Metal Forming Processes

Dr. Pulak M. Pandey

http://paniit.iitd.ac.in/~pmpandey
 Introduction
ƒ Practically all metals, which are not used in cast form are
reduced to some standard shapes for subsequent processing.
ƒ Manufacturing companies producing metals supply metals
in form of ingots which are obtained by casting liquid metal
into a square cross section.
ƒ Slab (500-1800 mm wide and 50-300 mm thick)
ƒ Billets (40 to 150 sq mm)
ƒ Blooms (150 to 400 sq mm)
ƒ Sometimes continuous casting methods are also used to cast
the liquid metal into slabs, billets or blooms.
ƒ These shapes are further processed through hot rolling,
forging or extrusion, to produce materials in standard form
such as plates, sheets, rods, tubes and structural sections.
Sequence of operations for obtaining
different shapes
 Primary Metal Forming Processes

„ Rolling
„ Forging
„ Extrusion
„ Tube and wire drawing
„ and Deep drawing
„ Although Punching and Blanking operations are
not metal forming processes however these will be
covered due to similarity with deep drawing
process.
Rolling
Change in grains structure in rolling
 Salient points about rolling
„ Rolling is the most extensively used metal forming
process and its share is roughly 90%
„ The material to be rolled is drawn by means of friction
into the two revolving roll gap
„ The compressive forces applied by the rolls reduce the
thickness of the material or changes its cross sectional
area
„ The geometry of the product depend on the contour of
the roll gap
„ Roll materials are cast iron, cast steel and forged steel
because of high strength and wear resistance
requirements
„ Hot rolls are generally rough so that they can bite the
work, and cold rolls are ground and polished for good
finish
„ In rolling the crystals get elongated in the rolling direction. In cold
rolling crystal more or less retain the elongated shape but in hot
rolling they start reforming after coming out from the deformation
zone
„ The peripheral velocity of rolls at entry exceeds that of the
strip, which is dragged in if the interface friction is high
enough.
„ In the deformation zone the thickness of the strip gets reduced
and it elongates. This increases the linear speed of the at the
exit.
„ Thus there exist a neutral point where roll speed and strip
speeds are equal. At this point the direction of the friction
reverses.
„ When the angle of contact α exceeds the friction angle λ the
rolls cannot draw fresh strip
„ Roll torque, power etc. increase with increase in roll work
contact length or roll radius
 Pressure during rolling
Typical pressure variation along
the contact length in flat rolling.
The peak pressure is located at
the neutral point. The area
beneath the curve, represents
roll force.
Friction in rolling: It depends on lubrication,
work material and also on the temperature. In
cold rolling the value of coefficient of friction
is around 0.1 and in warm working it is
around 0.2. In hot rolling it is around 0.4. In
hot rolling sticking friction condition is also
seen and then friction coefficient is observed
up to 0.7. In sticking the hot wok surface
adheres to roll and thus the central part of the
strip undergoes with a severe deformation.
Roll passes to get a 12 mm rod
from 100 x 100 mm billet
 Roll configurations in rolling mills
„ Two-high and three-high mills are generally
used for initial and intermediate passes during
hot rolling, while four-high and cluster mills
are used for final passes.
„ Last two arrangements are preferred for cold
rolling because roll in these configurations are
supported by back-up rolls which minimize
the deflections and produce better tolerances.
Various Roll Configurations (a) Two-high (b) Three-high
(c) Four-high (d) Cluster mill (e) Tandem mill

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Other deformation processes related to rolling
 Forging
„ Forging is perhaps oldest metal working process and was
known even during prehistoric days when metallic tools
were made by heating and hammering.
„ Forging is basically involves plastic deformation of
material between two dies to achieve desired
configuration. Depending upon complexity of the part
forging is carried out as open die forging and closed die
forging.
„ In open die forging, the metal is compressed by repeated
blows by a mechanical hammer and shape is manipulated
manually.
„ In closed die forging, the desired configuration is
obtained by squeezing the workpiece between two shaped
and closed dies.
„ On squeezing the die cavity gets completely filled and
excess material comes out around the periphery of the
die as flash which is later trimmed.
„ Press forging and drop forging are two popular
methods in closed die forging.
„ In press forging the metal is squeezed slowly by a
hydraulic or mechanical press and component is
produced in a single closing of die, hence the
dimensional accuracy is much better than drop
forging.
„ Both open and closed die forging processes are carried
out in hot as well as in cold state.
„ In forging favorable grain orientation of metal is
obtained
Open and closed die forging

