Chapter Four

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

Oersted’s Experiment
A magnetic field is produced in the surrounding of any current carrying conductor.

Magnetic Field:

The space around a current carrying conductor, in which its magnetic effect can be experienced ,is
called magnetic field.

The magnetic field is denoted by B.It is a is a vector quantity.

The direction of this magnetic field can be obtained by Ampere’s swimming rule.
SI unit of magnetic field is Wb/m2 or T (tesla).
The conventional sign for a magnetic field coming out of the plane and normal to it
is a dot i.e.,
A current or a field (electric or magnetic) emerging out of the plane of the
paper is depicted by a dot .
A current or a field going into the plane of the paper is depicted by a cross (⊗ )
Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule
If a right handed cork screw is imagined to be rotated in such a direction that tip of
the screw points in the direction of the current, then direction of rotation of thumb
gives the direction of magnetic line of force.

Magnetic field obeys the principle of superposition: The effective magnetic field B at a point due
to magnetic field of several sources is the vector addition of M.F of each individual sources at that
point.

𝐵 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵3 + 𝐵4 … … . . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 …are the magnetic fields at a point due to individual

sources of M.F.

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD ..

(Q. Write the expression for the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field. )

Consider a positive charge q moving in a uniform magnetic field B with a velocity v .Let the angle
between v and B be 𝜃 .Due to interaction between the M.F produced due to moving charge ( current)
and magnetic field applied ,then the charge q experiences a force.

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  The magnitude of the Force experienced by the charge is directly proportional to the
magnitude of charge. 𝐹 ∝ 𝑞
 Force F experienced by the charge is directly proportional to the component of velocity
acting perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field
𝐹 ∝ 𝑣 sin 𝜃
 The magnitude of force is F experienced by the charge is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the magnetic field produced.
𝐹 ∝𝐵

𝐹 ∝ 𝑞𝐵𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒒𝒗𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐾 = 1

𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 where v B sin 𝜃 = v x B. The force on a charged particle moving inside a
magnetic field is called magnetic Lorentz force.

𝑭=𝒒(𝒗×𝑩)
The direction of the force acting on a charged particle q, moving with a velocity in a
uniform magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of vectors and

Q. Write the relation for the force 𝐹⃗ acting on a charged carrier q moving with a velocity 𝑣⃗ through
magnetic field 𝐵⃗⃗ in vector notation .Using this relation , deduce the conditions under which this
force will be maximum and minimum.

⃗⃗ = 𝒒 ( 𝒗
𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗ × 𝑩

CASE 1

If 𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟎 (charge is moving along straight line path ,parallel or
anti parallel )

𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟎

𝑭𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 = 𝟎

It means that a charged particle moving along or opposite to the direction of magnetic field ,does not
experience any force.

CASE 2

If 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟏
𝑭 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗 ..maximum force.

ie if a charge is moving along a line perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field (circular path ),it
experiences a maximum force.

Hence this force will provide required centripetal force and the charged particle will describe a
circular path in the magnetic field of radius r ,

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 𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝐵𝑞𝑣
𝑟
The direction of maximum force can be determined by Fleming’s left hand rule.

If we stretch the first finger ,the central finger and the thumb of left hand mutually perpendicular to
each other such that the first finger points to the direction of magnetic field ,the central finger points
to the direction of electric current ( motion of the charge ) then the thumb represents the direction of
force experienced by the charged particle.

CASE 3

If charge is not moving , v = 0

𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟎
𝑭=𝟎

If a charged particle is at rest in a magnetic field ,it experiences no force.

Case 4 (page no 138 NCERT )

When v is making an angle with B other than 𝟎𝟎 , 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎

The charged particle will describe a helical motion whose axis is parallel to the direction of M.F. ie
the charged particle in magnetic field will cover linear path as well as circular path.

Note ; if a charged particle moves in a direction and not in parallel to electric field, it
moves in a parabolic path.

