the name
of lathe. Most early improvements i/1 the lathe were
designed to hold and drive the work. Many crude
devices were experimented with/ in an effort to cut
threads in a lathe. They were never completely suc-
cessful. The clock- and watchmakers of France de-
vised a screw-cutting lathe (Fig. 8-1 ), but its design
limited it to the cutting of tlireads having the same
pitch.

e gine lathe
processes

Fig. 8-1. French screw-cutting lathe, 1740. (Roe's

English and American Tool Builders, by permis-
sion of McGraw-Hill Book Co.)

The father of the modern engine lathe was Henry

Maudslay, who invented the slide rest in the early
nineteenth century. Maudslay, an English mechanic,
later combined the movable slide rest with a lead
screw by means of change gears. This combination
permitted Maudslay to cut screw threads from 16 to
100 threads per inch (Fig. 8-2). It made the lathe the
most important machine in the Industrial Revolu-
tion: Without it, James Watt's steam engine would
never have been built. Because it machined the
parts of Watt's engine it became known as the engine
lathe. Since that time, the engine lathe has been
improved and refined. Each important improvement
has added to the scope of its usefulness, enabling
more complicated operations to be performed with
finer degrees of accur:acy and finish. 171
 REVOLVING
METAL

Fig. 8-2. Screw-cutting lathe by Henry Maudslay,

about 1797. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.)
FEED OF
TOOL

1. What is an engine lathe?

An engine lathe is a power-driven, general-purpose
machine tool used for producing cylindrical work-
pieces. As the piece of metal to be machined is Fig. 8-3. Machining a workpiece in a lathe pro-
rotated in the lathe, a single-point cutting tool is duces cylindrical shapes.
advanced radially into the workpiece a specified
depth and moved longitudinally along the axis of
the workpiece, removing metal in the form of chips Fig. 8-4. A small bench lathe. (f. W. Derbyshire,
(Fig. 8-3). Both inside and outside surfaces can be Inc.)
machined on a lathe. By using attachments and
accessories, other operations such as drilling, ream-
ing, boring, taper and angle turning, screw-thread
chasing, form turning, knurling, milling, grinding,
and polishing may be performed.

2. Describe the various types of engine lathes.

Engine lathes are manufactured in a variety of types
and sizes, from very small bench lathes (Fig. 8-4)
used in precision instrument and watchmaking in-
dustries, to gigantic lathes (Fig. 8-5) used for turning
large steel shafts, which weigh many tons.
The different types of engine lathes are
A. Bench lathes: small engine lathes, which
can be mounted on a bench or metal
cabinet.
B. Standard engine lathes: larger, heavier, and
more powerful than the bench lathe; may
have bed lengths from 5 to 20 or more feet
(Fig. 8-6).
C. Toolroom lathes: precision engine lathes
equipped with additional attachments
needed for tool- and die-making operations
(Fig. 8-7).
D. Manufacturing lathes: engine lathes of
various sizes equipped with special-
purpose attachments for turning workpieces Fig. 8-5. A lathe for turning large workpiece
in large quantities, which is often called weighing many tons. (R. K. LeBlond Machine Too
172 production work (Fig. 8-8). Co.)
 fig. 8-6. A standard engine lathe. (R. K. LeBlond
Machine Tool Co.)

Fig. 8-7. A smaller precision toolroom lathe. (Har Fig. 8-8. A numerically controlled lathe for produc-
dinge Brothers, Inc.) tion work. (Monarch Machine Tool Co.) 173
 E. Special-purpose lathes: gap lathes, which
have a special sliding bed, making it possi-
ble to increase the swing to accommodate
large-diameter work (Fig. 8-9); wheel
lathes, crankshaft lathes, gun barrel lathes,
and tracer lathes (Fig. 8-10)-all are
adaptations of the engine lathe.

3. Name the five major parts of an engine lathe.

Bed, headstock, tailstock, carriage, a~~ feed and
thread-cutting mechanism.
fig. 8-9. A gap lathe with sliding bed. (R. K. LeBlond
4. Describe the bed of an engine lathe. Machine Tool Co.)
The bed is often called the backbone of the lathe
(Fig. 8-11). The accuracy of a lathe depends mainly Fig. 8-10. A tracer lathe. (Monan;h Machine Tool
upon the rigidity, alignment, and accuracy of the Co.)
bed. It is sturdily cast with cross-ribs to withstand
the stresses of heavy cuts and coarse feeds. The top
surfaces, called the ways of the lathe, are machined
to form inverted V's and flat sides. The ways are
accurately scraped to give true alignment to the
headstock, tailstock, and carriage. Some lathes have
flat-ground ways only.

5. Describe the parts of an engine lathe headstock

and their functions.
The headstock is located at the end of the lathe bed,
to the operator's left. It is clamped solidly on the
inner ways and supports and houses the spindle and
the means for turning the spindle .(Fig. 8-12). The
spindle, which is supported by precision bearings
located at two or three points in the headstock, is
hollow through its entire length to allow bar stock
or work-holding attachments to pass through. The
end of the spindle has an internal taper bore that
holds a live center or other tool. The spur gear,
which is attached at the left end of the spindle,
drives a train of gears. to provide motion and direc-
tion to the feed rod, quick-change gear box, and
thread-cutting mechanisr;n. Three types of spindle
noses are used on lathes by various manufacturers:
(a) threaded (see Fig. 8-1 2), (b) key-drive (Fig. 8-1 3),
· and (c) cam-lock. Headstocks may be classified as
pulley-driven (Fig. 8-12), geared (Fig. 8-14), or
combination belt and geared.
The headstock of a pulley-driven lathe uses cone
or step pulleys with three or four diameter sizes and
either a flat or V-type belt drive. Spindle speeds are
changed by moving the belt from one pulley step
to another, This must be done when the lathe is Fig. 8-11 . The bed of an engine lathe. (Monarch
17 4 stopped. A four-step pulley permits four speed Machine Tool Co.)
 Fig; 8-14. A geared headstock. (Lodge and Shipley
Co.)

changes when in direct drive, and four additional

speed changes when the back-gears are engaged.
A back-gear drive (Fig. 8-12) provides slower spindle
speeds and more power through a four-gear drive
mechanism. It is important to understand how the
back-gear mechanism works so the gears will not
be damaged. At the left end of the pulley, at its
smallest diameter step, a small gear is permanently
SPINDLE WITH \

L
/
I
l-_FEED [BULL GEA~
REVERSE
GEAR •
LOCK PIN THREADED
SPINDLE
NOSE
fastened to the pulley; the gear always turns when
the pulley turns. At the opposite end of the pulli~y,
at its largest diameter step, a large· gear, called the
FEED CONE
REVERSE PULLEY bu/I-gear, is keyed to the spindle; the bull-gear
LEVER drives the spindle only when the lock-pin is pushed
Fig. 8-12 The headstock of a pulley-driven lathe. in, locking the gear to the pulley. In this position,
(South Be11d Lathe, Inc.) the headstock spindle is in direct drive. When
slower speeds are required, the bull-gear pin is
pulled out. Using the back-gear lever, the back-gears
Fig. 8-13. A tape.red-key spindle nose. (R. K. are moved forward and carefully meshed with the
LeBlond Machine Tool Co.) spindle gears by moving the cone pulley back and
forth by hand. Never attempt to mesh the back-gears
\Nhile the spindle is turning under power because
this may strip teeth from one or more of the gears.
The two back-gears are mounted on an eccentric
shaft at the back of the headstock. When the bull-
gear pin is pushed in and the back-gears are engaged,
the spindle is locked and cannot move. Do not start
the lathe while the spindle is locked. It is often neces-
sary to lock the spindle, using the back-gears when
changing collets or threading holes by hand with
a. tap.

6. Describe the parts of an engine lathe tailstock

and their functions.
The tailstock has two major parts: a bottom casting 175
 and a top casting (Fig. 8-15). The bottom casting is The carriage (Fig. 8-16) carries the cutting tool and
machined very accurately to fit the ways of the lathe precisely controls its movement either parallel to
bed. Two bolts at the front and rear of the base the ways, called straight turning, or at right angles
permit the tailstock center to be aligned with the to the ways, call~d facing. The carriage has three
headstock center or the tailstock to be "set over" major parts: saddle, compound rest, and apron. The
for taper turning. A clamping bolt and nut secures saddle rests and slides on the ways and contains the
the tailstockin any desirable position along the ways. cross-feed mechanism for moving the cutting tool
The top casting contains the spindle, feed-screw, at right angles to the ways. This is done by turning
handwheel, and a spindle clamp for locking the the cross-feed handle manually or by engaging the
spindle in position. The end of the spindle has a automatic power feed. It is considered good prac-
taper bore (for holding the taper shank dead center), tice to use hand feed when facing small-diameter
drills, reamers, drill chucks, and other tools. workpieces and automatic power feed when facing
large-diameter workpieces. The cross-feed also
SCREW supports the compound rest slide, which is equipped
SPINDLE with hand feed· only and can be swiveled on its
CLAMP graduated base to any angle through 360°. The com-
LEVER
pound rest slide is used for turning and boring short
SPINDLE angles and tapers. A T slot at the top of the com-
pound rest holds the standard tool post or a cutting-
tool holding block such as a four-way turret tool
post. The apron contains a gear train and clutches,

COMPOUND
REST
CROSS THREAD
COMPOUND LIDE CHASING DIA7-
REST
HANDLE
CARRIAGE
CLAMP BOLT
CROSS FE:\\
HANDLE
\~ SADDLE

BOTTOM
CASTING
BED
CLAMP

fig. 8-15. Cross-section view of a tailstock. (Shel-

don Machine Co., Inc.)

Good judgment and care must be used when

mounting tools in the tailstock spindle. Taper shanks
must be clean and free of dirt, burrs, and chips. The
taper hole in the spindle must also be clean. The
tailstock spindle must be run out a short distance
before taper shanks can be firmly seated into the
taper hole. To remove the tools from the spindle,
it is necessary only to back up the handwheel just
far enough to permit the end of the inner screw to
loosen the tool, after which it maybe easily removed.

7. Explain the purpose and construction of the Fig. 8-16. Principal parts of a lathe carriage. (Mon-
176 lathe carriage. arch Machine Tool Co.)
which provide automatic power feed to the carriage train located at the left end of the lathe. On .old~.
and cross-feed slide (Fig. 8-17). Levers at the front lathes, gears had to be selected, mounted in place,
of the apron are used to engage or disengage the and adjusted each time a different feed or thread
power feeds. A worm 'keyed to the feed rod trans- pitch was required. The quick-change gear box
mits power through a worm gear to the spur gears, (Fig. 8-18) at the front of the modern lathe makes it
which drive the cross-feed gear and the rack gear possible to obtain a wide range of feeds and thread
for moving the carriage. A half-nut inside the apron pitches merely by moving and positioning several
is operated by a lever on the outside of the apron; levers, according to a feed and thread index chart
it is used only when cutting screw threads. When attached to the quick-change gear box (Fig. 8-19).
dosed, or meshed, with the lead screw, the half-
nut provides a positive drive to the carriage. This
means that for each revolution of the workpiece,
the carriage will move an exact distance along the
ways (or along the workpiece). Positive drive is
necessary when cutting screw threads. The half-nut
should never be used as a feed when turning work.
To do so destroys the accuracy of the lead screw
and half-nut, making it impossible to cut precision
screw threads.

Fig. 8-18. Quick-change gear box facilitates the

selection of feeds and threads. (Monarch Machine
Tool Co.)

Fig. 8-19. Feed and thread index chart. (Monarch

Machine Tool Co.)

Fig. 8-17. Apron construction. (South Bend Lathe,

Inc.)

8. Explain the power-feed and thread-cutting

mechanism.
Most standard engine lathes are equipped with a
feed rod and a leadscrew (see Fig. 8-6). The feed
rod is, used to provide automatic power feed to the
carriage when turning or machining workpieces.
The lead screw is used to drive the carriage only 9. How is the size of an engine lathe designated'
when cutting, or chasing, screw threads. Engine In the United States, the size of an engine lathe i
lathes with no separate feed rod use, instead, the designated by the largest diameter of work that can
lead screw for both feeds and thread chasing. be revolved over the ways of the lathe bed (Fig.
Both the feed rod and lead screw get their power 8-20). In Europe, the size is given as the radius of
from the spindle gear through a cornoound gear the largest job that can be swung over the ways. 177
 B Fig. 8-21. Lathe drive
plate. (Sheldon Machine
Co., Inc.)

A-SWING OF
LATHE
B -DISTANCE
BETWEEN
CENTERS
C -LENGTH OF
BED
R - RADIUS, ONE
HALF SWING

i--------c-------
Fig. 8-20. How the size of a lathe is determined.
(South Bend Lathe, Inc.)

There are different methods of denoting the length Fig. 8-22. Application of drive plate. (South Bend
of a lathe. Some manufacturers give the length of Lathe, Inc.)
the ways; others give the distance from the face
plate to the end of the bed. Lathe specifications
include the longest distance between headstock
and tailstock centers.

