Question Bank

Unit 1
Introduction to Surveying
1) What is Surveying and Explain the principle of Surveying.

Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or beneath the
surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction or
elevation.

Principles of Surveying

• Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference

The relative positions of the points to be surveyed should be located by measurement from at
least two points of reference, the positions of which have already been fixed.
• Working from whole to part

The second ruling principle of serving, whether plane or geodetic is to work from whole to
part. It is very essential to establish first a system of control points and to fix them with
higher precision.
2) Define the following: Fore Bearing, Back Bearing, Magnetic Meridian and Magnetic
Declination.

Magnetic Meridian: It is the direction of north pole indicated by magnetic needle.

Magnetic Declination It is the horizontal angle between the true meridian and the magnetic
meridian shown by the needle at the time of observation. When the needle is deflected
towards east of the true meridian, it is said eastern declination or positive and western
declination or negative when it is deflected towards west of the true meridian.

Fore & Back Bearing If the bearing of a line AB is measured from A towards B. it is known
as forward bearing or Fore Bearing (F.B). If the bearing of the line AB is measured from B
towards A, it is known as backward bearing or Back Bearing (B.B.), since it is measured in
backward direction.

3) Define the following terms : Level line, Mean Sea level, Datum, Bench Mark
Level Line: Normal to the plumb line at all points.
Bench Mark: It is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to
some assumed datum is known.
Datum: Any surface to which elevations are referred
Mean Sea Level is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's bodies of water
from which heights such as elevation may be measured.
4) Calculate the true bearing of a line for which magnetic bearing is 46°34’ and declination
is 5°38’ East.
M.B. = T.B. ± Declination ( -ve in east and +ve in west)
T.B. = M.B. + Declination
T.B. = 46°34’ + 5°38’
T.B. = 52°12’

5) The following bearings were observed while traversing with a compass

LINE F.B. B.B.
PQ 45°45’ 226°10’
QR 96°55’ 277°5’
RS 29°45’ 201°10’
ST 324°48’ 144°48’
Determine the corrected bearings.
6) Describe the process of contouring and state the characteristics and methods of locating
the contours.
An imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation is known as
contour. In other words, contour is a line in which the ground surface is intersected by a level
surface obtained by joining points of equal elevation. This line on the map represents a
contour and is called contour line.
Contour Map: A map showing contour lines is known as Contour map. A contour map gives
an idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as their relative positions in plan serves
the purpose of both, a plan and a section.
Contouring:The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of the earth is called
Contouring.

FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR INTERVAL DEPENDS

The contour interval depends upon the following factors:
 The Nature of the Ground:In flat and uniformly sloping country, the contour
interval is small , but in broken and mountainous region the contour interval should be
large otherwise the contours will come too close to each other.
 The Purpose and extent of the survey:Contour interval is small if the area to be
surveyed is small and the maps are required to be used for the design work or for
determining the quantities of earth work etc. while wider interval shall have to be kept
for large areas and comparatively less important works.
 The Scale of the Map:The contour interval should be in the inverse ratio to the scale
of the map i.e. the smaller the scale, the greater is the contour interval.
 Time and Expense of Field and Office work:The smaller the interval, the greater is
the amount of field-work and plotting work.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
 All points in a contour line have the same elevation.
 Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and steep- slope
where they run close together.
 A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniformly spaced and a plane
surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced.
 A series of closed contour lines on the map represent a hill, if the higher values are
inside
 A series of closed contour lines on the map indicate a depression if the higher values
are outside.
 Contours cannot end anywhere but close on themselves either within or outside the
limits of the map.
 Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on map except in the case of an
overhanging cliff.
 Contour lines never run into one another except in the case of a vertical cliff. In this
case, several contours coincide and the horizontal equivalent becomes zero.

METHODS OF CONTOURING
There are mainly two methods of locating contours:-
 Direct Method
 Indirect Method.