Magnetic field induction

If v =1 ,q =1, 𝜃 = 900 sin 𝜃 = 1

F=B

The Magnetic field induction at a point in the M.F is equal to the force experienced by a unit charge
moving with a unit velocity perpendicular to the direction of M.F at that point.

UNIT OF MAGNETIC FIELD (B) (vim ) (Define I Tesla )

Q. Use the expression for force to define the S.I unit of magnetic field.

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝜃 = 900

𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩
𝑭
𝑩=
𝒒𝒗
𝑵 𝑵𝒔
= 𝑪 𝒎⁄𝒔
= 𝑪 𝒎 = 𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒂 𝑻

SI unit of magnetic field B is 𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒂 𝑻 𝑜r Weber / (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒)2 𝑊𝑏⁄

𝑚2

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(vim ) Define I Tesla :

Strength of M.F is said to be one Tesla if a charge of 1C moving with a velocity of of 1 𝑚⁄𝑠 along a
direction perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field experiences a force of 1N.

The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb)

Smaller unit of B is gauss

1gauss (1 G) = 10−4 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎

Lorentz Force

The force experienced by a charged particle moving in space where both magnetic and electric
field exist is called Lorentz Force .

Force due to E.F -- When a charged particle carrying a charge +q is placed in E.F of strength ,it
experiences a force 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝑞𝐸 whose direction is the same as that of E

Force due to M.F … When a charged particle carrying a charge +q is moving in a magnetic field B
,with a velocity v ,it experiences a force 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑞 (𝑣 × 𝐵 )

Total force experienced by the charged particle,

LORENTZ FORCE 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐

𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 + 𝑞 (𝑣 × 𝐵 )
𝐹 = 𝑞 [ 𝐸 + (𝑣 × 𝐵 )] 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒.

Special cases

Case 1 ;

When v, E and B all three are collinear .In this situation ,the charged particle is moving parallel or
anti parallel to the fields ,the magnetic force on the charged particle is zero. The electric force on the
𝑞𝐸
charged particle will produce acceleration .𝑎 = 𝑚
along the direction of E.F

There will be change in speed ,velocity ,momentum & K.E but no change in the direction of motion .

Case 2;

When v, E and B are mutually perpendicular to each other .in this situation

LORENTZ FORCE 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 0

𝑞𝐸
Then the acceleration .𝑎 = 𝑚
= 0 .It means that the particle will pass through the fields without any
change in its velocity. Here 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐

𝐸
𝑠𝑜 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞 (𝑣𝐵 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 =
𝐵

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This concept is used in velocity –selector to get a charged beam having a definite velocity.

MOTION IN COMBINED ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

Q. Find the condition under which the charged particles moving with different speeds in the
presence of electric and magnetic field vectors can be used to select charged particles of a
particular speed. (All India 2015)

VELOCITY SELECTOR

Condition: The velocity of the charged particles, and the and vectors, should
be mutually perpendicular

When a charge q is moving with velocity v in presence of electric and magnetic field ,then
𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒. 𝐹 = 𝑞 [ 𝐸 + (𝑣 × 𝐵 )]

Let 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑗̂ . 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑘̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑖̂

𝑭𝑬 = q E = q 𝐸 𝑗̂

𝑭𝑩 = q( v x B ) = q ( 𝑣 𝑖̂ × 𝐵𝑘̂ ) = − 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑗̂
𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒. 𝐹 = 𝐪 𝐸 𝑗̂ + (− 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑗̂ )
𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒. 𝐹 = = 𝐪 (𝐸 − 𝑣 𝐵 )𝑗 ̂
Suppose we adjust the value of E and B such that magnitudes of the two forces are equal
then the total force on the charge is zero and the charge will move in the field undeflected.
This happens when
qE = qvB
𝐸
𝑣=
𝐵
This condition can be used in select charged particles of a particular velocity out of a
beam containing charges moving with different speeds.- velocity selector(velocity filter)

MOTION OF CHARGE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

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(Q. A particle of charge q and mass m is moving with velocity v. it is subjected to a uniform
magnetic field B directed perpendicular to its velocity.Show that it describes a circular path.Write the
expression for its radius.)