ATTACHMENTS AND ACCESSORIES

Fig. 8-23. lathe faceplate.
An attachment is a device mounted on the lathe so (Sheldon Machine Co., Inc.)
that a wider range of operations may be performed.
Examples of lathe attachments are (a) drive plate,
(b) faceplate, (c) chucks, (d) collet attachment, (e) 11. What is a faceplate?
steady rest, (f) follower rest, (g) carriage stop, (h) A faceplate (Fig. 8-23) is similar to a drive plate
taper attachment, (i) tool post, (j) grinding attach- but larger in diameter. It contains more open slots
ment, (k) relieving attachment, and (I) milling or T slots so that bolts or T bolts may be used to
attachment. clamp the workpiece to the face of the plate. Many
Many of the small tools used to hold cutting tools types of work that cannot be held in chucks may
and to turn workpieces are often referred to as be machined conveniently when mounted on a
accessories rather than attachments. Such tools faceplate (Fig. 8-24).
as lathe dogs, mandrels, toolholders, centers, drills,
and drill holders may be classed as lathe accessories. 12. What is the procedure for setting up work on
a faceplate?
10. Explain the purpose of a drive plate. Place the faceplate on the bench face up (Fig. 8-25).
A drive plate (Fig. 8-21) is used to drive a lathe Set the workpiece on the p!ate. Arrange the bolts,
dogJ which, in turn, is securely clamped to the work- washers, and nuts in the slots for suitable clamping.
piece. It is a round, slotted plate attached to the Arrange the cfamps and step blocks or packing
spindle. The bent tail of the dog fits into one of the pieces. Center the workpiece by eye and tighten
slots· in the face of the plate (Fig. 8-22). A drive the clamping nuts just securely enough to hold the
1;:p ')latP. is often called a dog plate workpiece in p!ace. Mount the faceplate on the
Fig. &-14. Application of faceplate. (South Bend fig. 8-26. faceplate with off-center workpiece and
lathe, Inc.) counterweights. (South Bend lathe, Inc.)

fig. 8-25. locating and damping work on a face- 14. Name the chucks commonly used for holding
plate. (South Bend lathe, Inc.) workpieces.
The commonly used chucks a.re three-jaw universal
chuck, four-jaw independent chuck, and/magnetic
chuck.

15. What is a three-jaw universal.lhuck?

A three-jaw universal chuck (Fig. 8-27) holds
cylindrical or hexagonal work. ,All three jaws move

CHUCK
{ KEY
SOCKET
INSIDE
spindle. True upJhe workpiece. Tighten all clamping JAWS
nuts. Arrange and clamp the counterweights to
balance the workpiece if necessary.

13. Why are counterweights necessary on a

faceplate?
Counterweights are used to balance the faceplate
when workpieces are mounted off-center. They aid
in distributing the weight evenly so that the face-
plate will turn smoothly while machining takes iig. 8-27. Three-jaw univeraal chuck with inside
.i. -,r~
place (Fig. 8-26). and outside jaws. (!.. W. Chuck Co.) : ~}
 tqgether to bring the work on center. Two sets of the jaws tightened just enough to hold the work in
interchangeable jaws are provided because the place. Reverse the toolholder, tighten it finger-tight
jaws are not reversible. These are called inside and only, and turn it in until it just touches the workpiece.
outside jaws. One set is used to grip the work inside Revolve the chuck by hand to locate the high or low
while the other is used to grip the work on the spot of the workpiece. Adjust the jaws until the
outside. workpiece runs true. If greater accuracy is required,
use a test indicator.
16. How are the jaws changed on the three-jaw
universal chuck? 19. What is a combination chuck?
The slots on the chuck are numbered l, 2, and 3. A combination chuck is usually a four-jaw chuck in
Each jaw has a corresponding number. Remove which the jaws may be adjusted either indepen-
the jaws from the chuck by backing them out with dently, as in a four-jaw independent chuck, or
the chuck wrench. Turn the chuck so that slot No. 1 together, as in the three-jaw universal chuck; It
is at the top. Turn the wrench until the top thread is useful for holding duplicate workpieces. The first
of the scroll plate is just short of entering the No. 1 piece is located accurately by adjusting each of the
slot. Insert the No. 1 jaw and set it downagainst the jaws. The following pieces are then positioned like
scroll thread. Turn the wrench to catch the thread the first piece and the self-centering socket in the
into the thread or groove of the jaw. Turn the chuck body is used to tighten the work in the chuck.
wrench just enough to meet slot No. 2, no further. Figure 8-29 shows a six-jaw combination chuck.
Insert and catch the No. 2 jaw. Repeat for the No. 3
jaw.

17. What is a four-jaw independent cnuck?

The four-jaw independent chuck (Fig. 8-28\ is used
to hold most of the work for which a chuck. is re-
quired. The hardened steel jaws are reversible and
will hold work of different sizes and shapes. Each
jaw may be moved independently of the others so
that workpieces may be trued to run accurately.

Fig. 8-29. Six-jaw combination chuck. (Buck Tool

Co.)

Fig. 8-28. four-jaw independent chuck.

20. What is a magnetic chuck?
A magnetic chuck (Fig. 8-30) holds steel workpieces
18. How is work trued in a four-jaw independent by means of permanent magnets contained within
chuck? · the chuck. The face of the chuck is magnetized by
A four-jaw independent chuck has several circular inserting a key in the chuck and turning it 180°. The
grooves around the face of the body. The jaws may amount of magnetism may be controlled by turning
be approximately centered by adjusting the jaws to the key only part of the required distance. In this
180 these grooves. The workpiece is then inserted and manner, a workpiece may be held lightly on the face
 22. What is a col/et attachment?
A collet attachment provides a quick means of
chucking workpieces with standard diameters or
sizes. Figure 8-32 shows a collet attachment
mounted in the headstock. One type of collet
attachment (Fig. 8-33) consists of a taper sleev~,
which fits into the spindle hole of the lathe, a draw-
bar, and a set of collets. Anotl:ier type of collet
attachment (Fig. 8-34) consists of an attachment that
fastens to the spindle and a set of collets, which may
be inserted and damped to the workpiece by turning
a large-diameter handwheel.
g. 8-30. Magnetic chuck. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg.
23. For what types of work should a col/et attach-
o.)
ment be used?
Collet attachments are used to hold small metal
parts. They are used in the toolroom for fine accu-
f the chuck while it is being adjusted or trued to the rate work. A long bar of stock can be passed through
~uired position. Then, the full power of the mag-
ets may be turned on. This type of chuck is suitable
x work that requires only light cuts. The magnetic
huck is especially good for holding parts that are
:>o thin to be held in an ordinary chuck, as shown in
ig. 8-31.

21. How is the size of a chuck designated?

1he size of a chuck is specified by the diameter of
he chuck body.

Fig. 8-31. The magnetic chuck is useful for holding

thin parts. {Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.)
fig. 8-32. Cross-section view of collet attachment
mounted in the lathe spindle. (South Bend Lathe,
Inc.)

fig. 8-33. Collets, drawbar, and adapter for use

with toolroom lathes. (Hardinge Brothers, Inc.)

181
 ROUND

SQUARE

fig. 8-34. Sjogren spindle-nose collet chuck. (Cin-

cinnati lathe & Tool Co.)
HEXAGONAL
the drawbar and held by the collet while the end of fig. 8-35. Spring-type collets for round, square,
the stock is being machined and cut off. Only fin-
and hexagonal stock. (Hardinge Bros., Inc.)
ished work or smooth stock within a few thousandths
of an inch of the collet diameter should be held in a
collet. Workpieces that are undersize, oversize, or
out of round will destroy the collet's accuracy by
springing it out of shape. Collets for round, square,
and hexagonal shaped workpieces are shown in
Fig. 8-35.

24. What are rubber-flex co/lets?

The Jacobs spindle-nose collet chuck and rubber-
flex collets (Fig. 8-36) can handle a wide range of
work diameters other than standard diameters. The
eleven collets shown will hold workpieces ranging
in diameter from 1/16 through 1% in.

25. What is a steady, or center, rest?

A steady rest is a device that is clamped to the ways
Fig. 8-36. Jacobs spindle-nose lathe chuck and
,::if the lathe to support long shafts during turning
mbber-flex collets. (Monarch Machine Tool Co.)
boring, or threading operations (Fig. 8-37). By hold-
ing the work more rigidly, a steady rest prevents the l)o\ted to the saddle. It travels with the cutting tool.
work from springing away from the cutting tool. A The adjustable jaws bear directly on the finished
steady rest with rollers in the jaw (Fig. 8-38) is J1ameter of the workpiece behind the cutting tool.
recommended for operations requiring high work They prevent the workpiece from springing away
speeds. from the cutting tool (Fig. 8-39).

26. What is a follower rest? 27. When using a drive plate and a steady rest,
182 A follower rest is a work-supporting device, which is what is a good method for holding the shaft on the
 STEADY
REST

fig. 8-37. Steady rest supporting workpiece during

drilling operation. (R. K. LeBlond Machin~ Tool Co.) Fig. 8-39. Application of follower rest. (R. K.
' . LeBlond Machine Tool Co.)

Fig. 8-38. Roller-jaw steady rest. (Monarch Ma-

chine Tool Co.) Fig. 8-40. Work held against live center with raw-
hide lacing. (Sheldon Machine Co., Inc.)

headstock center so that the end of the shaft may be

faced and bored? A micrometer carriage stop (Fig. 8-41) is a device
Tie the shaft and lathe dog to the drive plate as attached to the ways of a lathe to stop the carriage at
shown in Fig. 8-40. The plate is unscrewed about a definite place and limit the travel of the cutting tool.
three or four revolutions from the shoulder of the It is helpful for accurate facing, shoulder turning, and
spindle. Then the work is held tight against the live boring operations. The micrometer collar permits
center and tied securely to the drive plate with raw- adjustments of one thousandth of an inch.
hide lacing. Finally, the drive plate is screwed back
against the shoulder of the spindle. This tightens the 29. Describe the taper attachment.
lacing on the work and holds it firmly. The taper attachment (Fig. 8-42) is a fil<ed casting
attached to the back of the lathe carriage. It is used
28. What is the purpose of a micrometer carriage to turn and bore tapers. Into the fixed casting is fitted
stop? a sliding part on top of which is a guide bar. Either 183
 30. What is a tool post?
A tool post (Fig. 8-43) is used to clamp and hold
various types of cutting-tool holders or lathe attach-
ments. The holders rest on a wedge, which is shaped
on the bottom to fit into a concave-shaped ring, pro-
viding a means of adjusting the toolholder to a
required position in relation to the work being
turned. A four-way tool block is shown in Fig. 8-44.
This type of turret tool block makes it possible to
mount four different cutting tools instead of one, thus
reducing· time and labor costs. It can be indexed or
swiveled to as many as 12 different positions.

31. What is a grinding attachment?

Fig. 8-41. A micrometer carriage stop. (R. IC A grinding attachment (Fig. 8-45), often called a
LeBlond Machine Tool Co.) tool-post grinder, is a motor-driven, self-contained
unit that is held in the tool post. It is used for outside
the guide bar or the sliding part is graduated in and inside grinding. Some grinders are especially
degrees at one end, and inches per foot of taper at designed for grinding screw threads (Fig. 8-46).
the other. A clamp holds the sliding part to the ways
of the lathe in a fixed position. When the guide bar 32. What precautions must be taken when using a
is set to the desired taper, the cross-feed containing grinding attachment?
the cutting tool follows the set angle, or taper, and Care must be taken to protect the ways and other
in turn produces this taper on the workpiece. bearing surfaces from the particles of abrasive mate-

CROSS SLIDE CLAMP

BOTTOM
PLATE
GUIDE BAR ADJUSTING
CLAMP BOLT NUTS·

DEGREE.
GRADUATIONS
0

CROSS-FEED BOLT

184 Fig. 8-42. Construction and parts of a lathe taper attachment.

 WEDGE
:;,-.,=----,1----i--:_.,,..-;·~- TOOL POST RING

T-SLOT CLAMP

fig. 8-43. Standard tool post.

Fig. 8-45. Tool-post grinder for precision work.
(Hardinge Brothers, Inc.)
fig. 8-44. four-way turret tool block. (R. K. leBlond
Machine Tool Co.)
Fig. 8-46. Thread-grinding attachment. (Kurt Orban
.Co., Inc.)

rial corning from the grinding. wheel. The ways

should be covered with a protective cloth. A small
piece of metal should be placed directly under the 34. What is a milling attachment?
sirearn of sparks to avoid burning the cloth. A milling attachment (Fig. 8-48) consists of a slide
and a swivel vise mounted on the compound rest in
:n. What is a relieving attachment? place of the tool post. The base of the swivel vise has
A relieving, or backing-off, attachment is used for degree graduations and so can be set at any desired
External, internal, and end relieving of milling cutters angle. The vertical hand feed screw dial is graduated
and taps. The oscillating movement of the tool slide for thousandths of an inch. This attachment can be
is obtained by a earn, which is operated by a drive used for face milling, squaring work, and cutting
sh,1ft with universal joints connected to the head- slots and keyways.
sto:k (Fig. 8-47). To mount the relieving attachment
to the lathe requires little of the lathe operator's time, 35. What attachments and accessories are used to
ano it may readily be disconnected when the work is hold work to be turned between centers?
cone. The equipment required to hold work between cen- 185
 LATHE DOG

DEAD
CENTER

DIRECTION OF FEEDt

LIVE CENTER

DRIVE PLATE

Fig. 8-49. Correct setup for facing and turning

between centers.

Fig. 8-47. Relieving attachment is operated by a Fig. 8-50. Typical lathe center. (Hardinge Brothers,
drive shaft connected to a change-gear mechanism Inc.)
attached to the end of the headstock. (Monarch
Machine Tool Co.)