DIRECT METHOD
In this method, the contours to be located are directly traced out in the field by locating and
marking a number of points on each contour. These points are then surveyed and plotted on
plan and the contours drawn through them.This method is most accurate but very slow and
tedious as a lot of time is wasted in searching points of the same elevation for a contour. This
is suitable for small area and where great accuracy is required.
Direct Method by Radial Lines: This method is suitable for small areas, where a single
point in the centre can command the whole area. Radial lines are laid out from the common
centre by theodolite or compass and their positions are fixed up by horizontal angles and
bearings. Temporary bench marks are first established at the centre and near the ends of the
radial lines .The contour points are then located and marked on these lines and their positions
are determined by measuring their distances along the radial lines. They are then plotted on
the plan and the contours drawn by joining all the corresponding points with the help of a
plane table instrument.
INDIRECT METHOD
In this method the points located and surveyed are not necessarily on the contour lines but the
spot levels are taken along the series of lines laid out over the area. The spot levels of the
several representative points representing hills, depressions, ridge and valley lines and the
changes in the slope all over the area to be contoured are also observed. Their positions are
then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by interpolation. This method of contouring
is also known as contouring by spot levels. This method is commonly employed in all kinds
of surveys as this is cheaper, quicker and less tedious as compared to direct method.
There are mainly three method of contouring in indirect method:
(i) By Squares. In this method, the whole area is divided into number of squares, the
side of which may vary from 5m to 30m depending upon the nature of the ground
and the contour interval. The square need not be of the same size throughout. The
corners of the squares are pegged out and the reduced levels of these points
aredetermined with a level. The important points within the squares may be taken
when required and located by measurements from the corners. The squares are
plotted and the reduced levels of the corners are written on the plan.

(ii) By Cross-Sections: This method is most suitable for the survey of long narrow
strips such as a road, railway or canal etc.This method is most suitable for the
surveys of long narrow strips such as a road, railway or canal etc. Cross sections
are run transverse to the centre line of the work and representative points are
marked along the lines of cross-section. The cross-section lines need not
necessarily be at right angles to the centre line of the work. This may be inclined
at any angle to the centre line if necessary. The spacing of the cross-sections
depends upon the topography of the country and the nature of the survey. The
common value is 20 to 30 m in hilly country and 100m in flat country. The levels
of the points along the section lines are plotted on the plan and the contours are
then interpolated as usual as shown in the fig.
 (iii) TACHEOMETRIC METHOD: A techeometer is a transit theodolite having a
diaphragm fitted with two stadia wires, one above and other below the central
wire.
This method is most suitable in hilly areas as the number of stations which can be
commanded by a tacheometer is far more than those by a level and thus the
number of instrument settings is considerably reduced.

7) Which errors in theodolite observations are removed by taking mean of

i. Left and right face observations
ii. Readings on two verniers
iii. Reading on different origin or zero.
S0l. (i) Line of Collimation not being perpendicular to Horizontal Axis : In this case, a
cone is formed when the telescope is revolved in the vertical plane, and this causes an
error in the observation.
This error is eliminated by reading the angle from both faces ( left and right ) and taking
the average of the readings.
(ii) Ecentricity of Inner and Outer Axes : This condition causes an error in vernier
readings from both verniers and considering the average of the readings.
Iii Verniers being eccentric : The zeroes of the vernier should ne diametrically opposite to
each other. When vernier A is set ), vernier B should be at 180. But in some cases, this
condition may not exist.
This error is eliminated by reading both verniers and taking the average.
8) The bearings of a line is given in an old map N 56°30’W. The declination at the time of
survey is recorded as 1°45’E. If the present declination is 2°30’W, find the magnetic
bearing to which the line has to be set now.

9) Explain temporary adjustment in theodolite surveying.

Theodolite has two types of adjustments-temporary and permanent. Temporary adjustments
are to be done at every station the instrument is set up. Permanent adjustments deal with the
fundamental lines and their relationships and should be done once in a while to ensure that
the instrument is properly adjusted. The funda-mental lines and their desired relationships are
explained later in this chapter and the permanent adjustments are explained in detail in
Chapter 4. In this section we will discuss temporary adjustments.
The temporary adjustments are the following: (a) setting up and centring,
 
(b) levelling, (c) focusing the eyepiece, and (d) focusing the objective.
 
Setting Up and Centring
 
The following procedure is adopted for this operation.
1.    Remove the theodolite from its box carefully and fix it onto a tripod kept over the station
where the instrument is to be set up. The tripod legs should be well apart and the telescope
should be at a convenient height for sighting.
 
2.  Tie a plumb bob onto the hook provided at the base. If there is no shifting head in the
instrument, centre it by adjusting the tripod legs and shifting the instru-ment as a whole to
bring the plumb bob over the station mark.
3.  To centre the plumb bob, shift the tripod legs radially as well as circumf-
erentially. Moving any leg radially shifts the plumb bob in the direction of the leg. This does
not affect the level status of the instrument. Moving any leg circumferentially does not
appreciably shift the plumb. However, this movement tilts the instrument and affects the
level of the plate bubbles. By moving the legs the plumb bob is brought over the station mark
at the same time ensuring that the instrument is approximately level. This saves a lot of time
for the next operation of levelling.
4.  If the instrument has a shifting head with a clamp, first centre the instrument using legs.
Make the final adjustment by loosening the clamp and shifting the head (or the instrument as
a whole) to bring the plumb bob over the station mark. In all operations, the starting step
should be to first bring the plumb bob very close to the mark and then make the final
adjustment using the legs or the shifting head.
 