(a) When v is perpendicular to B

Consider motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field. First consider the case of v
perpendicular to B.. The particle will describe a circle if v and B are perpendicular to each other.

Then the force on the charge 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵

⃗⃗) … . (1)

If velocity has a component along B, this component remains unchanged as the motion along the
magnetic field will not be affected by the magnetic field. So the path of the charged particle in a
perpendicular magnetic field becomes circular.The motion in a plane perpendicular to B is as before a
circular one, thereby producing a helical motion

The magnetic force (qvB) provides the necessary centripetal force to move along the circular path. if
r is the radius of the circular path of a particle,

𝑚𝑣 2
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑟
… . . (2)

. Equating the expressions for force,

𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑟
𝒎𝒗
Radius 𝒓= 𝒒𝑩
𝑞𝐵𝑟
And velocity 𝑣 = 𝑚

The larger the momentum, the larger is the radius and bigger the circle described.

The angular frequency of the charged particle: If ω is the angular frequency, then

v= rω
𝑚𝑣
𝑣 = ω( )
𝑞𝐵
𝐁𝐪
𝛚=
𝐦

Therefore, the frequency of the revolution of the charged particle is independent of the
velocity or the energy of tire particle.

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The period of circular motion of the charged particle:

Let ω = 2π𝜗 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜗 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The time taken for one revolution is T= 2π/ ω ≡ 1/𝜗
2π
.𝑇= qB
m
𝟐𝛑𝐦
𝑻= 𝑩𝒒

Kinetic energy of charged particle :

𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
𝑞𝐵𝑟
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑣 =
𝑚
𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝑩𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 ,
𝟐 𝒎𝟐

𝒒𝟐 𝑩𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟐𝒎

Q. A charge q of mass m is moving with a velocity of v, at right angles to a uniform

magnetic field B. Deduce the expression for the radius of the circular path it
describes. If the velocity has a component parallel to the magnetic field , trace the
path described by the particle. Justify your answer. (Comptt. Delhi 2015)

Note ( vim): If there is a component of the velocity parallel to the magnetic field (denoted by
𝒗|| ),it will make the particle move along the field and the path of the particle would be a helical
one.

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The distance moved by the charged particle along the magnetic field in one rotation is called pitch
(p) of the helical path.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑣|| 𝑇 𝑖𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑝 = 𝑣|| 𝑇
By using the relation

2𝜋𝑚
T= 𝑞𝐵
𝑣|| 2𝜋𝑚
𝑝=
𝑞𝐵
The radius of the circular component of motion is called the radius of the helix.

S. No. Particle Charge Mass

1 Proton e m

2 Deuteron e 2m

3 Alpha 2e 4m

4 Electron -e m/1840

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD . (Q. Derive an expression for the force experienced by a current carrying
straight conductor placed in magnetic field .Under what condition is this force is maximum.

8
Consider a rod of uniform cross-sectional area A and length ‘l’ which is placed in a magnetic field B
.The conductor contains ‘n’ number of electrons per unit volume then the total no of charge carriers in
it is n A l .Let I be the current flowing through the conductor .𝑣𝑑 is the drift velocity of the electron
.If ‘e’ is the charge of each electron ,then total charge on all the free electrons on the conductor.

𝑞 = 𝐴𝑙𝑛𝑒
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃

𝐹 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑙 𝐵 sin 𝜃 … . (1) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑

Eq (1) becomes 𝑭 = 𝑰 𝒍𝑩 sin 𝜃

𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐼 𝑙 & 𝐵

𝑭 = 𝑰 (𝒍 × 𝑩 )

CASE 1
If 𝜃 = 90° 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 sin 𝜃 = 1
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 𝐼 𝑙𝐵 𝑖𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

If conductor is placed perpendicular to the direction of M.F ,it experiences a maximum force.

The direction of force can be determined by Fleming’s left hand rule.