Fig. 8-48. Milling attachment for the lathe fastened

to T slot of compound rest. (Cincinnati lathe &
Tool Co.)

fits into the 60° center holes drilled into the work-
piece to provide bearing surfaces, which support the
revolving workpiece. Other types of lathe center's
are shown in Fig. 8-51.

37. What is the difference between a dead center

and a live center?
The dead center is used in the tailstock spindle and
does not revolve. The live center fits into the head-
stock spindle and revolves with the work. The dead
center should always be a hardened center. The
points are often made from high-speed steel or tung-
sten carbide to withstand wear and provide strength.
Live headstock centers may be made from soft steel
alloy. This permits truing the center point by taking
a cut with the lathe tool bit, using the compound
slide set at 30° (Fig. 8-52). Hardened centers must
ters consists of (a) a live center, (b) a dead center, be ground.
(c) a drive plate, and (d) a bent-tail lathe dog
(Fig. 8-49). 38. What is a spindle sleeve?
For lathes with a very large taper hole in the spindle,
36. What are lathe centers? a taper sleeve serves as an adapter to receive the
Lathe centers (Fig. 8-50) are hardened steel devices smaller taper of the center. The outside taper of the
with a taper shank on one end and a 60° point at the sleeve fits the taper bore of the spindle, and the inter-
other end. The taper shanks fit the taper spindle nal taper is made to fit the taper ~hank of the ccnlt ·
l 86 holes in the headstock and tailstock. The 60° point (Fii,. 8-53).
 A

Fig. 8-52. Setup for truiog the point on nonhard-

ened headstock center.

Fig. 8-53. Headstock center sleeve.

C TAPER FITS SPINDLE HOLE

D
------------
Fig. 8-51. Types of tailstock centers. (A) Large-
point dead center. (8) Half center. (C) Female cen-
ter. (D) Swivel V center. (Hardinge Brothers, Inc.)

39. What is the correct procedure for using and loosely, it could cause the cutting tool to chatter or
adjusting the dead center to support a workpiece? dig in, producing a very rough finish on the work.
Clean the taper hole and taper shank of the dead A mixture of oil and white lead makes a good lubri-
center. Run the tailstock spindle out a short distance cant. A small amount placed into the center hole
and then set the dead center firmly into the taper or on the center point is sufficient. Overheating
hole. Locate and clamp the tailstock in position. The results in a squeaking sound followed soon by
dead center must be lubricated and carefully smoke. When this happens, stop the lathe quickly,
seated in the workpiece center hole so that the back the center out a bit, relubricate, and readjust
workpiece will turn freely without too much play. the center to the work.
lf it is seated in the center hole too tightly, friction
between the work and center point will cause both 40. What is a live tailstock center?
parts to become hot and to expand soon after the A live tailstock center has a ball-bearing mechanism
lathe is started. Unless corrected quickly, the center that permits the 60° point to revolve with the work-
point will get extremely hot and break off, ruining piece (Fig 8-54). This eliminates friction, permits
the center point, damaging the work, and possibly work to be turned at high speeds, and ·does not
iniuring the operator. If the center is adjusted too require oiling and constant adjustment as does the 187
 43. How may centers be placed in approximately
correct alignment?
Centers may be placed in approximately correct
alignment by (a) moving the dead center close to the
live center to see if the center points meet (Fig. 8-57),
and (b) looking at the graduated lines on the bottom
and top of the tailstock casting to see if the zero
Fig. 8-54. Antifriction ball-bearing tailstock center, points align (Fig. 8-58). For accurate work, these
which turns with the work. (Hardinge Brothers, methods should not be depended upon.
Inc.)
44. How may centers be precisely aligned?
standard dead center. One lathe manufacturer Centers may be precisely a!igned by (a) taking
equips the tailstock with a built-in live center a light cut for a certain distance and measuring
mechanism (Fig. 8-55). each end of the machined section of the workpiece
with a micrometer, (b) using a test bar and indi-
41. What is mean: by alignment of centers? cator to take a reading at both ends of the test
Alignrnent of centers means that . both the dead bar, (c) moving the tailstock to correct any error,
(tailstock) center and the live (headstock) center and (d) rechecking.
have one common center line. When centers are in
exact alignment, the workpiece being turned will
have the same diameter throughout its entire length.
This is called straight turning (Fig. 8-56).

42. When centers are out of alignment, what kind

of workpiece is produced?
A tapered workpiece results. The diameter at each
end will be a different size.

,Fig. 8-57. An approximate method of checking

center alignment.

Fig. 8-55. lailstock spindle with built-in revolving

center. (The lodge & Shipley Co.)

Fig. 8-58. lines on tailstock may be used to align

Fig. 8-56. · Straight turning produces a workpiece centers approximately correct. (South Bend lathe,
188 that is uniform in diameter. Inc.)
 45. Explain how centers may be aligned precisely
-------
by using a test bar and indicator.
To align centers precisely, place the test bar between
centers. Mount a dial indicator by clamping to the
toolholder or tool post. Set the contact point of the
indicator against the test bar at center height. Obtain
a reading at one end of the test bar. Feed the carriage
by hand feed along the test bar and note the indicator Fig. 8-59. Aligning centers with a test bar and indi-
reading. The reading should be the same at each end cator is an accurate method.
for accurately aligned centers. If the indicator read-
ing is not the same, adjust the tailstock and recheck
Fig. 8-60. Shaft correctly mounted between cen-
(Fig. 8-59).
ters.
46. Why must the live center run true to produce
a true cylindrical workpiece when turned between
centers?
Unless the live center runs perfectly true, it will
be impossible to turn a cylinder that is concentric
throughout its entire length. When the work is re-
versed between centers, the two cuts will not meet
exactly, resulting in an eccen.tric rather than a con-
centric workpiece.

47. How is the work mounted on centers?

When mounting work between centers, be careful
to see that the centers are in good condition. Figure
8-60 shows a shaft correctly mounted between cen-
ters A and B. The lathe dog is fastened to the work,
and the tail should clear the bottom of the slot (as
shown at C). The work is held firmly but not too
tightly on the live and dead centers. Fig. 8-61. Incorrect setup. Lathe dog tail is bearing
An incorrect mounting of work on centers is shown on bottom of drive-plate slot, throwing work off
in Fig. 8-61. In this case, the lathe dog is of such a center.
size that the tail will not clear the bottom of the
drive-plate slot (as shown at C). This situation causes
the work to be pulled away from the center, as indi- screw, or two clamping screws, holds the dog
cated at point A, and so to revolve eccentrically. This securely to the workpiece. The bent tail fits loosely
condition may be overcome by using a larger dog or into one of the drive-plate slots to drive the work-
by placing the tail of the dog in a deeper drive-plate piece.
slot.
50. What types of dogs are used for lathe work?
48. What extra care should be taken in inserting a Bent-tail lathe dogs (Fig. 8-62), the most commonly
piece of work between the centers? used, are made in several styles and many sizes. The
If the dead center is carelessly forced against the end clamp-type dog (Fig. 8-63) is used for driving square
of the work close to the edge of the center hole, the or rectangular workpieces. Dogs with safety set
hole may be burred or nicked. Should this happen, screws (Fig. 8-64) are preferred.
the work will not run true.
51. How should you protect a finished surface
49. What are lathe dogs? from being marred by the set screw of the lathe dog?
Lathe dogs are devices attached to the workpieces to Place a small piece ofcopper or soft metal between
be turned between centers (see Fig. 8-49). A set the screw and the work (Fig. 8-65). 189
 Fig. 8-62. Bent-tail lathe
dog. (Armstrong Bros. Tool
Co.)

SOFT METAL SHIM

Fig. 8-65. A soft metal strip between dog screw

and workpiece prevents damage to work.

52. What is a lathe mandrel?

A lathe mandrel (Fig. 8-66) is a hardened and tem-
Fig. 8-63. Clamp-type dog. pered steel work-holding device. It is used for the
(Armstrong Bros. Tool Co.) further machining of a workpiece between centers
after it has been bored or reamed while held in a
chuck. The mandrel is ground to a taper of 0.006
inch per foot. It is pressed or driven into a finished
hole tight enough so the work will not slip while it
is being machined (Fig 8-67). The mandrel size is
stamped on the large end.

Fig. 8-66. Plain mandrel. (Whitman & Barnes.)

Fig. 8-64. Bent-tail dog

with safety set screw.
(South Bend lathe, Inc.)

Fig. 8-67. Facing and turning a pulley held on a

190 mandrel between centers.
 53. What is an expanding mandrel?
An expanding mandrel (Fig. 8-68) consists of a solid
tapered piece and a slotted tapered sleeve, which
expands in diameter when forced onto the solid
tapered mandrel. Usually made in sets, each mandrel Fig. 8-70. Milling machine arbor. (Brown & Sharpe
can be used for a variety of hole sizes. The amount of Mfg. Co.)
expansion is from about 1h6 in. for the smaller size
mandrels up to Yi in. for the larger size mandrels.
Fig. 8-71. Arbor press.
54. What is a nut mandrel?
A nut mandrel (Fig. 8-69) is a straight mandrel
threaded at one end so that a number of workpieces
may be mounted 1and securely held for turning
between centers.

Fig. 8-68. Expanding mandrel. (Brown & Sharpe

Mfg. Co.)

Fig. 8-69. A nut mandrel holds several workpieces

for machining in one operation. (South Bend Lathe,
Inc.)

55. What is the difference between a mandrel and

. an arbor? LATHE OPERATIONS AND PROCESSES
A mandrel is a work-holding device. An arbor (Fig.
8-70) is designed to hold and drive cutting tools such Usually several steps are required to produci'! a
as milling cutters. The terms are often improperly finished workpiece. These specific steps are referred
used. to as operations. Examples of operations might be
facing, center drilling, or rough turning.
56. What care should be used before pressing The broader aspects of lathe work may be referred
mandrels into a finished hole? to as processes. Examples of lathe processes might
Lubricate both the mandrel and the hole to prevent be straight turning, taper turning, boring, and thread
the mandrel from freezing in the hole. Without the cutting.
use of a lubricant both the hole and the mandrel may Often there are several processes by which an
be damaged. Use an arbor press to.drive and remove operation may be performed. For example, straight
mandrels from workpieces (Fig. 8-71 ). turning may be done between centers, either in a 191
 chuck or in a collet. Or threads may be cut with a
threading die or by a cutting tool.

57. What is the operation oi facing?

Facing is the operation of machining the end of a
workpiece to make the end square with the axis, or
center line. Work may be faced while being held
between centers, in a chuck, on a face plate, in a
collet, or while being supported by a steady rest.

58. What is a good procedure for facing?

A. Measure the length to determine how much
stock is to be removed.
B. Machine off just enough stock from the first
end to clean up that end (Fig. 8-72).
C. Feed the facing tool from the center out,
Fig. 8-73. Step facing rapidly removes excess metal.
rather than from the outside toward the
center.
D. Machine the remaining stock from the
opposite end to face it to the length tersinking each end of the stock to be turned between
required. centers (Fig. 8-74). Center drilling provides bearing
surfaces for the lathe centers.

61. What is a combined drill and countersink?

A combined drill and countersink is generally used
to drill center holes. The included angle of this drill
is 60°. This angle is the same as that of the dead and
live centers. The drill part of this tool provides clear-
ance for the center point and also acts as a small oil
well for the lubricant. Figure 8-75 shows the plain
type and the bell type of combined drill and counter-
sink.

Fig. 8-74. A method of drilling center holes in a

long workpiece. (R. K. leBlond Machine Tool Co.)

fig. 8-72. Facing the end of a workpiece held in a

chuck.

59. What is step facing?

When a large amount of material is to be removed
by facing, it can be rough machined faster by making
a series of deep cuts longitudinally rather than from
the center out (Fig. 8-73). This process is called step
facing.

60. What is center drilling?

192 Center drilling is the operation of drilling and coun-
 62. How are the sizes of combined drills and coun- drilled. Because these drills ire hard and break easily
tersinks specified? the tailstock must be aligned so the drill point meets
The body diameter and the drill-point diameter are the exact center of the work. Fast speed and oil on
specified by numbers, as shown in Fig. 8-76. the drill point are required. Small-:diameter center
drills must be started and fed into the work with
63. How large should center holes be drilled? utmost care to prevent breakage.
There is no set rule for the size of c;enter holes. Good
judgment is necessary; and the size depends on the
size 9f the workpiece. The hole should be only large
enough to provide an adequate bearing surface.
Figure 8-77 shows conditions that may result unless
A
good judgment is used when center drilling holes.

64. How are small workpieces usually center

drilled?
Small workpieces may be center drilled by holding
the work in a three-jaw universal chuck or a spring B
collet. A drill chuck mounted in the tailstock spindle Fig. 8-75. Combined drill and countersink. (A)
holds the combined drill and countersink (Fig. 8-78). Plain type. (B) Bell type. (Morse Twist Drill & Ma,
The work is usually faced before center holes are chine Co.)