Levelling
After setting up and centring the instrument, levelling is done. Levelling has
To be done at every station the instrument is set up. By levelling the instrument, it is ensured
that as the instrument is swung about the vertical axis, the horizontal plate moves in a
horizontal plane. The instrument may have a three-screw or a four-screw levelling head. The
levelling operations differ slightly in these two cases as detailed in the following sections.
Most instruments have only one bubble tube, but some instruments have two bubble tubes set
at right angles over the plates.
 
Three-screw levelling head
 
When the theodolite has a three-screw levelling head, the following procedure is adopted.
 
1.  Swing the theodolite and bring the plate bubble parallel to any two of the foot
 
screws. Centre the bubble by rotating the foot screws. To do this, hold the foot screws by the
uniband o reinge o each ch hand and rotate both either inwards or outwards [see Fig. 6.3(a)].
Also note that the bubble moves in the direction of movement of the left thumb during this
operation.
 
Once the bubble traverses (or comes to the central position from the gradua-tion of the tube),
swing the instrument and bring the bubble over the third foot screw. In this position, the
bubble tube is at right angles to the earlier position. Centre the bubble by rotating the third
foot screw alone.

 
Fig. 6.3   Three-foot-screw levelling head
 

3.  Bring the plate bubble to its previous position by swinging the instrument back. Check
whether the bubble traverses. If it does not traverse, bring the bubble to the centre using the
two foot screws as before.
 
4.  Repeat the procedure till the bubble traverses in both these positions.
 
5.  Swing the instrument through 180 o and check whether the bubble traverses. The bubble
should traverse in all positions if the instrument has been properly adjusted.
 
If two plate bubbles are provided [see Fig. 6.3(b)], the procedure is the same except that
swinging the instrument through 90 o is not required. When one plate level is kept parallel to
a pair of foot screws, the other plate level is over the third foot screw (in a perpendicular
direction). The third foot screw is adjusted alternately by the same process using the foot
screws over which they are paral-lel.
 
Four-screw levelling head
 
When the theodolite has a four-screw levelling head, the following procedure is adopted.
 
1.  After setting up and centring the theodolite, bring the plate level parallel to any one pair of
diagonally opposite foot screws. Operate these foot screws to centre the bubble (Fig. 6.4).
 
2.  Swing the instrument to bring the plate level parallel to the other pair of foot screws.
Centre the bubble.
 
3.  Swing it back to the previous position. Check whether the bubble traverses. If it does not,
centre it with the foot screws to which the level is parallel.
 
4.  Swing it back, check the position of the bubble, and repeat the procedure.
 
5.  Once the bubble traverses in the two orthogonal positions, swing it through 180 o . The
bubble should traverse in this position or in any other position.
 
If two plate levels are provided, the procedure is the same. Bring one plate level parallel to a
pair of opposite foot screws. The other pair will be parallel to the remaining pair of foot
screws. There is no need to swing the instrument. Bring the bubble to the central position
alternately and check in the other positions.

Fig. 6.4   Four-foot-screw levelling head

Focusing the Eyepiece

 
Focusing the eyepiece is the operation of bringing the cross hairs to focus. The focusing
position varies with the eyesight of the observer. If the same observer is
 
taking the readings, this has to be done only once. To focus the eyepiece, use the following
procedure.
 
1.  Keep a piece of white paper in front of the telescope or direct the telescope towards a clear
portion of the sky.
 
2.  Looking through the telescope, adjust the vision by rotating the eyepiece till the cross
hairs come into sharp and clear view.
 
3.  If the eyepiece has graduations, note the graduation at which you get a clear view of the
cross hairs. This can help in later adjustment if required.

