SHOP THEORY-Engine Lathe Processes
SHOP THEORY-Engine Lathe Processes
e gine lathe
processes
Fig. 8-7. A smaller precision toolroom lathe. (Har Fig. 8-8. A numerically controlled lathe for produc-
dinge Brothers, Inc.) tion work. (Monarch Machine Tool Co.) 173
E. Special-purpose lathes: gap lathes, which
have a special sliding bed, making it possi-
ble to increase the swing to accommodate
large-diameter work (Fig. 8-9); wheel
lathes, crankshaft lathes, gun barrel lathes,
and tracer lathes (Fig. 8-10)-all are
adaptations of the engine lathe.
L
/
I
l-_FEED [BULL GEA~
REVERSE
GEAR •
LOCK PIN THREADED
SPINDLE
NOSE
fastened to the pulley; the gear always turns when
the pulley turns. At the opposite end of the pulli~y,
at its largest diameter step, a large· gear, called the
FEED CONE
REVERSE PULLEY bu/I-gear, is keyed to the spindle; the bull-gear
LEVER drives the spindle only when the lock-pin is pushed
Fig. 8-12 The headstock of a pulley-driven lathe. in, locking the gear to the pulley. In this position,
(South Be11d Lathe, Inc.) the headstock spindle is in direct drive. When
slower speeds are required, the bull-gear pin is
pulled out. Using the back-gear lever, the back-gears
Fig. 8-13. A tape.red-key spindle nose. (R. K. are moved forward and carefully meshed with the
LeBlond Machine Tool Co.) spindle gears by moving the cone pulley back and
forth by hand. Never attempt to mesh the back-gears
\Nhile the spindle is turning under power because
this may strip teeth from one or more of the gears.
The two back-gears are mounted on an eccentric
shaft at the back of the headstock. When the bull-
gear pin is pushed in and the back-gears are engaged,
the spindle is locked and cannot move. Do not start
the lathe while the spindle is locked. It is often neces-
sary to lock the spindle, using the back-gears when
changing collets or threading holes by hand with
a. tap.
COMPOUND
REST
CROSS THREAD
COMPOUND LIDE CHASING DIA7-
REST
HANDLE
CARRIAGE
CLAMP BOLT
CROSS FE:\\
HANDLE
\~ SADDLE
BOTTOM
CASTING
BED
CLAMP
7. Explain the purpose and construction of the Fig. 8-16. Principal parts of a lathe carriage. (Mon-
176 lathe carriage. arch Machine Tool Co.)
which provide automatic power feed to the carriage train located at the left end of the lathe. On .old~.
and cross-feed slide (Fig. 8-17). Levers at the front lathes, gears had to be selected, mounted in place,
of the apron are used to engage or disengage the and adjusted each time a different feed or thread
power feeds. A worm 'keyed to the feed rod trans- pitch was required. The quick-change gear box
mits power through a worm gear to the spur gears, (Fig. 8-18) at the front of the modern lathe makes it
which drive the cross-feed gear and the rack gear possible to obtain a wide range of feeds and thread
for moving the carriage. A half-nut inside the apron pitches merely by moving and positioning several
is operated by a lever on the outside of the apron; levers, according to a feed and thread index chart
it is used only when cutting screw threads. When attached to the quick-change gear box (Fig. 8-19).
dosed, or meshed, with the lead screw, the half-
nut provides a positive drive to the carriage. This
means that for each revolution of the workpiece,
the carriage will move an exact distance along the
ways (or along the workpiece). Positive drive is
necessary when cutting screw threads. The half-nut
should never be used as a feed when turning work.
To do so destroys the accuracy of the lead screw
and half-nut, making it impossible to cut precision
screw threads.
A-SWING OF
LATHE
B -DISTANCE
BETWEEN
CENTERS
C -LENGTH OF
BED
R - RADIUS, ONE
HALF SWING
i--------c-------
Fig. 8-20. How the size of a lathe is determined.
(South Bend Lathe, Inc.)