L ~
£--
r
L

!~
j__ _
-~4
A
A
t
B
D

COMBINED DRILL AND CONTERSINK, PLAIN TYPE COMBINED DRILL AND COUNTERSINK, BELL TYPE

STANDARD SIZES AND DIMENSIONS

STANDARD SIZES AND DIMENSIONS
HIGH SPEED STEEL

DIMENSIONS- INCHE~ DIMENSIONS- INCHES

SIZE BODY DRILL DRILL OVERALL SIZE BODY DRILL DRILL OVERALL BELL
DESIGNATION DIAM. DIAM. LENGTH LENGTH DESIGNATION DIAM. DIAM. LENGTH LENGTH DIAM.
A D C L A D C L E
00 Ys 0.025 0.040 1V32 11 Vs 3/64 %4 rn 0.100
0 Ys 132 3/64 1'll2 12 3/i6 Vi6 Vi6 1Ya 0.150
1 Ys 3/s4 3/s4 rn 13 14 %2 %2 2 0.200
2 o/i.6 %4 %4 1Ys 14 5/i6 'll;4 'll;4 2\/s 0.250
3 14 ~4 'll;4 2 15 116 %2 %2 2% 0.350
4 o/is Ya Ya 2Ys 16 Yz 3/i6 o/i.s 3 0.400
5 Vis 3/is 3/i6 2% 17 % 'll2 'll2 3Y4 0.500
6 Yz 'll2 'll2 3 18 % Y4 Y4 3Yz 0.600
7 % Y4 Y4 3Y4
8 % o/is o/is 3Yz

Fig. 8-76. Standard sizes for combined drills and co1mtersinks. (Morse Twist Drill & Machine Co.) 193
 A
RIGHT
GOOD BEARING
SURFACE AND
PILOT HOLE

B C
WRONG WRONG
NO COUNTERSUNK HOLE TOO DEEP
HOLE
A
Fig. 8-77. Right and wrong center holes.

Fig. 8-78. A good setup for center drilling small

work.

THREE-JAW
UNIVERSAL
CHUCK

WORKPIECE

65. How are centers located when laying out is

necessary?
Some fypes and sizes of workpieces require that the
centers be laid out and center punched before center
drilling. Color the work with layout dye or use ordi-
nary chalk. Centers can be located by using a her-
maphrodite caliper, a surface gage and V block, or
a center head from a combination square (Fig. 8-79).
A hermaphrodite caliper should be set to a distance
slightly more than half the diameter and four lines Fig. 8-79. Three methods of locating centers. (A)
should be scribed by moving the caliper leg approxi- Hermaphrodite calip~r. (8) Surface gage. (C) Center
194 mately 90° for each line. The center of the four lines head.· ·
is then center punched. Round work and workpieces stock center should run true. Take a light cut for a
of irregular shape but having a round part may be suitable length and measure each end as well as a
held in a V block on a surface plate, and lines may few points in between, to make certain the diameter
be scribed with a surface gage. Rotate the workpiece is of the same size throughout.
about 90° for each line scribed. A center head and
rule from a combinction square set may be used to 70. If, after taking a cut over the workpiece, you
scribe lines across the face of a round shaft. find the end nearest the tailstock to be larger than the
end nearest the headstock what should you do?
66. How are center holes drilled after layout? Adjust the tailstock toward you and take another
After laying out and center punching the location, light cut, then measure again.
center holes may be drilled as shown in Fig. 8-80.
Mount a drill chuck in the headstock spindle or hold 71. In which direction should you adjust the tail-
the combined drill and countersink in the three-jaw stock when the workpiece is smaller in diameter a.t
chuck. Locate and hold the center-punch mark the tailstock end?
against the tailstock center point. Feed in the tail- Adjust the tailsiock away from you.
stock spindle until the workpiece lightly touches the
center drill. Use a sufficiently fast speed and feed 72. What is meant by rough turning?
the workpiece carefully against the turning drill until Rough turning is the operation of removing excess
the center hole is drilled to the desired size. Reverse stock rapidly· and efficiently, leaving enough stock
the workpiece and drill the opposite end. for finishing to the specified size.

HOLD AGAINST TAILSTOCK 73. What are the general rules for rough turning?
CENTER Rough turning requires as deep a cut as possible,·
lli!ilo a coarse feed, and a speed that is consistent with
good safety practices. The finish produced by rough
WORK turning need not_be smqQ!h.

74. What is meant by finish tur_nin[t~

Finish turning is the operation of machining a work-
CENTER POINT IN piece to the required dimensions within the tolerance
PUNCH MARK specified. The surface finish may be specified or may
Fig. 8-80. A method of drilling center holes after result from the machinist's judgment.
layout and center punching.
75. What are the general rules for finish turning?
Finish turning generally requires a light cut and a
67. What is straight turning? faster speed and finer feed than used for rough turn-
Straight turning is the process of producing a ing. The cutting tool should be sharp and of a suitable
cylindrical piece of work on which the diameter is form or shape to produce a smooth finish.
uniform in size throughout its entire length. When
the diameter at one end of a cylinder differs from the 76. What is meant by shoulder turning?
diameter at the other end, it is said to be tapered. Shoulders are turned when two or more diameters
are cut on a workpiece. The shoulder is formed at the
68. What methods may be used for holding the point where the size changes from one diameter to
work when straight turning? another.
Straight turning may be done while the work is held
between centers, in chucks, in collets, or when using 77. What are the different kinds of shoulders?
the steady or follower rests. Shoulders produced on turned work may be square,
filleted, or undercut.
69. To turn a piece of work straight between cen-
ters, what precautions must be carefully observed? 78. What is a square sh.oulder?
The centers must be aligned accurately. The head- A square shoulder has a sharp square corner. 195
 A facing or side tool ground to a sharp point is 83. What is the operation of chamfering?
used to machine a square shoulder (Fig. 8-81 ). Chamfering is the operation of producing a beveled
edge at a specified angle on the end of a turned
79. What is a filleted shoulder? diameter. This is done to break off or remove the
A filleted shoulder has a rounded corner turned to a sharp edge and finish the workpiece. Chamfering is
specified radius (Fig. 8-82). also done to aid in starting a round piece, such as a
dowel pin, straight in a hole.
80. What is meant by undercutting?
Undercutting, often called necking or grooving, is 84. How is chamfering done in the lathe?
the cutting of a groove next to a shoulder on a piece Chamfering may be done by setting the compound
of work, as in Fig. 8-83. This is done when the slide at the required angle and feeding the tool bit
smaller diameter has to be ground, inasmuch as. by hand to produce a specified chamfer. When the
the corner of a grinding wheel cannot produce a chamfer angle and the length are not specified, the
sharp corner. tool bit may be set at dn angle (Fig. 8-84) and fed
against the revolving workpiece, or a file may be
used. A corner may also be rounded (Fig. 8-85).

Fig. 8,-81. Squaring the

corner of a shoulder.

Fig. 8-84. Chamfering with

the tool bit set at an angle.

!R
8
Fig. 8-82. Turning a shoul-
der radius, or fillet.

Fig. 8-83. Undercutting, or

necking, a shoulder. Fig. 8-85. Method of rounding a corner witfi a
form-ground tool bit.
81. When a drawing calls for grinding on a diam-
eter and against a shoulder, what kind of an undercut
should be made? 85. What is knurling?
The undercut should be made with a narrow, round- Knurling is a process of rolling depressions or inden-
nose tool fed in at an angle of 45°. tations of various shapes into metal by the use of
revolving hardened-steel wheels pressed against the
82. Why is it necessary to use a roundnose tool to work (Fig. 8-86). The design on the knurl will be
undercut corners on a workpiece that is to be hard- reproduced on the work. A knurling tool (Fig. 8-87)
ened and ground? held in the tool post is used for this operation. Knurl-
The use of a square-nose tool will leave a sharp ing is done to provide a grip on handles, screw
corner that will tend to cause the steel to crack or heads, and other cylindrical parts to be gripped by
196 break when it is hardened. hand. Figure 8-88 shows an adjustabl~ knurling tool. .
 86. Ho1v are knurls classified?
Knurls are classified according to pattern-for exam-
ple, diamond pattern or straight pattern -and
according to pitch. Commonly used knurls are
gerierally classed as coarse, medium, or fine (Figs.
8-8'9 and 8-90).

87. How should knurling be done on the lathe?

Position the knurling tool in the tool post so that it is
at right angles to the work. The center of the knurling
rolls shoufd be set at the height of the work center to
permit the knurling rolls to center themselves on

Fig. 8-86. Knurling a workpiece. (South Bend

Lathe, Inc.)

Fig. 8-87. Knurling tool. (J. H. Williams & Co.) Fig. 8-89. Coarse, medium, and fine diamond-
pattern knurling. (J. H. Williams & Co.)

Fig. 8-90. Coarse, medium, and fine straight-

pattern knurling. (J. H. Williams & Co.)

the work and equalize the .pressure on each of the

rolls. The spePrl depends on the kiild of material
being knurled. Soft metals such as aluminum can
be knurled at faster speeds than the hard alloy steels.
The surface to be knurled should be machine fin-
ished. Force the knurling wheels slowly into the
revolving work until a good impression is obtained;
then feed the tool across the length !o be knurled.
After each pass, feed the tool in until a clean, clearly
shaped knurl is obtained. Use a cutting lubricant
while knurling.

Fig. 8-88. Knurling with an adjustable knurling 88. What is the operation of recessing?
tool. (Joseph Fakes & Co.) External recessing (Fig. 8-91) is the operation of 197
 Fig. 8-91. Turning a -recess with square corners.
machining a smaller diameter on a workpiece, for a
specified length. Internal recessing (Fig. 8-92) is
the machining of a larger diameter, for a specified
length, inside a hole. Recesses may have square or
rounded corners (Fig. 8-93).

89. What is the operation of parting?

Parting, or cutting-off (Fig. 8-94), is the operation of
separating a piece of finished work from the bar
stock from which the piece was machined. A parting
tool with a long narrow blade is used (Fig. 8-95). Fig. 8-94. Parting, or cutting-off, operation. (R. K;
For small-diameter work, parting tools may be leBlond Machine Tool Co.)
ground from a standard tool hit (Fig. 8-96). Parting
tools are ground to cut on the end only (Fig. 8-97)
as they are fed into the workpiece ..
Fig. 8-95. A cutoff tool. (Armstrong Bros. Tool Co.)

__..,--------r-----
' I .
-4--.+--+-

-~j
I
I
,
I
I
I
_________ _,I
~-----
[F=J
INTERNAL
RECESS
"-._CUTTING
TOOL

Fig. 8-92. Internal recess and shape of boring tool.

TOOL WIDTH SHOULD
NOT EXCEED 1/8 INCHj I
~
.t
~
SLIGHTLYLESSJ\·
THAN WIDTH OF ,.~
CUTTING EDGE ··:•'

STRAIGHT TOOL BIT GROUND AT AN

ANGLE TO PERMIT CLEARING
SHOULDER

Fig. 8-96. Tool bits can be ground for cutting off

l98 Fig. 8-93. Turning a recess with round corners. small-diameter workpieces after machining.
 SLIGHT RAKE ANGLE

g~SIOE A
RELIEF
B
Fig. 8-97. (A) Side-relief angle on parting tool
blade prevents binding. (B) Slight back-rake aids
the cutting action. (Sheldon Machine Co., Inc.)
Fig. 8-99. Drill holder for taper-shank
dri_lls. (Armstrong Bros. Tool Co.) ·
90. What is the procedure for drilling and reaming
on a lathe?
Holes are' drilled on a lathe in a manner opposite lo
the way ho.les are drilled on a drill press. On a lathe
the work revolves and the drill is held stationary.
Small ·sizes of drills are held in a drill chuck of the
same design as those used on a drill press. The chuck
is held in· the tailstock spindle as in Fig. 8-98.
Larger drills are held in a drill holder (Fig. 8-99),
which is supported by the toolholder on the left side
of the handle, and by the dead center of the tail-
stock on the right side.

caution: Care must be taken to pr~vent the holder

from slipping off the dead center.

When a drill holder is not available, a dog may be Fig. 8-100. Using a lathe dog as a drill holder.
used, as in fig. 8-100. Holes may be reamed by (Sheldon Machine Co., Inc.)
holding a straight-shank reamer in the drill chuck

Fig. 8-98. Setup f!)r drilling a hole.

Fig. 8-101. Smalt, straight-shank reamers may be

held in a drill chuck. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.)

(Fig. 8-101) or by inserting a taper-shank reamer in

the tailstock spindle (Fig. 8-102) and feeding it
slowly into the drilled hole. A. cutting lubricant
should be used when drilling and reaming all metals
except cast iron. 199
 Fig. 8-103. Boring with a rigidly held boring bar.
(R. K. LeBlond Machine Tool Co.)

parts by filing and polishing. When filing and pol-

ishing is required, the diameter should be left over-
size 0.002 or 0.003 in. A smooth mill file or a long-
fig. 8-102. A taper-shank reamer held in the tail- angle lathe file is then used to remove the tool
stock spindle. (Sheldon Machine Co., Inc.) marks. The file should be held at a slight angle, not
at right angles, to the workpiece (Fig. 8-104) and
gently stroked across and along the workpiece, using
91. What is the operation of boring? little pressure at the start. Too heavy a pressure on
Boring is the operation of enlarging a hole previously the file clogs the teeth and produces a scored finish.
made by drilling, casting, or some other means. Keep the file clean by using a file card and brush as
Usually a single-point tool is used to remove the often as necessary. The lathe speed should be fast
stock as it is fed against the revolving work. Holes enough so the work makes several revolutions to one
are bored to make them accurate in size and con- stroke of the file. Too much filing can ruin the accu-
centric with the outside surface. Tapered holes may racy of a workpiece by making it out-of-round. Final
be bored by adjusting the compound slide or the polishing can be done by using a strip of fine abra-
taper attachment in the same manner as for taper sive cloth under the file. Use a few drops of oil on the
turning. An example of boring is shown in Fig. abrasive cloth and run the lathe at a fast speed ..
8-103.