CASE 2
If 𝜃 = 0° or 𝜃 = 180° 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 𝑂 𝑖𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
If a current carrying conductor is placed parallel or anti parallel to the direction of M.F ,it
experiences no force.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT ELEMENT

BIOT-SAVART LAW (Q. State and explain BIOT-SAVART LAW . Use it to derive an
expression for the magnetic field produced at a point near a long current carrying wire.)

It is also called Laplace’s law. BIOT-SAVART LAW deals with the magnetic field at a point due to a
small current element.

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Consider a small element AB of length 𝑑𝑙 of the conductor XY carrying a current I .Let r be be the
position vector of the point P ,form the current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ( current element is the product of current
and length of very small segment 𝑑𝑙 ) and 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑑𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟

Ans: Biot-Savart law states that “the magnetic field at a point due to the
small element of a current carrying conductor is directly proportional
to
1. The current flowing through the conductor (I)
2. The length of the element dl
3. Sine of the angle between r and dlAnd inversely proportional to
the square of the distance of the point from dl (r2)

𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒅𝑩 ∝
𝒓𝟐
𝑲𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒅𝑩 = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑲 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒓𝟐
𝜇0
In SI units 𝐾 = where 𝜇0 is absolute permeability of free space.
4𝜋

𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑤𝑏⁄𝐴𝑚

𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇 𝐴−1 𝑚
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒅𝑩 = 𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
--In cgs system K = 1 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑟2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝝁𝟎 𝑰(𝒅𝒍×𝒓
𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝒅𝑩 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑

Case 1

𝜃=0

ie point p is on the axis , then 𝑑𝐵 = 0

Case 2

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 𝜃 = 90°

𝑖𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑙 ,

𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑀𝐴𝑋𝐼𝑀𝑈𝑀
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

Case 3 𝜃 = 180°

𝑖𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑝 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝑑𝐵 = 0

BIOT- SAVART LAW INTERMS OF CURRENT DENSITY( j )

𝐼
𝑗=
𝐴
𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑗= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑉 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)
𝐴𝑑𝑙

𝐼𝑑𝑙 = 𝑗𝑑𝑉

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟⃗
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟3
𝜇0 𝑗 × 𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟3

BIOT- SAVART LAW INTERMS OF CHARGE AND VELOCITY

𝑞 𝑑𝑙
𝐼𝑑𝑙 = . 𝑑𝑙 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑣 (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐼𝑑𝑙 = 𝑞𝑣

𝜇0 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝑟⃗)
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟3

Similarities and Dissimilarities between Biot –Savart’s law and the Coulomb’s law

Ans. Similarity Between Biot Savart’s Law And Coulomb’s Law

1. Field at any point vary inversely as the square of the distance

2. Both obey superposition principle

3. Both magnetic and electric fields have sources that are linear in nature (both, the
current element idl and the electrostatic charge q)

Differences Between Biot Savart’s Law And Coulomb’s Law

11
1. Electric field is produced by a scalar source (q) where as Magnetic field is produce by
vector source (Idl)

2. Electric field is acting along the displacement vector where as Magnetic field acts
perpendicular to dI x r.( According to Biot-Savart’s law, the direction of the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the current element as well as to the line joining the current element to the
point P.)

3. Electric field is not depended of θ where as Magnetic field depends upon θ.

APPLICATIONS OF Biot –Savart law

MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR CURRENT LOOP (Q. USE
Biot –Savart law to derive the expression for the magnetic field due to a circular coil
carrying current at a point along its axis .)

Consider a circular coil of radius ‘a’ with centre ‘O’ .The plane of the coil be perpendicular to
the plane of the paper. Let ‘P’ is a point on the axis of the circular coil at a distance ‘x’ from
its centre O. OP = x

Consider two small elements of the coil each of length dl at ‘A and ‘B’
which are situated at diametrically opposite edges.
From figure
PA = PB = r
𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2
According to Biot –Savart’s law

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2

12
 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜃 = 900
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
dB due to dl at A 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋 𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝐵′ 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2

𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵′

Resolving 𝑑𝐵 and 𝑑𝐵′ into two rectangular components .𝑑𝐵 cos ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝐵′ cos ∅ are equal and
opposite so they cancel each other . 𝑑𝐵 sin ∅ & 𝑑𝐵′ sin ∅ acting along the same direction.