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Grain orientation in forging

Forging Machining

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Barreling in
forging

Flash less forging or

precision forging
 Self reading in forging
„ Fullering
„ Edging
Go through any book on
„ Cogging Manufacturing processes
by Kalpakjian, Groover
„ Upsetting or Degarmo
„ Heading
„ Swaging
„ Radial forging etc.
 Extrusion
„ It is a relatively new process and its commercial
exploitation started early in the nineteenth century with the
extrusion of lead pipes. Extrusion of steels became
possible only after 1930 when extrusion chambers could
be designed to withstand high temperature and pressure.
„ In extrusion, the material is compressed in a chamber and
the deformed material is forced to flow through the die.
The die opening corresponds to the cross section of the
required product.
„ It is basically a hot working process, however, for softer
materials cold extrusion is also performed.
 Direct and Indirect Extrusion
ƒ In direct extrusion metal flows in the
same direction as that of the ram.
Because of the relative motion between
the heated billet and the chamber walls,
friction is severe and is reduced by using
molten glass as a lubricant in case of
steels at higher temperatures. At lower
temperatures, oils with graphite powder
is used for lubrication.
ƒ In indirect extrusion process metal
flows in the opposite direction of the
ram. It is more efficient since it reduces
friction losses considerably. The process,
however, is not used extensively because
it restricts the length of the extruded
component.
 Impact Extrusion

It is similar to indirect
extrusion. Here the punch
descends rapidly on to the
blank which gets indirectly
extruded on to the punch and
to give a tubular section. The
length of the tube formed is
controlled by the amount of
metal in the slug or by the
blank thickness. Collapsible
tubes for pastes are extruded
by this method.
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
In this process the
friction between
container wall and billet
is eliminated, however,
this process has got
limited applications in
industry due to
specialized equipment &
tooling and low
production rate due to
high set up time.
 Drawing
„ Large quantities of wires, rods,
tubes and other sections are
produced by drawing process
which is basically a cold
working process. In this
process the material is pulled
through a die in order to
reduce it to the desired shape
and size.
„ In a typical wire drawing
operation, once end of the wire
is reduced and passed through
the opening of the die, gripped
and pulled to reduce its
diameter.
„ By successive drawing operation through dies of
reducing diameter the wire can be reduced to a very
small diameter.
„ Annealing before each drawing operation permits
large area reduction.
„ Tungsten Carbide dies are used to for drawing hard
wires, and diamond dies is the choice for fine wires.
 Tube drawing

•Tube drawing is also similar to wire drawing, except that a mandrel

of appropriate diameter is required to form the internal hole.
•Here two arrangements are shown in figure (a) with a floating plug
and (b) with a moving mandrel
•The process reduces the diameter and thickness of the tube.
 Deep Drawing
„ This operation is
extensively used to for
making cylindrical
shaped parts such as cups,
shells, etc from sheet
metal.
„ As the blank is drawn into
the die cavity
compressive stress is set
up around the flange and
it tends to wrinkle or
buckle the flange.
Deformation of workpiece during punch travel

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 Defects in drawing

(a)Wrinkling in the flange or (b) in the wall (c) tearing,

(d) earing, (e) surface scratches
The effect of wrinkling and buckling can be seen from
the way a trapezoid on the outer surface of the blank is
stretched in one direction and compressed in another
direction to become a rectangle on the cup drawn.
„ Wrinkling and buckling is avoided by applying a
blank holder force through a blank holder.
„ Blank holder force increases friction and hence the
required punch load. Therefore, blank holder force
should be just enough to prevent wrinkling of the
flange.
„ The edges of the punch and die are rounded for the
easy and smooth flow of metal.
„ Sufficient clearance is also provided so that sheet
metal could be easily accommodated. In sufficient
or large clearance may result into shearing and
tearing of sheet.
„ A drawn cup can be redrawn into a smaller cup
but it must be annealed to prevent failure.
 Punching
ƒPunching and blanking
and Blanking
operations are not metal
forming operations but are
discussed together with metal
forming because of their
similarity with deep drawing
operation.
ƒObjective of punching and
blanking is to remove
material from the sheet metal
by causing rupture, the punch
and die corners are not
provided with the any radius.
ƒTool steel is the most
common material for tool and
die. Carbides are also used
when high production is
needed.
Comparison of metal forming processes
Self reading for your interest

Defects in metal forming processes

and their remedies. (use Kalpakjian’s
book)
Defects in Rolling
Defects in forging
Defects in extrusion

•Surface cracking
•piping
•Internal cracking