92. What are some good general rules for boring?

The operation of boring holes of various diameters
and lengths presents special problems requiring good
judgment and skill. A good general rule is to use the
largest diameter boring bar that will fit into the hole
and hold it as short and rigid as possible. Light cuts,
together with the right amount of feed, will help
.·reduce chatter and give a better finish. The shape
of the cutting tool and the amount of radius at the
cutting edge are important factors.

93. How is filing and polishing done on the lathe?

200 A smooth bright finish can be obtained on metal Fig. 8-104. Filing a workpiece oJl;the lathe.
 94. Explain the tailstock offset method of taper
turning.
When a workpiece is placed between the centers of
a lathe with the tailstock top out of true alignment,
a tapered piece is produced (Fig. 8-105). The
amount the tailstock is offset to produce a given
taper depends on the overall length of the workpiece
and the taper per foot or taper per inch. For a given
offset, workpieces of different lengths will be turned
with different tapers.

AMOUNT OF
SET OVER...._

-;;!
HEADSTOCK
TAIL STOCK CENTER
CENTER Fig. 8-106. Position of tool post and spindle when
preparing to make an offset for taper turning.

Fig. 8-107. Using a paper feeler to tell when con-

tact has been made.

Fig. 8-105. How a taper is formed when the tail-

stock is offset.

95. What is a good method of making the offset?

Assuming the centers are in alignment, the offset
may be made as follows:
A. Either clamp the toolholder sideways on
the tool post or reverse it so that the body
of the tool post can be moved in to touch
the extended tailstock spindle (Fig. 8-106),
or reverse the toolholder and use the end of
the toolholder instead of the tool post.
B. Using the cross-feed screw, feed the tool same paper feeler or feeler gage to establish
post in until it is almost touching the tail- contact (Fig. 8-108).
stock spindle. H. Tighten the tailstock clamp nuts.
C. Turn the cross-feed back just far enough to
remove all the backlash. 96. Explain how to use the taper attachment.
D. Set the cross-feed graduated dial at zero. Each end of the swivel guide bar is graduated. One
E. Feed in the compound slide until the tool end has graduations in degrees and the opposite end
post touches a paper feeler or feeler gage has graduations in inches per foot, with each gradua-
1
held between the tool post or toolholder tion representing 1/16-in. taper per foot. (See Fig.
and tailstock spindle (Fig. 8-107). 8-42.) When the attachment is set for a given taper
F. Turn the cross-feed out at the required and clamped to both the bed and cross-feed slide,
number of thousandths of an inch previ- the cutting tool will follow the angle, or taper, at
ously calculated. The 'space betWe~h tool which the swivel guide bar is set, thus producing a
post and tailstock spindle should now equal taper.
the amount calculated for the offset. A. Loosen the swivel guide bar clamping bolts
G. Loosen the tail stock clamp nuts and move and set the swivel guide bar to the taper
the tailstock toward the tool post using the desired. 201
 The size of the large and small diameters of the
tapered shank may· be measured with calipers or
micrometer, but it is difficult to be sure that the
instruments are exactly on the correct spot. A taper
ring gage (Fig. 8-109) is used when an accurate test
is required of both the diameter and amount of taper.

99. What is the procedure for machining a tapered

hole?
A hole equal in size to the small diameter of the taper
is first drilled or bored to the required depth. For
example, a hole for a No. 3 Morse taper would be
made 0.778 in. in diameter and 314 in. deep (see
Table 15 -of Appendix). The hole may then be bored
Fig. 8-108. Moving the tailstock off center and to the finished taper size; or finish reamed with a
checking for contact with a feeler gage. In this view taper reamer after roughing out the taper by boring.
the end of the toolholder is used instead of the Taper reamers are shown in Figs. 8-110 and 8-111.
tool post (South Bend Lathe, Inc.) A taper plug gage should be used to check the size
(Fig. 8-112).
B. Center the attachment with the workpiece
so the slide block will operate near the
center of the swivel guide bar rather than
near the end.
C. Tighten the bed clamp screw.
D. Tighten the cross-feed clamp lever.

There are two types of taper attachments, a plain

type and a telescopic screw type. On the plain type,
Fig. 8-109. Taper-ring gage. (Morse Twist Drill &
it is necessary to remove the cross-feed bolt to free
Machine Co.)
the cross-feed screw so the cross slide can move in
and out to follow the swivel bar angle. If the lathe is
equipped with a telescopic cross-feed screw, the
cross-feed screw need not be disconnected when the
taper attachment is used.
-Fl
Fig. 8-110. A taper-roughing reamer. (Morse Twist
97. How should the compound slide be set to turn Drill & Machine Co.)
an external angle having a 60° included angle?
Adjust and set the compound to a 30° angle from the
Fig. 8-111. A taper-finishing reamer. (Morse Twist
center line of the lathe (see Fig. 8-52). The com-
Drill & Machine Co.. )
pound slide must be set to one-half of the specified
included angle and always be parallel to the surface
to be machined. -Fl
98. What is the procedure for machining a tapered
shank?
The shank is first machined on .3 Jathe to the required 100. What is the operation of threading?
length and to the size of the diameter of the large end External threading is the cutting of threads on the
of the taper. The lathe is then adjusted to cut a taper outside of a bar of materiaL Internal threading is the
according to the specified taper per foot in the case cutting of threads on the inside of a hole. Special
of a standard taper, or according to the number of devices such as the quick-change gear mechanism,
202 degrees of taper for special tapers. the lead screw, and thread dial are built into lathes
Fig. 8-112. A taper-plug gage is used to check the
diameter and the amount of taper.

designed to do this type of work. An example of

threading on a lathe is shown in Fig. 8-113.

101. Explain how tapping may be done on a lathe.

First center drill, then drill the hole to be tapped
with the correct-size tap drill. Small holes may be fig! 8-113. Cutting a screw thread on the lathe.
tapped by holding the tap in a T-tap wrench (Fig. (It K. leBlond Machine Tool Co.)
8-1,14). Support the end of the T-fap wrench with
the tailstock center. As the tap wrench is turned
with your left hand, feed the tailstock hand-wheel Fig. 8-114. Setup for tapping using a T-tap wrench
with your righ( hand. It is not always necessary to sua,poried by the tailstock center.
clamp the tailstock in position. Leaving it l09se
prevents applying too much forward pressure on the
tap. To remove the tap, leave the tailstock loose and
merely back out the tap. For large taps, support the
tap with the tailstock center and turn the tap into the
hole, Using a suitable wrench on the square of the
tap. Feed the hand-wheel forward to keep the tap
supported. Back the tap and hand-wheel after ev\ry
turn or two to break the chip. Always use a suitable
cutting lubricant. A hole also may be tapped by
turning the chuck (Fig. 8-115).

102. Explain how a threading die ca,:i be used to

thread a piece in t.he lathe.
Adjust the toolholder in the tool post so that it is
parallel to the center line of the lathe and set it to
the extreme right of the compound slide T slot. Back
out the cross-feed as far as possible. Let the handle
of the die-stock rest :-m the toolholder (Fig. 8-116).
Set the tailstock as clc.,.i to the workpiece as possible
and clamp it to the bed. Using a slow spindle speed,
feed the tailstock spindle against the die with your
right hand as you control the lathe spindle move-
ment with your left hand. In this manner, the die will
be started straight:

103. What information is necessary before cutting

a screw thread on a lathe? · fig. 8-11 S. Setup for tapping using an adjustable
Most blueprints specify the following information tap wrench. The chuck is rotated with the left hand
needed before a screw thread can be cut on a lathe: while the center is moved in with the right hand. 203
 05. What is the purpose of the adjustable stop?
he adjustable stop (Fig. 8-118) provides a means
f preventing the tool from being fed too far into the
vorkpiece when the tool is being reset for successive
:uts.

106. What is the purpose of the thread chasing

:Jial?
)n lathes not equipped with a chasing dial, it is
,ecessary to leave the split or half-nut engaged with
·he lead screw and reverse the lathe spindle or lead
screw·. for each successive cut. The thread-chasing
dial (Fig. 8-119) makes it possible to disengage the
half-nuts at the end of the cut thread and to run the
carriage back to the starting point by hand feed, thus
Fig. 8-116. Starting a thread square with a thread saving much time. When the worm gear at the lower
die and die-stock. end of the dial is meshed with the lead screw, any
movement of the lead screw is shown by a move-
ment of the dial. The graduated lines are used to
(a) major diameter; (b) number of threads per inch;
indicate when the half-nuts may be engaged to start
(c) form or shape of thread; (d) class of fit required.
the cutting tool so that it enters the same groove
For example, a blueprint may specify a %-10
previously cut. The graduation or graduations that
NC-3 thread. This means the major diameter is % in.
may be used depends upon the number of threads
with 1O threads per inch in the National Coarse
and relationship of this number to the number of
series and the fit must be a No. 3 fit. From this infor-
threads in the lead screw.
mation a machinist may, if required, calculate such
additional information as single or double depth of
107. When cutting a thread on a lathe, what pre-
the thread, the pitch, the lead, and the micrometer
caution should be taken to check the setting ofthe
measurement if the three-wire system is used for
lead screw?
measuring the thread.
To insure proper setting of the lead screw, make a
very light first cut (Fig. 8-120). The number of
104. What is a center gage, and for what purpose is
threads per inch may then be measured by placing
it used? .
a rule on the work and counting the number of
A center gage (Fig. 8-117) is a small, flat, steel tool,
threads in 1 in., Yi in., and so forth (Fig. 8-121), or
which usually has three different-si.z:~d 60°jncluded
a scale on a tenter gage may be used if the threads
angles c_ut in it. It is used as a tool-grinding gage and
per inch are the same or a multiple of the graduations
a tool-s~ gage when cutting American Na!ional
used. A screw pitch gage may also be used to count
and Sharp-V thr~cl forf!ls. It contains graduations for
the- threads (Fig. 8-122).
finding or checking the nurobe.r of threads per :,inch
and a table of double depths of threads. It is also used
108. Describe the procedure for cutting right-hand
to check the 60° included angle when regrinding
external National form threads on a lathe:
lathe center points.
After the workpiece has been set up in the lathe, the
procedure for cutting right-hand external National
Fig. 8-117. Center gage. (L. S. Starrett Co.) form threads is as follows:
A. Machine the part to be threaded to the
major diameter of the thread.
B. Grind a tool bit to fit a center gage accu-
rately (Fig. 8-123). Tool bits may also be
ground as shown in, Fig. 8-124. ..
C. Set the compound slide 30° to the rignt
204 Some machinists prefer to set it at 29°.
 Fig. 8-121. The number of threads per inch may be
checked with a steel rule. (South Bend lathe, Inc.)

Fig. 8-118. A thread-cutting stop makes it easy to

quickly relocate the cutting tool after each pass.
(R. I<. leBlond Machine Tool Co.)

Fig. 8-119. Thread chasing dial. (South Bend

lathe, Inc.)
Fig. 8-122. Using a screw-pitch gage to check num-
ber of threads per inch. (South Bend lathe, Inc.)

60'

Fig. 8-123. Thread-cutting tool must be ground to

fit a center gage very accurately. (South Bend lathe,
Inc.)

Fig. 8-124. Other ways to grind thread-cutting

tool bits.

Fig. 8-120. Make the first cut lightly for checking

purp0ses. (South Bene! lathe, Inc.) 205
 D. Place the tool bit in the holder and adjust J. Mov~. the cutting tool off the work a short
the height by setting it to the point of the distance from the end so it is in the clear.
tailstock center (Fig. 8-125). Feed the, tool 0.002 to 0.004 in. deep, using
E. Set the tool bit square with the axis of the the compound slide. It is better practice to
work, using the center gage (Fig. 8-126). In feed the tool in on successive cuts with the
actual practice, the center gage should not compound slide. The tool cuts on one side
touch the workpiece. It should be held only and produces a smoother thread (Fig.
square against the tool bit with a small 6-127). The cross-feed screw is used to pull
space between the gage and the work, and the tool out and reset the tool against the
the toolholder should be tapped until the adjustable stop after each cut.
gage lines up parallel with the work surface. K. With the lathe revolving, engage the half-
F. Gear the lathe for the required number of nuts at the correct graduated line on the
threads per inch to be cut. Refer to the index chasing dial and make the first cut.
plate on the quick-change gear box. L. Withdraw the cutting tool and disengage
G. Mesh the worm gear of the chasing dial the half-nut from the lead screw. Return
with the lead screw and determine which the carriage to the starting position by hand
of the lines are to be used. feed.
H. Start the lathe and touch the cutting tool M. Check to see that the correct number of
to the revolving work. Set the graduated threads per inch are being cut, as noted in
dials on the cross-feed and compound slide Question 107.
to zero. (Be sure all backlash is removed.) N. Make successive cuts by feeding the tool in
I. Most lathes have an adjustable stop to pre- 0.002 or 0.003 in. per cut. Use cutting oil
vent feeding the tool too far into the work on the tool bit for a smoother thread.
on successive cuts. Set the stop at this point 0. When the thread is cut near!i), to the correct
(see Fig. 8-118). depth, use a thread ring ,tage or a nut to

Fi~. 8-125. Thread-cutting tool bit must be set at

the horizontal center of the workpiece to cut an
accurate thread. Use the point of the tailstock cen-
ter to set proper height. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.)