There are different methods of denoting the length Fig. 8-22. Application of drive plate. (South Bend
of a lathe. Some manufacturers give the length of Lathe, Inc.)
the ways; others give the distance from the face
plate to the end of the bed. Lathe specifications
include the longest distance between headstock
and tailstock centers.
fig. 8-25. locating and damping work on a face- 14. Name the chucks commonly used for holding
plate. (South Bend lathe, Inc.) workpieces.
The commonly used chucks a.re three-jaw universal
chuck, four-jaw independent chuck, and/magnetic
chuck.
CHUCK
{ KEY
SOCKET
INSIDE
spindle. True upJhe workpiece. Tighten all clamping JAWS
nuts. Arrange and clamp the counterweights to
balance the workpiece if necessary.
181
ROUND
SQUARE
26. What is a follower rest? 27. When using a drive plate and a steady rest,
182 A follower rest is a work-supporting device, which is what is a good method for holding the shaft on the
STEADY
REST
BOTTOM
PLATE
GUIDE BAR ADJUSTING
CLAMP BOLT NUTS·
DEGREE.
GRADUATIONS
0
CROSS-FEED BOLT
T-SLOT CLAMP
DEAD
CENTER
DIRECTION OF FEEDt
LIVE CENTER
DRIVE PLATE
Fig. 8-47. Relieving attachment is operated by a Fig. 8-50. Typical lathe center. (Hardinge Brothers,
drive shaft connected to a change-gear mechanism Inc.)
attached to the end of the headstock. (Monarch
Machine Tool Co.)
fits into the 60° center holes drilled into the work-
piece to provide bearing surfaces, which support the
revolving workpiece. Other types of lathe center's
are shown in Fig. 8-51.
D
------------
Fig. 8-51. Types of tailstock centers. (A) Large-
point dead center. (8) Half center. (C) Female cen-
ter. (D) Swivel V center. (Hardinge Brothers, Inc.)
39. What is the correct procedure for using and loosely, it could cause the cutting tool to chatter or
adjusting the dead center to support a workpiece? dig in, producing a very rough finish on the work.
Clean the taper hole and taper shank of the dead A mixture of oil and white lead makes a good lubri-
center. Run the tailstock spindle out a short distance cant. A small amount placed into the center hole
and then set the dead center firmly into the taper or on the center point is sufficient. Overheating
hole. Locate and clamp the tailstock in position. The results in a squeaking sound followed soon by
dead center must be lubricated and carefully smoke. When this happens, stop the lathe quickly,
seated in the workpiece center hole so that the back the center out a bit, relubricate, and readjust
workpiece will turn freely without too much play. the center to the work.
lf it is seated in the center hole too tightly, friction
between the work and center point will cause both 40. What is a live tailstock center?
parts to become hot and to expand soon after the A live tailstock center has a ball-bearing mechanism
lathe is started. Unless corrected quickly, the center that permits the 60° point to revolve with the work-
point will get extremely hot and break off, ruining piece (Fig 8-54). This eliminates friction, permits
the center point, damaging the work, and possibly work to be turned at high speeds, and ·does not
iniuring the operator. If the center is adjusted too require oiling and constant adjustment as does the 187
43. How may centers be placed in approximately
correct alignment?
Centers may be placed in approximately correct
alignment by (a) moving the dead center close to the
live center to see if the center points meet (Fig. 8-57),
and (b) looking at the graduated lines on the bottom
and top of the tailstock casting to see if the zero
Fig. 8-54. Antifriction ball-bearing tailstock center, points align (Fig. 8-58). For accurate work, these
which turns with the work. (Hardinge Brothers, methods should not be depended upon.
Inc.)
44. How may centers be precisely aligned?
standard dead center. One lathe manufacturer Centers may be precisely a!igned by (a) taking
equips the tailstock with a built-in live center a light cut for a certain distance and measuring
mechanism (Fig. 8-55). each end of the machined section of the workpiece
with a micrometer, (b) using a test bar and indi-
41. What is mean: by alignment of centers? cator to take a reading at both ends of the test
Alignrnent of centers means that . both the dead bar, (c) moving the tailstock to correct any error,
(tailstock) center and the live (headstock) center and (d) rechecking.
have one common center line. When centers are in
exact alignment, the workpiece being turned will
have the same diameter throughout its entire length.