10) What are the effects of curvature and refraction in levelling? Derive an expression (i)
curvature (ii) combined refraction.
Curvature & Refraction

Curvature:
From Fig. B
OC2 = OA2 + AC2
Let BC =Cc = Correction for Curvature

AB = d= horizontal distance between A & B

AO = R = radius of earth.
(R+ Cc )2 = R2 + D2
R2 + 2RCc + Cc2 = R2 + D2
Cc (2R+Cc ) = D2
or Cc = D2/ (2R +Cc ) = D2/ 2R (neglecting Cc )
If D is to be in km and R = 6370 km,
Cc = 0.07849 D2 metres
In this expression, d is to be substituted in km, while Cc will be in metres.
The correction applied is negative.
Refraction:

The refraction curve is irregular but for average conditions it is assumed to have diameter
about 7 times that of the earth. Under normal atmospheric conditions, arc AD may be taken
as circular and of radius seven times that of the earth. The effect of refraction is therefore
1/7th7 the of that of the curvature, but is of opposite nature. Hence the correction for
refraction is additive to the staff reading.

The error due to refraction: 

Combined Correction due to Curvature and Refraction

The combined correction ( C ) is given by
= Cc - Cr (subtractive)
C = 0.06728 D2 metres, d being in km.

11) What do you understand by orientation of plane table? How it is carried out in the field?

Orienting the Plane Table: The operation of keeping the table at each of the successive
stations parallel to the position which it occupied at the first station is known as orientation. It
is necessary when the instrument has to be set up at more than one station.
There are two methods of orienting the table:

⦿Orientation by the Magnetic Needle: This method is used when it is not possible to
bisect the previous station from the new station. This method is not much reliable and prone
to errors due to variations of magnetic field.
⦿Orientation by Back sighting: In this method the table is orientated by back sighting
through the ray which is drawn from the previous station. This is the most accurate and
reliable method of orientation of plane table.

12) Discuss in detail the methods of direct and indirect contouring.

METHODS OF CONTOURING
There are mainly two methods of locating contours:-
 Direct Method
 Indirect Method.

DIRECT METHOD
In this method, the contours to be located are directly traced out in the field by locating and
marking a number of points on each contour. These points are then surveyed and plotted on
plan and the contours drawn through them.This method is most accurate but very slow and
tedious as a lot of time is wasted in searching points of the same elevation for a contour. This
is suitable for small area and where great accuracy is required.
Direct Method by Radial Lines: This method is suitable for small areas, where a single
point in the centre can command the whole area. Radial lines are laid out from the common
centre by theodolite or compass and their positions are fixed up by horizontal angles and
bearings. Temporary bench marks are first established at the centre and near the ends of the
radial lines .The contour points are then located and marked on these lines and their positions
are determined by measuring their distances along the radial lines. They are then plotted on
the plan and the contours drawn by joining all the corresponding points with the help of a
plane table instrument.
INDIRECT METHOD
In this method the points located and surveyed are not necessarily on the contour lines but the
spot levels are taken along the series of lines laid out over the area. The spot levels of the
several representative points representing hills, depressions, ridge and valley lines and the
changes in the slope all over the area to be contoured are also observed. Their positions are
then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by interpolation. This method of contouring
is also known as contouring by spot levels. This method is commonly employed in all kinds
of surveys as this is cheaper, quicker and less tedious as compared to direct method.
There are mainly three method of contouring in indirect method:
(iv) By Squares. In this method, the whole area is divided into number of squares, the
side of which may vary from 5m to 30m depending upon the nature of the ground
and the contour interval. The square need not be of the same size throughout. The
corners of the squares are pegged out and the reduced levels of these points are
determined with a level. The important points within the squares may be taken
when required and located by measurements from the corners. The squares are
plotted and the reduced levels of the corners are written on the plan.
 (v) By Cross-Sections: This method is most suitable for the survey of long narrow
strips such as a road, railway or canal etc.This method is most suitable for the
surveys of long narrow strips such as a road, railway or canal etc. Cross sections
are run transverse to the centre line of the work and representative points are
marked along the lines of cross-section. The cross-section lines need not
necessarily be at right angles to the centre line of the work. This may be inclined
at any angle to the centre line if necessary. The spacing of the cross-sections
depends upon the topography of the country and the nature of the survey. The
common value is 20 to 30 m in hilly country and 100m in flat country. The levels
of the points along the section lines are plotted on the plan and the contours are
then interpolated as usual as shown in the fig.

(vi) TACHEOMETRIC METHOD: A techeometer is a transit theodolite having a

diaphragm fitted with two stadia wires, one above and other below the central
wire.

This method is most suitable in hilly areas as the number of stations which can be
commanded by a tacheometer is far more than those by a level and thus the number of
instrument settings is considerably reduced.
13)
14) What are the basic sources of error in Survey? Give detail.
Natural Errors

These are caused due to variations in nature i.e., variations in wind, temperature, humidity,
refraction, gravity and magnetic field of the earth.