B
Fig. 8-127. (A) Thread tool fed straight in cuts on
Fig. 8-126. A center gage is used to set cutting tool both sides. (B) When fed at a 30° angle, tool cuts
206 square with the work. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.) o·a" one side, producing a smoother thread.
 check the fit, depending upon the degree of
accuracy required. Precision threads may
be measured by the three-wire method. A
finished screw thread should have the end
chamfered 45°.

109. Describe the procedure for cutting internal

National form threads on a lathe.
After the workpiece has been set up in the lathe the
operations are as follows: fig. 8-129. Using a center gage to set the tool bit
A. Bore the hole to be threaded to the minor
square for internal thread cutting. (South Bend
Lathe, Inc.)
diameter of the thread or the blueprint
dimension.
B. Select the boring bar to be used. This should
be as large in diameter as the hole will per- H. · Place a pencil mark on the ways of the
mit. Allow· space to move the tool out for lathe at the point where the tool or carriage
the return. is to be stopped. Because the cutting tool
C. Grind a tool bit for the boring bar using a cannot be seen this mark makes it possible
center gage for accuracy. to stop the carriage and withdraw the tool
D. Set the tool bit to center height. A surface at the same place for each of the successive
gage set to the height of the tailstock center cuts. Some machinists prefer to place a
point may be u~ed as a gage to set the height mark on the boring bar to indicate depth.
of the tool bit (Fig. 8-128). Adjust the I. Start the lathe and touch the cutting· tool to
compound slide 30° to the left. the revolving work. Set the graduated dials
E. Set the cutting tool square with the work- on the cross-feed and compound slide to
piece, using a center gage (Fig. 8-129). zero. (Be sure all backlash is removed.)
F. Gear the lathe for the required number of ). Set the adjustable stop to prevent the tool
threads per inch. from being fed outward too far. This will be
G. Mesh the worm gear of the thread chasing the opposite of the setting for external
dial with the lead screw. threading. Proceed to cut the thread as for
an -external thread. Use a thread plug gage
or a mating part to check the accuracy of
F;g. 8-128. A surface gage can be used to set thread . the finished thread.
tool to the center heighl for internal thread cutting.
110. How may the distance be calculated for the
depth of thread when using the compound slide set
at 30°?
When cutting a 60° National thread, the distance to
feed the compound slide to obtain the correct depth
of thread may be calculated by dividing 0.750 by
the number of threads, N:

Depth to feed tool = O.~O

111. When it is necessary to regrind the thread

cutting tool during the threading operation, how
may the tool be reset to follow the original groove?
-·-"'l<egiini:I aoo-set Jhe_.tool bit square and to center
height. With the tool bit clear of the workpiece, start
<Jie lathe and engage the half-nut lever to move the 207
 carriage. When the cutting tool is over the threaded has. a lead three times the pitch, -and'so forth. (See
portion, stop the lathe. Reset the tool bit into the chapter 11 .)
thread groove by adjusting the compound and cross-
feed slides until the tool bit fits perfectly into the 116. Describe three methods of cutting a double
groove. Reset the graduated dials to their previous thread.
readings. The following examples will show how to cut a
double thread with 1.4 in. lead and Ys in. pitch:
112. Are all threads cut right-hand? Swivel the center line of the compound rest to a line
No. Threads are cut right-hand unless otherwise parallel with the dead and live centers. By dividing
specified. When a left-hand thread is required, it is 1 in. by the lead, which is 1.4 in., four single threads
indicated in the specification. For example, %-10 per inch will be obtained. Set the lathe to,cut four
NC-LH thread. threads per inch. Feed the tool into the work the
required depth by using tbe cross-slide feed. By
113. How are left-hand threads cut on a lathe? using the feed screw on the compo1:md rest, on
When a right-hand thread is cut, the cutting tool which a graduated collar is attached, move the tool
travels from right to left. To cut a left-hand thread, over the length of the pitch and proceed .to cut as
the lead screw is reversed so that the cutting tool before.
travels from left to right. The lathe is set up in the Another way to do this is to use a faceplate with
same manner as for cutting right-hand threads. Some two equally spaced slots in which to insert the tail
machinist~ prefer to set the compound slide 30° to of the lathe dog. Do not disturb the dog on the work.
the left when cutting left-hand threads. Cut the first thread to correct depth. Move the tail
of the dog to the opposite slot in the drive plate for
114. How should the cutting tool be set to cut a cutting,the second thread.
tapered thread? Still another way to do this job is to mark two
The cutting tool should be set square with the axis teeth equally spaced on the gear that is attached on-
of the workpiece (Fig. 8-130) and not with the to the end of the spindle. After cutting the first
tapered portion. groove, disengage the marked gear on the spindle,
and turn both spindle and gear one-half a revolution;
and then remesh the gears. The second groove may
then be cut.

SINGLE-POINT CUTTING TOOLS

Many kinds of cutting tools are used in machine

Fig. 8-130. When cutting threads on a taper, set shop work. They can be separated into two dis-
the cutting tool square with the axis of the work- tinctive categories: (1) Those with one cutting edge
piece. (South Bend Lathe,.lnc.) -the single-point cutting tool such as the lathe
tool bit; and (2) Those with many cutting edges-
the multiple-edge cutting tool such as the milling
cutter.
115. What are multiple threads? The cutting efficiency of the single-point tool
When two or more thread grooves are cut around is most often the responsibility of the individual
the circumference of a workpiece, they are called machinist. The success of a machining operation will
multiple screw threads. When two threads are cut, depend upon the efficiency of the cutting tool. Cut-
it is called a double thread; three threads are called ting tool efficiency is judged (1) by the tool's ability
triple threads, and four threads are called quadruple to remove material, (2) the quality of the finish of
threads. Multiple threads provide a greater lead the machined job, and (3) the amount of machining
while the pitch remains constant. A double thread achieved by the cutting tool before regrinding
208 has a lead equal to twice the pitch; a triple thread becomes necessary.
 Many factors contribute to cutting tool efficiency.
Among the most important of these are the following,
all of which are the machinist's responsibility.
1. The correctness of the several angles ground on fig. 8-131. A tool-bit blank. (Armstrong Bros. Tool
a single- point cutting tool. Co.)
2. The shape of the cutting edge that removes the
excess material.
3. The smoothness and the keenness of the edge fig. 8-132. A ground tool bit.
that separates the excess material from the job.
4. The correct selection of the type of cutting tool
for the material to be machined; the selection
may be made from (a) carbon tool steel, (b) high-
speed steel, (c) cast alloy, or (d) cemented
carbide.
The first three factors involve the grinding of the
cutting tool. Unless the cutting tool is ground to
the correct shape with the correct angles and unless
it is ground witr. a keen, smooth cutting edge, time SIDE
will be wasted, accuracy will be impossible, and a RAKE/...__
poor finish will result.
Other factors that affect cutting tool efficiency
include: edge. The nose is ground to a radius or a point,
1. The correct speed and feed. depending on the job requirements (Fig. 8-132).
2. The heat treatment given the cutting tool. After grinding, the surfaces are honed to give a
3. The correct choice and efficient use of coolants. smooth, keen edge.
4. The shape of the job.
5. The condition of the machine. 120. What are the angles to which the surfaces of a
tool bit are ground?
117. What is a single-point cutting tool?
The angles are shown in Fig. 8-133.
A single-point cutting tool is a tool with one face
and one continuous cutting edge that removes metal Angle A is the back rake angle.
from a workpiece being machined in a lathe, planer, Angle B is theside rake angle.
shaper, or other machine tool. Angle C is the end relief angle.
Angle D is the side relief angle.
118. Describe several types of single-point cutting Angle E is the side cutting-edge angle.
tools. Angle F is the end cutting-edge angle.
There are solid-type and tipped single-point cutting
tools. The solid type is made entirely of the cutting 121. How are the angles of a cutting tool measured?
material; the tipped type consists of a small tip of The unit of measurement is the degree. The measure-
cutting tool material attached to a steel shank by ments for the proper angles for a cutting tool may
brazing, welding, or clamping. A tool bit is a piece be estimated. It is more accurate to use a measuring
of cutting tool material, which can easily be clamped tool such as the steel protractor.
in a toolholder. Tool bits can be made entirely of a
cutting tool material or they can have tips only, made 122. How can the angles of a tool bit be measured
of cutting tool material brazed to a shank. A tool-bit with sufficient accuracy?
blank is the material from which a tool bit is made Many machinists visualize the angles to which they
by grinding to shape and size (Fig. 8-131 ). grind the surfaces of single-point cutting tools, often
by comparison with the hands of a clock. For exam-
119. How is a tool blank prepared for use? ple, the space between the center line of the hands
It is ground on three surfaces to form one cutting set for one o'clock equals 30°. It is much more reli- 209
 guide the direction of the chip flow. It also serves to
protect the point of the cutting tool (Fig. 8-135). The
size of the angle depends upon the material to be
machined; the softer the material, the greater should
be the rake angle. Aluminum requires more back
rake than cast iron or steel. The back rake can be
CUTTING EDGE
positive, neutral, or negative (Fig. 8-136). A negative
back rake is used for some soft metals to prevent the
tool from digging in.
SIDE VIEW
125. What is the side rake angle?
The side rake is the angle formed by grinding the top

SIDE END
RELIEF RELIEF

Fig. 8-133. Parts of a tool bit and angles formed

by grinding.

able to use an angle protractor. By placing the pro-

tractor base on the side of the tool bit and moving
the protractor arm to the surface being ground, a true BACK RAKE ANGLE
angular measurement can be made (Fig. 8-134). Fig. 8-135. The back-rake angle guides the chip
away from the workpiece.
123. What is the back rake angle?
The back rake angle is the angle formed by the top
surface of the tool bit and the ground top face of the
tool (see Fig. 8-133).

124. What is the purpose of the back rake angle?

The purpose of the back rake angle is mainly to
L--
~ --u POSITIVE

Fig. 8-134. Measuring the end-relief angle of a

cutting tool with a protractor.

~c'
~NEGATIVE

' \
\

' C
Fig. 8-136. Back-rake angles. (A) Positive. (B) Neu-
210 tral. (C) Negative.
surface of the tool so that it slopes away from the side 129. What is the purpose of the side relief angle?
cutting edge. The side relief angle permits the tool to be fed side-
ways into the job so that it can cut without rubbing.
126. What is the purpose of the side rake angle? If this angle is too small, the tool cannot be fed into
The side rake angle performs a similar function to the job. The tool will rub against the job, become
that of the back rake angle; it guides the direction overheated, and blunt. The finish ofthe job will be
of the chip away from the job. It is usually ground rough and furry .. If the side relief is too large, the
from_6° to 15°. Together with the side relief angle cutting edge will break off into small chips because
it forms the cutting edge so that a shearing action of insufficient support (Fig. 8-139).
occurs as the tool moves sideways against the mate-
rial. The amount that a chip is curved depends on
the angle of the side rake (Fig. 8-137). The side rake DIRECTION
OF FEED
angle determines whether a cutting tool is right-cut
or left-cut.
CENTER LINE
127. Define a right-cut and a left-cut tool bit.
A right-cut tool bit is ground to cut from right to left
--------\
--~---

NO
(Fig. 8- l 38A) or towa~d the headstock of the lathe. SIDE
RELIEF
A left-cut tool bit is ground to cut from left to right ANGLE
or tov:ard the tailstock of the lathe (Fig. 8-1388). A

128. What is the side relief angle?

fig. 8-139. (A) Without side-relief angle a tool
The side relief angle is that surface of the cutting tool
cannot cut. (B) With side-relief angle the tool cuts
and can be fed into the workpiece.
found below the cutting edge.

130. What_ is the end relief angle?

The end relief angle is formed by the front of the
cutting tool and an imaginary line drawn at a tangent
SIDE RAKE to the job at right angles to the center line of the
lathe (see Fig. 8-133).

131. What is the purpose of the end relief angle?

The end relief angle prevents the tool from rubbing
against the job. The size of the angle may vary·
SIDE RELIEF
between 8° and 15°. The diameter of the job is one
Fig. 8-137. The side-rake angle curls the chip. factor that determines .the size of the angle. If the
angle is too small, the tool will rub on the job,
prevent its cutting, and leave a poor finish. If the
angle is too large, the point or cutting edge of the
tool will be unsupported and break off. Excessive
end relief will also cause chatter marks on the fin-
ished surface of the job (Fig. 8-140).
CUTS IN THIS "'
DIRECTION 132. What is a chip breaker?
A chip breaker is a groove that is ground just behind
the cutting edge of the tool bit. The groove need not
be carried to the extreme edge of the tool. The width
A B of the land between the cutting edge and the groove
Fig. 8-138. ·(A) Right-cut tool bit. (B) left-cut tool will depend upon the rate of feed and the type of
bit. metal being cut (Fig. 8-141 ). 211
 134. How does a cutting-off, or parting, tool differ
from other cutting tools?
CORRECT A parting tool cuts in one direction only, straight
BACK RAKE
forward into the job. The back rake is kept to a min-
imum to prevent the tool from digging into the job.
End relief is kept at 10.0 • Parting tool blades are made
with a side relief on both sides (see Fig. 8-97).

135. What is a boring tool?

\'.:CORRECT END A boring tool is a lathe tool used to enlarge the size
RELIEF
of holes. The model shown in Fig. 8-142 is used for
A small lathes and light work. A heavy cut causes this
tool to spring away from the job. This results in the
back of the hole being smaller in size than the front-
a tapered hole. The rake angles and cutting edges of
the boring tool are sharpened as are other cutting
TOO MUCH BACK tools, and for the same reasons. The end relief angle
RAKE ANGLE
will depend upon the size of the hole to be bored
i (Fig. 8-143). The boring tools come in several sizes
and are held in a special toolholder.