This is called straight turning (Fig. 8-56).
L ~
£--
r
L
!~
j__ _
-~4
A
A
t
B
D
COMBINED DRILL AND CONTERSINK, PLAIN TYPE COMBINED DRILL AND COUNTERSINK, BELL TYPE
Fig. 8-76. Standard sizes for combined drills and co1mtersinks. (Morse Twist Drill & Machine Co.) 193
A
RIGHT
GOOD BEARING
SURFACE AND
PILOT HOLE
B C
WRONG WRONG
NO COUNTERSUNK HOLE TOO DEEP
HOLE
A
Fig. 8-77. Right and wrong center holes.
THREE-JAW
UNIVERSAL
CHUCK
WORKPIECE
HOLD AGAINST TAILSTOCK 73. What are the general rules for rough turning?
CENTER Rough turning requires as deep a cut as possible,·
lli!ilo a coarse feed, and a speed that is consistent with
good safety practices. The finish produced by rough
WORK turning need not_be smqQ!h.
!R
8
Fig. 8-82. Turning a shoul-
der radius, or fillet.
Fig. 8-87. Knurling tool. (J. H. Williams & Co.) Fig. 8-89. Coarse, medium, and fine diamond-
pattern knurling. (J. H. Williams & Co.)
Fig. 8-88. Knurling with an adjustable knurling 88. What is the operation of recessing?
tool. (Joseph Fakes & Co.) External recessing (Fig. 8-91) is the operation of 197
Fig. 8-91. Turning a -recess with square corners.
machining a smaller diameter on a workpiece, for a
specified length. Internal recessing (Fig. 8-92) is
the machining of a larger diameter, for a specified
length, inside a hole. Recesses may have square or
rounded corners (Fig. 8-93).
__..,--------r-----
' I .
-4--.+--+-
-~j
I
I
,
I
I
I
_________ _,I
~-----
[F=J
INTERNAL
RECESS
"-._CUTTING
TOOL
g~SIOE A
RELIEF
B
Fig. 8-97. (A) Side-relief angle on parting tool
blade prevents binding. (B) Slight back-rake aids
the cutting action. (Sheldon Machine Co., Inc.)
Fig. 8-99. Drill holder for taper-shank
dri_lls. (Armstrong Bros. Tool Co.) ·
90. What is the procedure for drilling and reaming
on a lathe?
Holes are' drilled on a lathe in a manner opposite lo
the way ho.les are drilled on a drill press. On a lathe
the work revolves and the drill is held stationary.
Small ·sizes of drills are held in a drill chuck of the
same design as those used on a drill press. The chuck
is held in· the tailstock spindle as in Fig. 8-98.
Larger drills are held in a drill holder (Fig. 8-99),
which is supported by the toolholder on the left side
of the handle, and by the dead center of the tail-
stock on the right side.
When a drill holder is not available, a dog may be Fig. 8-100. Using a lathe dog as a drill holder.
used, as in fig. 8-100. Holes may be reamed by (Sheldon Machine Co., Inc.)
holding a straight-shank reamer in the drill chuck
AMOUNT OF
SET OVER...._
-;;!
HEADSTOCK
TAIL STOCK CENTER
CENTER Fig. 8-106. Position of tool post and spindle when
preparing to make an offset for taper turning.
60'
B
Fig. 8-127. (A) Thread tool fed straight in cuts on
Fig. 8-126. A center gage is used to set cutting tool both sides. (B) When fed at a 30° angle, tool cuts
206 square with the work. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.) o·a" one side, producing a smoother thread.
check the fit, depending upon the degree of
accuracy required. Precision threads may
be measured by the three-wire method. A
finished screw thread should have the end
chamfered 45°.
SIDE END
RELIEF RELIEF
~c'
~NEGATIVE
' \
\
' C
Fig. 8-136. Back-rake angles. (A) Positive. (B) Neu-
210 tral. (C) Negative.
surface of the tool so that it slopes away from the side 129. What is the purpose of the side relief angle?
cutting edge. The side relief angle permits the tool to be fed side-
ways into the job so that it can cut without rubbing.