Total magnetic field at P due to current through the whole circular coil

𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 sin ∅
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin ∅
𝐵= ∫
4𝜋 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2

𝜇0 𝐼 sin ∅
𝐵= ∫ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2
𝑎
From figure sin ∅ =
√𝑎 2 +𝑥 2

∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑎 ( 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒)

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑎
𝐵= 2 2
× 2𝜋𝑎
4𝜋 𝑎 + 𝑥 √𝑎 + 𝑥 2
2

𝝁𝟎 𝟐𝝅𝑰𝒂𝟐
𝑩=
𝟒𝝅 (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐

𝝁𝟎 𝒂𝟐 𝑰
𝑩= 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝑷𝑿
𝟐 (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐
Special case.1
If there are N turns in the coil
𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝑰𝒂𝟐
𝑩=
𝟐 (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐
Case 2
When P is at the centre of the circular coil
Then x = 0
𝜇0 𝑎2 𝐼
𝐵=
2 𝑎3

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵= (𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝)
2𝑎
𝜇0 𝑁 𝐼
𝐵= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
2𝑎
Variation of B with distance

13
 -----Distance ------
The direction of magnetic field is given by right hand thumb rule.

Curl the palm of your right hand around the circular wire with the thumb pointing towards the
direction of current,then the other fingers encircling the coil gives the direction of magnetic field.

(inside the loop all the lines are in the same direction)

Define magnetic dipole moment due to a current.

Ans: Every current carrying loop is a magnetic dipole. It has two poles south
(S) and north (N).This is similar to a bar magnet.
Each magnetic dipole has some magnetic moment (M). Magnetic moment
M= Current × Area
M= IA
For a coil having n turns N turns
M= IAN
The current carrying loop behaves as a small magnetic dipole placed along the axis
one face of the loop behaves as north pole while the other face of loop behaves as
south pole.

CIRCULAR CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE

Current loop behaves as a magnetic dipole. Consider a circular current loop,

o Magnetic field at a distance x on the axis passing through the centre of the of the circular
current(I) carrying loop and normal to the plane of loop is given by:

14
 𝝁𝟎 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝟐 𝑰
𝑩=
𝟒𝝅 (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐

o If the point is very far from the current loop (x ˃˃ a), then the magnetic field will be:

𝜇0 𝐼 2𝜋𝑎 2
𝐵= where 𝜋𝑎2 = A (area)
4𝜋𝑥 3
𝜇0 2𝐼𝐴
𝐵=
4𝜋𝑥 3
𝜇0 2𝑀
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑥 3 where m is magnetic dipole moment and M = I A
𝜇0 2𝑀
𝐵=
4𝜋𝑥 3
o Comparing the above equation to the electric field E due to electric dipole of moment p at an
axial point:
𝟐𝑷
𝑬= 𝟒𝛑Ɛ𝐨 𝐱 𝟑
o We can observe that
1. magnetic dipole moment m and electric dipole moment p are comparable
2. permeability of free space μo and inverse of permittivity of free space 1/Ɛo are comparable
o Using the above comparison, we can also use the value of electric field E due to electric dipole of
moment p at an equatorial point to evaluate the magnetic field at the equatorial point
𝒑
𝑬= 𝟒 𝝅Ɛ𝐨𝒙𝟑

𝜇0 𝑀
∴𝐵=
4𝜋𝑥 3
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of magnetic field B around a closed path in
vacuum is equal to 𝜇0 times the total current I passing through the closed path.

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝑙

Applications of Ampere’s circuital law

What are the applications of Ampere’s law?

Ans: Amperes law can be applied to find the magnetic field due to:

(i) a straight infinitely long conducting wire.

(ii) a solenoid

(iii) a toroid

15
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITE LONG STRAIGHT WIRE CARRYING CURRENT
(3 mark)( Applying Amperes law, derive an expression for the magnetic
field due to a straight infinite current carrying wire.)