WEAK WEDGE//
ANGLE___,/

B
Fig. 8-140. (A) Correct rake and relief angles are
necessary for strength and longer tool life. (8) Tools
having excessive rake and relief angles break down
and cause problems.

(I}IPBRE~
Fig. 8-141. Chip breaker keeps the chips small.

Fig. 8-142. Boring tool and holder. (Armstrong

Bros. Tool Co.)

133. What is the purpose of the chip breaker?

Chip breakers are ground into tool bits in order to
control the cootinuous ribbon-like chips formed at

~~
high cutting speeds. Continuous chips are dangerous
to the operator. These chips are sharp, hard, and hot.
They become entangled around the revolving work-
piece, the cutting tool, and moving parts of the
machine such as the lathe chuck. The chip breaker
acts as an obstruction to the smooth flow of the chip. SIDE RELIEF
It causes the chip to break up into short, manageable END RELIEF
212 chips. Fig. 8-143. Rake and relief angles for boring tools.
 Tool bits are also used for boring. They are held water will cause small cracks to appear along the
1 boring bars similar to the one shown in Fig. 8-144, cutting edge.
'his style of boring tool is used for heavier and larger
vork. It makes possible heavier cuts with faster feeds 138. How are rake and relief angles ground on a
.nd little possibility of springing away from the job. high-speed steel tool bit?
·he slots in the boring bar permit the tool bit to be High-speed steel tool bits are easily ground on an
nserted at 45°, 60°, or 90° to the centerline of the off-hand tool grinder. The tool-bit blank is held at an
)ar. angle and moved back and forth across the face of
the grinding wheel. The tool rest provides a means of
36. What is the correct shape of a tool bit? resting the hand or fingers to steady the tool bit. The
·he shape of a tool bit will depend upon the work tool bit should not be moved up and down while
t is required to do. Regardless of the shape of a tool grinding. To do so results in many small angles
>it, it must be remembered that every cutting edge
nust have a relief angle. The direction in which the
ool will be fed into the work must be considered.
ihe size of the rake and relief angles will depend on
he material, the material's size, the amount of the
eed, and the depth of the cut. Tool bits can be
;round to form special shapes (Fig. 8-145). Common
ool bit shapes used in lathe work .ire shown in
'ig. 8-146.

137. What care must be used when grinding tool

'Jits?
=utting tools should not be overheated. Excessive
5rinding heat causes a breakdown of the cutting Fig. 8-145. A form tool for cutting a special shape
~dge. Overheating can be caused by J. loaded grind- in the workpiece.
ng wheel, a wheel that is too hard, or by excessive
::iressure applied to the tool bit. A wet grinding wheel
is preferred for roughing out the shape of tool bits.
When using a dry wheel for finish grinding, the tool
,hould be cooled frequently by dipping in water. If
the tool bit is allowed to get overheated, dipping in

RIGHT LEFT SQUARE RIGHT BRASS

CUT CUT NOSE CUT CUTTING
CORNER SIDE SIDE

' \
Fig. 8-144. A set of boring bars, tool bits, wrenches,
and a holder. (J. H. Williams & Co.)
LEFT
CUT
ROUND
NOSE
RIGHT
CUT
..
LEFT
CUT
GORNER
'

Fig. 8-146. Common fool-bit shapes. (Armstrong

Bros. Tool Co.)
THREAD
CUTTING

213
 or a rounded, unsatisfactory surface. Off-hand tool the grinding wheel to obtain a steady, uniform cut-
grinders usually have a coarse-grit grinding wheel ting action. Toolholders for high-speed steel tool
and a fine-grit wheel. The coarse wheel should be bits are made with the slot, or square hole, at an
used to rough out the tool bit, and the fine-grit wheel angle of about 20., (Fig. 8-149). This angle provides
should be used to finish the tool bit. Figure 8-147 enough back rake angle for most general work made
shows the steps and positions for holding the tool- of steel, so it is unnecessary to grind a back rake
bit blank to grind a round-nose turning tool. Figure angle into the tool bit itself, as shown in Step 5,
8-148 shows how the tool bit should be held against Fig. 8-147. When turning aluminum or other soft
materials, more back rake may be advisable.

139. What is a carbide-tipped tool?

A carbide-tipped tool has a piece of carbide brazed
to the nose of a steel shank. The carbide tip forms
the cutting edges (Fig. 8-150). Carbide is a mixture
of several different alloys of carbon and metallic
elements such as tungsten, titanium, or tantalum. It
is exceptionally hard and will maintain a sharp
cutting edge under conditions that would cause
ordinary cutting tools to burn away. Cemented car-
bides make possible a tremendous increase in the

r,,,,,,<, GRINDING
cutting speeds. Cemented carbide tool bits are avail-

<-
\\...--__..-~--··~~--
__, ...·
~"·
"--
- .......
...~ "'
-,
......//

E
l~?~f' ~

STEP3 STEP4

fig. 8-148. The correct way to grip a tool bit when

grinding.
STEP 5
Fig. 8-147. Steps for grinding a right-cut round- Fig. 8-149. Tool-bit slot in toolholder is made at an
nose tool bit. angle to provide back-rake to the cutting tool.
Step 1. Grind the left side-relief angle.
Step 2. Grind the right side-relief ar;igle.
Step 3. Grind the round nose.
Step 4. Hold tool bit at an angle to get the end-
relief angle.
214 Step 5. Grind the rake angle for a right-cut tool bit.
 solid base when grinding. A diamond wheel made of
small diamond particles produces a very keen, effi-
cient cutting edge; special silicon carbide wheels,
which cost less, are often used.

141. What is the carbide insert method for cutting

tools?
The carbide insert method consists of small tips of
carbide held in specially designed toolholders (Fig.
8-152). The inserts are made in regular or special
geometric shapes (Fig. 8-153). Each insert has sev-
eral cutting edges. When the cutting edge becomes
dull, worn, or chipped, the insert can be moved to
bring a new cutting edge into use. Some toolholders
are designed so that inserts can be turned over,
Fig. 8-150. Carbide-tipped tool bits. (J. H. Williams
making it possible to use both sides of the insert.
& Co.)
Although inserts can be resharpened, many shops
are not equipped for grinding carbide tools; thus
the inserts are thrown away.
able under several trade names such as Carboloy,
Firthrite, and Vascolloy-Ramet.
142. What are ceramic cutting tools?
Ceramic materials such as aluminum oxidi> are made
140. How are rake and relief angles ground on a
in the form of inserts similar to carbide inserts and
cemented carbide tool bit?
Grinding and sharpening cemented carbide tools
requires a grinding machine and grinding wheels
different from those used for grinding high-speed
steel tools. Grinders for cemented carbide tools are
equipped with adjustable tables that can be tilted to
the correct rake and relief angles by means of a pro-
tractor-type quadrant attached to the table (Fig.
R-151). Carbide tools must be held firmly against a

Fig. 8-151. A carbide tool grinder with protractor-

type tool rests. (Baldor Electric Co.)
Fig. 8-152. Carbide insert toolholder for heavy
duty machining. (Metal Carbides Corp.)

PLAIN INSERTS

CHIP BREAKER INSERTS

Fig. 8-153. Shapes of carbide cutting-tool inserts. 215

 are held in solid-base, pocket-type toolholders with ANGLE OF HONE
carbide seats. To cushion the insert from vibration r,;_,:~?.'.{-.f1':::=;;:-;~ .~1:..-:.-:;_i_----..
:::':·;~:-;:{"::{~:-;:,:.~-,..,:_::,....·,~-.:,\-.~-
and shock, an aluminum foil shim 0.002 to 0.005 in.
f1ick is sometimes placed under the insert (Fig.
MOVEMENT
f:-154). Ceramic, a very hard material, performs
OF
excellently at very high cutting speeds. Because
HONING STONE
ceramic is more brittle than carbide, the design of
the insert, the method of holding the insert, and the fig. 8-155. Honing the cutting edge of a single-
rigidity of the machine are important factors for point tool bit.
successful machining with this material. Because of
!he greater wear resistance of ceramic, accuracy of
successive workpieces can be controlled to a greater fig. 8-156. Diamond hand hone.
extent than with other cutting tool materials.
DIAMOND IMPREGNATED PAD

145. What is a too/holder?

A tool holder is a device for rigidly holding a cutting
tool in a desired position in the tool post of the lathe.
CERAMIC
INSERTS
146. Describe some common too/holders.
Fig. 8-154. Pocket-type ceramic toolholder and Lathe toolholders are made in several styles, each
inserts. (V/R Wesson Division of Fansteel) adaptable to a particular turning operation. The
purpose of each toolholder is to make it easier to
143. What is meant by honing a tool bit? apply the cutting tool to the workpiece being turned.
Honing a tool bit means smoothing the cutting Figure 8-157 shows some common types of tool-
edges with an oilstone. Best results are obtained by holders. Holders for cemented carbide tool bits are
holding the stone at 1° to 3° less than.the rake, and similar to holders for high-speed steel tool bits,
honing a narrow flat 1/32 in. adjacent to the cutting except for the square slot, which is parallel to the
edge (Fig. 8-155). Use a fine oilstone for high-speed base of the .holder (Fig. 8-1 58).
steel and cast alloy tool bits. Use a fine-grit diamond
hand hone when honing carbide-tipped tool bits. 147. Explain how the too/holder should be placed in
the tool post for turning wof.
144. What is a diamond hand hone? As a general rule, position t~e tool holder in the tool
A diamond hand hone is used to smooth the cutting post at approximately 90° with the center line, or a
edge of a carbide cutting tool bit. The diamond· little in the direction of the dead center when feeding
impregnated pad is mounted on the end of a holder. toward the headstock. The point of the cutting t.)ol
The holder is from % to Y2 in. square and 4 in. long should be on the center line between the dead and
(Fig. 8-156). Some holders support a diamond abra- live centers and the tool bit should extend just far
sive pad on each end. The diamond abrasive pad is enough to expose the cuttir.g end. Also, the tool-
the width of the holder and approximately 1 in. long. holder should not extend any further than necessary.
fh~ abrasives come in a variety of grit sizes from This makes for a rigid setup L, avoid chatter. A very
216 10') (coarse) to 320 (fine). good setup is shown in Fig 8-159.
 (A) STRAIGHT TURNING TOOL HOLDER

(B) LEFT-HAND OFFSET

TURNING TOOL HOLDEfi

C) RIGHT-HANO OFFSET
TU•l>IING TOOL HOLDER Fig. 8-159. A rigid setup of cutting tool and tool-
hofder in the tool post.

Fig. 8,-160. Wrong and right way to position the

toolholder for heavy cuts. (South B.end Lathe, Inc.)

(F) FORMED THREADING

E} STRA:GHT CUTTING-Off
TOOL HOLDER
TOOL HOLDER

(G) LEFT-HAM> OFFSET (H) RIGHT-HAND OFFSET

CUTTING-OFF TOOL HOLDER CUTTING-OFF TOOL HOLDER

fig. 8-157. Common toolholders. (Armstrong Bros.

Tool Co.) 149. Can a// materials be machined at the same
speed?
No. The speed with which a material can be
Fig. 8-158. Straight toolholder for carbide-tipped machined will depend on its (a) structure, (b) hard-
tool bits has the slot parallel to the base. (J. H. ness, (c) tensile strength, and (d) abrasive qualities.
Williams & Co.)
150. Will the condition of the machine affect the
speed of machining?
Yes. Old machines or machines in poor condition
slow down production. Worn .bearings and loose
slides cause vibrations to develop that spoil the
finish of the job.