126. What is the purpose of the side rake angle? If this angle is too small, the tool cannot be fed into
The side rake angle performs a similar function to the job. The tool will rub against the job, become
that of the back rake angle; it guides the direction overheated, and blunt. The finish ofthe job will be
of the chip away from the job. It is usually ground rough and furry .. If the side relief is too large, the
from_6° to 15°. Together with the side relief angle cutting edge will break off into small chips because
it forms the cutting edge so that a shearing action of insufficient support (Fig. 8-139).
occurs as the tool moves sideways against the mate-
rial. The amount that a chip is curved depends on
the angle of the side rake (Fig. 8-137). The side rake DIRECTION
OF FEED
angle determines whether a cutting tool is right-cut
or left-cut.
CENTER LINE
127. Define a right-cut and a left-cut tool bit.
A right-cut tool bit is ground to cut from right to left
--------\
--~---
NO
(Fig. 8- l 38A) or towa~d the headstock of the lathe. SIDE
RELIEF
A left-cut tool bit is ground to cut from left to right ANGLE
or tov:ard the tailstock of the lathe (Fig. 8-1388). A
WEAK WEDGE//
ANGLE___,/
B
Fig. 8-140. (A) Correct rake and relief angles are
necessary for strength and longer tool life. (8) Tools
having excessive rake and relief angles break down
and cause problems.
(I}IPBRE~
Fig. 8-141. Chip breaker keeps the chips small.
~~
high cutting speeds. Continuous chips are dangerous
to the operator. These chips are sharp, hard, and hot.
They become entangled around the revolving work-
piece, the cutting tool, and moving parts of the
machine such as the lathe chuck. The chip breaker
acts as an obstruction to the smooth flow of the chip. SIDE RELIEF
It causes the chip to break up into short, manageable END RELIEF
212 chips. Fig. 8-143. Rake and relief angles for boring tools.
Tool bits are also used for boring. They are held water will cause small cracks to appear along the
1 boring bars similar to the one shown in Fig. 8-144, cutting edge.
'his style of boring tool is used for heavier and larger
vork. It makes possible heavier cuts with faster feeds 138. How are rake and relief angles ground on a
.nd little possibility of springing away from the job. high-speed steel tool bit?
·he slots in the boring bar permit the tool bit to be High-speed steel tool bits are easily ground on an
nserted at 45°, 60°, or 90° to the centerline of the off-hand tool grinder. The tool-bit blank is held at an
)ar. angle and moved back and forth across the face of
the grinding wheel. The tool rest provides a means of
36. What is the correct shape of a tool bit? resting the hand or fingers to steady the tool bit. The
·he shape of a tool bit will depend upon the work tool bit should not be moved up and down while
t is required to do. Regardless of the shape of a tool grinding. To do so results in many small angles
>it, it must be remembered that every cutting edge
nust have a relief angle. The direction in which the
ool will be fed into the work must be considered.
ihe size of the rake and relief angles will depend on
he material, the material's size, the amount of the
eed, and the depth of the cut. Tool bits can be
;round to form special shapes (Fig. 8-145). Common
ool bit shapes used in lathe work .ire shown in
'ig. 8-146.
' \
Fig. 8-144. A set of boring bars, tool bits, wrenches,
and a holder. (J. H. Williams & Co.)
LEFT
CUT
ROUND
NOSE
RIGHT
CUT
..
LEFT
CUT
GORNER
'
213
or a rounded, unsatisfactory surface. Off-hand tool the grinding wheel to obtain a steady, uniform cut-
grinders usually have a coarse-grit grinding wheel ting action. Toolholders for high-speed steel tool
and a fine-grit wheel. The coarse wheel should be bits are made with the slot, or square hole, at an
used to rough out the tool bit, and the fine-grit wheel angle of about 20., (Fig. 8-149). This angle provides
should be used to finish the tool bit. Figure 8-147 enough back rake angle for most general work made
shows the steps and positions for holding the tool- of steel, so it is unnecessary to grind a back rake
bit blank to grind a round-nose turning tool. Figure angle into the tool bit itself, as shown in Step 5,
8-148 shows how the tool bit should be held against Fig. 8-147. When turning aluminum or other soft
materials, more back rake may be advisable.
r,,,,,,<, GRINDING
cutting speeds. Cemented carbide tool bits are avail-
<-
\\...--__..-~--··~~--
__, ...·
~"·
"--
- .......