Instrumental Errors

These result from imperfection in the construction or adjustment of surveying instruments,

and movement of their individual parts.

Personal Errors

These arise from limitations of the human senses of sight, touch and hearing.

Types of Errors

Errors are traditionally been classified into three types.

Gross Error

Gross errors, also known as blunders or mistakes, are results from

 Carelessness on the part of observer in taking or recording reading

 Faults in equipment’s
 Adoption of wrong technique
 Misinterpretation

The blunders or mistakes result into large errors and thus can easily be detected by comparing
with other types of errors (generally small in value). The maximum permissible error in an
observation is ± 3.29s (where s is the standard deviation of sample distribution) and is used to
separate mistakes or blunders from the random errors. If any error deviates from the mean by
more than the maximum permissible error, it is considered as a gross error and the
measurement is rejected.
After mistakes have been detected and eliminated from the measurements, the remaining
errors are usually classified either as systematic or random error depending on the
characteristics of errors.

Systematic errors

It is occur according to a system. These errors follow a definite pattern. Thus, if an

experiment is repeated, under the same conditions, same pattern of systematic errors reoccur.
These errors are dependent on the observer, the instrument used, and on the physical
environment of the experiment. Any change in one or more of the elements of the system will
cause a change in the character of the systematic error. Depending on the value and sign of
errors in successive observation, systematic errors are divided into two types.

 Cumulative Error
 Compensating Error

Systematic errors are dealt with mathematically using functional relationships or models.

Random Error

After mistakes are eliminated and systematic errors are corrected, a survey measurement is
associated with random error only. This error is small and is equally liable to be plus or
minus thus partly compensating in nature. Random errors are unpredictable and they cannot
be evaluated or quantified exactly.

15) What are contour and contour gradient? Explain in detail various uses of contour map.

Uses of contours maps

 
Contours provide valuable information about the nature of terrain. This is very important for
selection of sites, determination of catchment area of a drainage basin, to find intervisibility
between stations etc. Some of the salient uses of contours are described below
 
Nature of Ground
 
To visualize the nature of ground along a cross section of interest,
 
To Locate Route
 
Contour map provides useful information for locating a route at a given gradient such as
highway, canal, sewer line etc.
 
Intervisibility between Stations
 
When the intervisibility between two points can not be ascertained by inspection of the area,
it can be determined using contour map.
 
To Determine Catchment Area or Drainage Area
 
The catchment area of a river is determined by using contour map. The watershed line which
indicates the drainage basin of a river passes through the ridges and saddles of the terrain
around the river. Thus, it is always perpendicular to the contour lines. The catchment area
contained between the watershed line and the river outlet is then measured with a planimeter
 
Storage capacity of a Reservoir
 
The storage capacity of a reservoir is determined from contour map. The contour line
indicating the full reservoir level (F.R.L) is drawn on the contour map. The area enclosed
between successive contours are measured by planimeter .The volume of water between
F.R.L and the river bed is finally estimated by using either Trapezoidal formula or Prismoidal
formula.
16) Explain the difference between prismatic and Surveyor Compass.
Difference between Surveyor’s & Prismatic Compass

Item Prismatic Compass Surveyor’s Compass

Magnetic The needle is of 'broad needle' The needle is of 'edge bar' type.
Needle type. The needle does not act as The needle acts as the index also.
index.

Graduated (1) The graduated card ring is (1) The graduated card is attached
Card attached with the needle. The to the box and not to the needle.
ring does not rotate along with The card rotates along with the
the line or sight. line of sight.
(2) The graduations are in (2) The graduations are in Q.B.
W.C.B. system, having 0° at system, having 0° at N and S and
South end, 90° at West. 180° at 90° at East and West. East and
North and 270° at East. West are interchanged.
(3) The graduations are engraved (3) The graduations are engraved
inverted. erect.

Sighting (1) The object vane consists of (1) The object vane consists of a
metal vane with a vertical hair. metal vane with a vertical hair.
Vanes
(2) The eye vane consists of a (2)The eye vane consists of a
small metal vane with slit. metal vane with fine slit.

(2) Sighting & reading can be (2) Sighting & reading cannot be
done simultaneously from one done simultaneously from one
position of the observer. position of the observer.
Tripod Tripod may or may not be The instrument cannot be used
provided. The instrument can be without a tripod.
used even by holding suitably in
hand