151. Can the shape and condition of the cutting tool

slow down the machining of meta/?
148. What caution should be taken to position the Yes. A cutting tool ground with the wrong relief and
too/holder when taking a heavy cut? rake angles can spoil the finish and cause breakage
When taking a heavy cut, do not have the tool point- and damage to the job.
mg in the direction of the live center. If the tool is
pointed in that direction and runs into a hard spot, 152. How can the speed of the machine be safely
the material will have a tendency to move the tool approximated before starting to cut the matetijl.l?
:iway, forcing it to dig into the work (Fig. 8-160). Researchers have established suitable cutting speeds
This precaution is unnecessary when taking a for machining various materials. These speeds ,3re
ight cu~. published in handbooks and other technica! publi- 217
 cations. Cutting speed is measured in surface feet C. Multiply the result by the rpm. The answer
per minute (sfpm). is the cutting speed. The three steps can be
combined in the following formula:
153. Define cutting speed.
CS= 3.1416 X DX rpm
Cutting speed is the rate at which a point on the
12
circumference of the work passes the tool bit. It is
measured in surface feet per minute. If the length of This formula may be simplified by rounding oJt
the chip removed in one minute could be measured, some of the intermediate steps:
this number of feet would be the cutting speed. The
relationship between diameter, revolutions per 3.1416 = 0.26
12
minute, and cutting speed is shown in Fig. 8-161.
or approximately % (0.25). The simplified formula is
then
1
CS=-X D x rpm
4

155. Ca/cu/ate the cutting speed for a 3-in.-diameter

workpiece revolving at 720 rpm.
Using the simplified formula
CUTTING SPEED 90 FPM 360
RPM 60 CS= l_ X 3 X 120 = = 90 fpm
4 4

156. What are the recommended cutting speeds for

some of the commonly used materials?
The cutting speeds in feet per minute (fpm) ior
machining some common materials, using high-
speed steel tool bits, are shown in Fig. 8-162.
CUTTING SPEED 90 FPM CUTTING SPEED
RPM 120 90 FPM-RPM 240

157. How is the rpm of a lathe calculated for a

RPM= CSX4 given material?
DIA. To calculate the rpm when the cutting speed (CS)
Fig. 8- 161 . For a given cutting speed the revolu- and the diameter (DJ of the workpiece is known, the
tions per minute will vary according to the diameter following formula may be used:
of the work. CSX 4
rpm=-o--

154. Explain how cutting speed may be calculated. 158. Calculate the rpm for machining a .cast-iron
When the diameter (DJ of a workpiece and the revo- workpiece 5 in. in diameter.
lutions per minute (rpm) are known, the cutting From Fig. 8-162, the lowest cutting speed for cast
speed (CS) may be calculated as follows: iron is 50 fpm. Using the above formula

A. Find the circumference by multiplying rpm = -50 -X 4 = 200 = 40 rpm

3.1416 by the diameter in inches. 5 5
Circumference (in.) = 3.1416 x D
B. Divide the result by 12, to get the circum-
159. What factors can modify the recommended
ference in feet. cutting speeds?
The recommended cutting speeds are based on ieiP.al
. , !ft.) _ circumference (ir..) machine and job setup conditions as well as c0,.
C 1rcum,erence . . - -
218 12 rectly shaped cutting tools. Cutting speeds ;,re
 FLUID
material cutting speed (fpm)

B
Aluminum 300-1,000
Brass, leaded 300-700
Brass, red and yellow 150-300
Bronze, leaded 300-700
Bronze, phosphor 75-150
1/\t
Cast.iron
Cast steel
50-110
45-90
\~
Copper, leaded 300-700
Chrome steel 65-115
Die castings 225-350
Duralumin 275-400
fiber 200-300
Machine steel 115-225
Malleable iron 80-130
Manganese steel 20-40
Fig. 8-163. Cutting fluid correctly applied at the
Molybdenum steel 100-120 point of the cutting action.
Monel metal 100-125
Nickel steel 85-110
Plastics hot-set molded 200-600 tool is reduced when a stream of liquid is directed as
Rubber, hard 200-300
shown in Fig. 8-163.
Stainless steel 100-150
Tool steel 70-130 163. Will any liquid give satisfactory cooling results?
Tungsten steel 70-130
Vanadium steel 85-120 There are several types of coolant liquids called
cutting fluids. The two most commonly used are
(a) water-soluble oils and (b) cutting oils, used
Fig. 8-162. Recommended average cutting speeds
undiluted.
for various materials.
164. What is a water-soluble oil cutting fluid?
changed to suit the depth of cut and the feed per Water-soluble oils are mineral oils to which an
~evolution. emulsifying agent has been added. Water is also
added to this mixture to form a milky white fluid,
160. Why should the recommended cutting speed which is referred to by shop men as soapy-water or
be changed when taking a roughing cut? milky-water.
When roughing-out a job, the cut taken is deeper and
the feed per revolution is increased. The rpm is 165. What is the ratio of water to soluble oil when
reduced in order to maintain the life of the cutting mixing a soluble oil cutting fluid?
tool. The ratio of water to soluble oil varies from 4 (water)
and 1 (oil) to 80 (water) and 1 (oil). The proportion
161. What is the effect of excessive speed on the varies according to the type of oil and the machining
life of the cutting too/? operation for which it is being used.
The friction between the job and the cutting tool
creates heat. The hot chip passing over the cutting 166. Will the water in a soluble oil cutting fluid
tool adds more heat. The hardness of the cutting tool cause rust to form on the job or the machine?
is affected by the increased temperature. The keen- When the cutting fluid is mixed thoroughly, the water
ness of the edge of the tool becomes dulled and its and oil are in proper balance, and there will be no
cutting efficiency is reduced. evidence of rust.

162. What can be done to carry away the heat from 167. What other advantages result from the use of
the cutling tool? cutting fluids?
Th~ temperature of the job, the chip, and the cutting Cutting tlu•ds carry off the excessive heat from 2 IY
 the cutting tool, the chip, and the job. The use of ratio. Therefore soluole oil cutting fluids,should be
cutting fluids will (a) wash the chips away from the periodically inspected to insure that the desired oil-
cutting tool; (b) increase the effective usefulness of water ratio is maintained.
the cutting tool; (c) provide lubrication and reduce
friction between the chip and the top surface of 173. Will the oil in the cutting fluid become rancid
the cutting tool; (d) prevent a metallic buildup on the after it has been repeatedly used?
cutting edge of the tool; (e) improve the quality of It is possible for bacteria to develop in cutting fluids,
the surface finish. and this may cause undesirable odors.

168. What machining operations are benefited by 174. Are cutting fluids injurious to human skin}
the use of water-soluble fluids? Cutting oils can contribute to skin infection. Some
Water-soluble cutting fluids are used on (a) lathe soluble oils have disinfectants added to kill the
work, (b) milling, (c) grinding (all kinds), (d) shaping, bacteria and eliminate odors. When an excess
(e) planing, (f) power sawing, and (g) drilling. amount of disinfectant is added, the soluble oil
may irritate the skin.
169. How do cutting oils differ from water-soluble
oils?
175. Can mineral-oil cutting fluids cause skin
Cutting oils are a mixture of mineral oils with chemi-
infection?
cal compounds. They are used without dilution,
Insoluble cutting oils consisting of mineral oil, fatty
mostly on production work and production-type
oil, sulphur, and chlorine are the principal causes of
machines such as automatic screw machines and
skin irritation and inflamation among shop workers.
turret lathes. Cutting oils are used where lubrication
between chip and cutting tool is an important factor
in maintaining the life of the cutting tool edge.
176. How can skin infection from cutting oils be
prevented?
170. Will one cutting fluid prove satisfactory for all Personal cleanliness is the most important weapon
metals? against skin disease. Oil should be kept away from
Many different cutting fluids have been developed pimples, blackheads, cuts, and other skin eruptions
to meet specialized demands. Some are suitable for or openings. Wash frequently with hot and cold
ferrous metals such as carbon and alloyed steels; running water, utilizing a mild, nonirritating soap.
others are most effective when used on copper, Machines and tools should be kept clean and free
brass, bronze, and the wide range of alloyed metals from dirt and grease. The cutting oil should be
having copper, brass, or bronze as a base. changed at least once a week. Overalls and aprons
also should be changed often; they should not be
171. Is it possible to use water-soluble cutting fluids permitted to act as a storehouse of oils and grease.
more than once? Dermatitis can be a serious, painful, and disfiguring
Yes. The cutting fluid is usually pumped over the disease.
cutting area by a small pump. The fluid runs over
the tool and job and, after passing through a straining 177. What should be done when skin irritation
screen, is collected in a storage tank where it is develops after contact with soluble oils?
cooled and made ready for reusing. Soluble cutting All skin irritations should be medically treated as
fluids are also applied by oilcan or brush, but in such soon as they are observed. The advice of the family
applications the fluid is usually not reused. doctor should be obtained immediately.

172. Can soluble oils be used too often or kept for 178. What is mist cooling?
too long a period? A heavy flow of cutting fluid is not always necessarv
Yes. When heavy cuts and severe feeds are being to keep a job and cutting tool from overheating
used, high temperatures will result. This can cause On jobs where a small amount of metal is being
the water to evaporate and change the desired oil- removed, the temperature is kept down by spraying
water ratio. Normal water evaporation over a long a cloudlike mist of compressed air and atomized
220 period of time will also change the desired oii-water fluid on the jcb and cutting tool.
CARE OF THE LATHE

The lathe is designed to produce machined parts

to a high degree of accuracy. The working parts
of a lathe are machined, ground, lapped, polished,
and scraped to fine precision tolerances. They
require attention; they must be kept clean and well
lubricated.

179. How often should a lathe be oiled?

The answer will depend upon the length of time that
the lathe is used. When in use, the headstock bear-
ings must be oiled daily. The following lathe parts
should also be oiled every day: the bearings and
gears, from the spindle to the lead screw; the motor
bearings, the tailstock spindle, lead screw, and feed fig. 8-165. Headstock bearings must have oil at all
rod bear:ngs; and the apron and saddle, with cross- times. Make this a starting point for daily oiling.
feed and compound slides (Fig. 8-164). Many of the (South Bend Lathe, Inc.)
parts have oil fittings with spring caps.

Leave the carriage in position and wipe the ways

clean to both the left and the right of the carriage;
oil the ways. Then move the carriage, wipe, and
lubricate the rest of the bed ways.

183. Is the same procedure followed when lubri-

cating the dovetails of the cross slide and compound
slide?
It is always good practice to wipe clean the ma-
chined surfaces (such as the ways of the lathe and
the dovetail slide of a compound rest) and lubricate
them before moving the surfaces that are in contact
with them.
Fig. 8-164. Parts of the lathe that require frequent
oiling. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.) 184. How are the ways of a lathe lubricated and
kept free of chips when the lathe is being operated?
180. What is the correct procedure in oiling a lathe? Felt oil pads at each end of the apron clean off the
STOP THE LATHE. Beginning at the headstock end, chips and lubricate the ways. The felt pads should
oil the gear train and bearings from spindle to feed be removed and washed in· kerosene periodically.
gear box (Fig. 8-165). Proceed systematically along
the length of the lathe to the tailstock handwheel. 185. What causes the deep marks often seen on the
Wipe off all oil drippings. bed ways of a lathe?
The ways of the lathe can be scored by small steel
181. How often should the bed-dovetails and ways chips becoming imbedded in the saddle or the base
be lubricated? of the tailstock. All grit and chips should be removed
This will depend upon what type of metal is being and the bed ways lubricated before the saddle or
machined. The bed should be lubricated at least tailstock is moved along the ways (Fig. 8-166).
once every eight-hour day or eight-hour work shift.
186. What other bad practice spoils the surface
182. What is the correct procedure for lubricating condition and accuracy of the bed ways?
the ways of the lathe bed? The careless habit of placing tools on the bed ways 221
 Fig. 8-166. Spread a thin film of oil over the ways Fig. 8-168. A tool board protects the lathe and
l!Sing your finger. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.) provides a place for the-neat arrangement of tools
needed for the job. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.)
raises burrs that affect the smooth action and accu-
racy of the saddle and the tailstock (Fig. 8-167). is to take one turn around the thread of the lead
Such burrs should be removed with a scraper or oil- screw with a piece of heavy string (Fig. 8-169).
stone. Always place tools. on a board provided for Start at one end and pull the ends of the string back
this purpose (Fig. 8-168). and forth as the lead screw revolves.

187. What other important parts of the lathe require 189. Should the lathe operator oil the motor of
daily lubrication? the lathe?
The bearings, threads, and keyway of the lead screw This will depend upon the type of motor and the
and feed rod are important. The threads of the lead practice of the shop. Lubrication instructions are
screw should be periodically oiled during the opera- usually given on a plate attached to the motor
tion of thread cutting. frame. Observe the type of bearing; this will indicate
how the motor should be lubricated. Do not flood
188. Is there a way to clean the chips from the lead the bearings with oil; this will damage the brushes,
screw without injuring the threads? windings, and the commutator of the motor
The best way to clean the threads on a lead screw (Fig. 6-170).

190. Why is it important to close the covers and

Fig. 8-167. Only a careless worker would place replace the oil plugs after lubricating?
tools on the lathe like this. The plugs and covers prevent dust and chips
from entering the oil hole. Dust and chips ruin
bearings.

191. What special care should be given to the

spindle nose?
The spindle nose should be wiped clean and
lubricated before a chuck or faceplate is mounted.
(Fig. 8-171). If the spindle nose is threaded, the
threads should be examined closely for small chips
before and after it has been wiped and lubricated.
The same care should be given the chuck and face-
plate threads. An undiscovered chip can result in
the run-out of the job. Use a spring thread cleaner
222 (Fig. 8-172).
Fig. 8-169. A good way to clean the lead-screw Fig. 8-171. Apply a few drops of oil to the spindle
threads. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.) threads. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.)

Fig. 8-170. Oiling the motor and countershaft is Fig. 8-172. Cleaning the threads in a chuck with a
important too. spring-thread cleaner. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.)

193. How can a chip become embedded in the

surface of internal spindle taper; how can this be
prevented?
If a chip remains in the tapered hole, and the
t2per shank of a drill or other taper-shank tool is
192. How should the internal taper of the spindle driven home (set in tightly), the chip will become
be cleaned? embedded in the surface of the taper hole. Any
A piece of cloth wrapped around a stick and taper-shank tool placed in the spindle hole will be
inserted in the headstock spindle hole will clean out of true, and accuracy will be affected. After
out all chips except those that have been permitted wiping out the tapered spindle hole, check by using
to •:!mbed themselves in t!-:ie surface of the taper your finger to make certain no chips remain. The
(Fig. 8-173). Embedded chips can be removed with lathe must be stopped while the spindle hole is
a three-square scraper. being cleaned. 223
 194. What causes the lathe spindle to slow down
or sometimes stall when the tool bit begins to cut
the metal?
When the lathe spindle slows down or stalls as
the tool bit begins to cut, the belt is probably sli,1-
ping on the pulley. Slippage may be due to oil or
grease on the belt or the belt may have stretched.
Grease and oil may be removed from a leather belt
with a solvent. Adjustments may be made to tighten
loose belts.

fig. 8-173. A good way to clean the taper hole in

the spindle. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.)

224