...~ "'
-,
......//
E
l~?~f' ~
STEP3 STEP4
PLAIN INSERTS
C) RIGHT-HANO OFFSET
TU•l>IING TOOL HOLDER Fig. 8-159. A rigid setup of cutting tool and tool-
hofder in the tool post.
154. Explain how cutting speed may be calculated. 158. Calculate the rpm for machining a .cast-iron
When the diameter (DJ of a workpiece and the revo- workpiece 5 in. in diameter.
lutions per minute (rpm) are known, the cutting From Fig. 8-162, the lowest cutting speed for cast
speed (CS) may be calculated as follows: iron is 50 fpm. Using the above formula
B
Aluminum 300-1,000
Brass, leaded 300-700
Brass, red and yellow 150-300
Bronze, leaded 300-700
Bronze, phosphor 75-150
1/\t
Cast.iron
Cast steel
50-110
45-90
\~
Copper, leaded 300-700
Chrome steel 65-115
Die castings 225-350
Duralumin 275-400
fiber 200-300
Machine steel 115-225
Malleable iron 80-130
Manganese steel 20-40
Fig. 8-163. Cutting fluid correctly applied at the
Molybdenum steel 100-120 point of the cutting action.
Monel metal 100-125
Nickel steel 85-110
Plastics hot-set molded 200-600 tool is reduced when a stream of liquid is directed as
Rubber, hard 200-300
shown in Fig. 8-163.
Stainless steel 100-150
Tool steel 70-130 163. Will any liquid give satisfactory cooling results?
Tungsten steel 70-130
Vanadium steel 85-120 There are several types of coolant liquids called
cutting fluids. The two most commonly used are
(a) water-soluble oils and (b) cutting oils, used
Fig. 8-162. Recommended average cutting speeds
undiluted.
for various materials.
164. What is a water-soluble oil cutting fluid?
changed to suit the depth of cut and the feed per Water-soluble oils are mineral oils to which an
~evolution. emulsifying agent has been added. Water is also
added to this mixture to form a milky white fluid,
160. Why should the recommended cutting speed which is referred to by shop men as soapy-water or
be changed when taking a roughing cut? milky-water.
When roughing-out a job, the cut taken is deeper and
the feed per revolution is increased. The rpm is 165. What is the ratio of water to soluble oil when
reduced in order to maintain the life of the cutting mixing a soluble oil cutting fluid?
tool. The ratio of water to soluble oil varies from 4 (water)
and 1 (oil) to 80 (water) and 1 (oil). The proportion
161. What is the effect of excessive speed on the varies according to the type of oil and the machining
life of the cutting too/? operation for which it is being used.
The friction between the job and the cutting tool
creates heat. The hot chip passing over the cutting 166. Will the water in a soluble oil cutting fluid
tool adds more heat. The hardness of the cutting tool cause rust to form on the job or the machine?
is affected by the increased temperature. The keen- When the cutting fluid is mixed thoroughly, the water
ness of the edge of the tool becomes dulled and its and oil are in proper balance, and there will be no
cutting efficiency is reduced. evidence of rust.
162. What can be done to carry away the heat from 167. What other advantages result from the use of
the cutling tool? cutting fluids?
Th~ temperature of the job, the chip, and the cutting Cutting tlu•ds carry off the excessive heat from 2 IY
the cutting tool, the chip, and the job. The use of ratio. Therefore soluole oil cutting fluids,should be
cutting fluids will (a) wash the chips away from the periodically inspected to insure that the desired oil-
cutting tool; (b) increase the effective usefulness of water ratio is maintained.
the cutting tool; (c) provide lubrication and reduce
friction between the chip and the top surface of 173. Will the oil in the cutting fluid become rancid
the cutting tool; (d) prevent a metallic buildup on the after it has been repeatedly used?
cutting edge of the tool; (e) improve the quality of It is possible for bacteria to develop in cutting fluids,
the surface finish. and this may cause undesirable odors.
168. What machining operations are benefited by 174. Are cutting fluids injurious to human skin}
the use of water-soluble fluids? Cutting oils can contribute to skin infection. Some
Water-soluble cutting fluids are used on (a) lathe soluble oils have disinfectants added to kill the
work, (b) milling, (c) grinding (all kinds), (d) shaping, bacteria and eliminate odors. When an excess
(e) planing, (f) power sawing, and (g) drilling. amount of disinfectant is added, the soluble oil
may irritate the skin.
169. How do cutting oils differ from water-soluble
oils?
175. Can mineral-oil cutting fluids cause skin
Cutting oils are a mixture of mineral oils with chemi-
infection?
cal compounds. They are used without dilution,
Insoluble cutting oils consisting of mineral oil, fatty
mostly on production work and production-type
oil, sulphur, and chlorine are the principal causes of
machines such as automatic screw machines and
skin irritation and inflamation among shop workers.
turret lathes. Cutting oils are used where lubrication
between chip and cutting tool is an important factor
in maintaining the life of the cutting tool edge.
176. How can skin infection from cutting oils be
prevented?
170. Will one cutting fluid prove satisfactory for all Personal cleanliness is the most important weapon
metals? against skin disease. Oil should be kept away from
Many different cutting fluids have been developed pimples, blackheads, cuts, and other skin eruptions
to meet specialized demands. Some are suitable for or openings. Wash frequently with hot and cold
ferrous metals such as carbon and alloyed steels; running water, utilizing a mild, nonirritating soap.
others are most effective when used on copper, Machines and tools should be kept clean and free
brass, bronze, and the wide range of alloyed metals from dirt and grease. The cutting oil should be
having copper, brass, or bronze as a base. changed at least once a week. Overalls and aprons
also should be changed often; they should not be
171. Is it possible to use water-soluble cutting fluids permitted to act as a storehouse of oils and grease.
more than once? Dermatitis can be a serious, painful, and disfiguring
Yes. The cutting fluid is usually pumped over the disease.
cutting area by a small pump. The fluid runs over
the tool and job and, after passing through a straining 177. What should be done when skin irritation
screen, is collected in a storage tank where it is develops after contact with soluble oils?
cooled and made ready for reusing. Soluble cutting All skin irritations should be medically treated as
fluids are also applied by oilcan or brush, but in such soon as they are observed. The advice of the family
applications the fluid is usually not reused. doctor should be obtained immediately.
172. Can soluble oils be used too often or kept for 178. What is mist cooling?
too long a period? A heavy flow of cutting fluid is not always necessarv
Yes. When heavy cuts and severe feeds are being to keep a job and cutting tool from overheating
used, high temperatures will result. This can cause On jobs where a small amount of metal is being
the water to evaporate and change the desired oil- removed, the temperature is kept down by spraying
water ratio. Normal water evaporation over a long a cloudlike mist of compressed air and atomized
220 period of time will also change the desired oii-water fluid on the jcb and cutting tool.
CARE OF THE LATHE
187. What other important parts of the lathe require 189. Should the lathe operator oil the motor of
daily lubrication? the lathe?
The bearings, threads, and keyway of the lead screw This will depend upon the type of motor and the
and feed rod are important. The threads of the lead practice of the shop. Lubrication instructions are
screw should be periodically oiled during the opera- usually given on a plate attached to the motor
tion of thread cutting. frame. Observe the type of bearing; this will indicate
how the motor should be lubricated. Do not flood
188. Is there a way to clean the chips from the lead the bearings with oil; this will damage the brushes,
screw without injuring the threads? windings, and the commutator of the motor
The best way to clean the threads on a lead screw (Fig. 6-170).
Fig. 8-170. Oiling the motor and countershaft is Fig. 8-172. Cleaning the threads in a chuck with a
important too. spring-thread cleaner. (South Bend Lathe, Inc.)
224