To find the magnetic field due to the straight current carrying conductor at a
point P, distant ‘r’ from the conductor,imagine an amperian loop of radius ‘r’.

(Let I be the current flowing through a straight wire .A magnetic field is produced which has the
same magnitude at all points ie the M.F has cylindrical symmetry around the wire .Let P be a point at
a distance ‘r ‘ from the staight wire .Let dl be a small element of the circular path and B be the M.F at
P . The magnetic field at P will be tangential to the circumference of the circular loop.B and dl acting
along the same direction .)

The line integral of M.F over the closed circular path is,
∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙 … (1)

By Amperes circuital law ∮𝑙 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

By using equation (1) ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
Where ∮ 𝑑𝑙 =2𝜋𝑟 B2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝝁𝟎 𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅𝒓
 The field at every point on a circle of radius r, (with the wire along the axis), is same in
magnitude.
 The magnetic field possesses a cylindrical symmetry.
 . The field is directly proportional to the current and inversely proportional to the distance
from the (infinitely long) current source.

 The field direction at any point on this circle is tangential to it. Thus, the lines of constant
magnitude of magnetic field form concentric circles.

16
 The right-hand rule :To determine the direction of the magnetic field due to a long wire.

According to the right-hand rule ,Grasp the wire in your right hand with your extended
thumb pointing in the direction of the current. Your fingers will curl around in the direction of
the magnetic field.

Q. A long straight wire, of circular cross section (radius = a) carries a current I which
is uniformly distributed across the cross section of the wire.
Use Ampere's circuital law to calculate the magnetic field B(r), due to this wire, at a
point distance r < a and r > a from its axis. Draw a graph showing the dependence of
B(r) on r. (Comptt. All India 2016)

17
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A SOLENOID CARRYING CURRENT

Solenoid is a long insulated wire wound in the form of a helix where the neighbouring
turns are closely spaced.
When current flows through the solenoid, it behaves as a bar magnet.
For a long solenoid, the field outside is nearly zero. The field inside is everywhere
parallel to the axis.

How will you find the polarity of a current carrying solenoid?

Ans: If the current at one end of the solenoid is in the anticlockwise direction it will
be the North Pole and
if the current is in the clockwise direction it will be the South Pole.

Consider a long solenoid having n turns per unit length and carrying current I. A magnetic field is set
up inside the long solenoid, which is uniform and parallel to the length of the solenoid .
𝑁
If there are N turns in length L of wire , then 𝑛 =
𝐿

Consider a rectangle PQRS ( Amperian loop )

Let PQ = L

̂ = ∮𝑄 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
̂ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐵. ̂ 𝑅
̂ + ∮𝑆 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
+ ∮𝑄 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 ̂ + ∮𝑃 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
̂ …….(1)
𝑃 𝑅 𝑆
For path RS ,B= 0 (since field is zero outside a solenoid)
𝑺
∮ 𝑩 𝒅𝒍 ̂=0
𝑹

For path QR and SP , B and dl are mutually perpendicular. so cos 90=0)

18
 𝑹 𝑷
̂
∮𝑸 𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = ̂
∮𝑺 𝑩 𝒅𝒍 =0
For path PQ ,B and dl are along the same direction
̂ = ∮𝑸 𝑩 𝒅𝒍
̂ 𝒅𝒍
∮ 𝑩. ̂ = 𝑩 𝑳 … . . (𝟐)
𝑷
By Ampere’s circuital law

̂ = 𝜇0 × 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆

̂ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐵.

̂ = 𝜇0 × 𝑛𝑜 . 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 × 𝐼

̂ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐵.
̂ = 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐿 𝐼 … . . (3)
̂ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐵.
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (2)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3) 𝐵𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐿 𝐼
∴ The M.F at a point inside the solenoid,
𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒏 𝑰
𝑁
If there are N turns in length L of wire , then 𝑛 = 𝐿
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝑵
𝑩=
𝑳

N – Total no of turns
L – Total length
Case 1
Outside the solenoid B = 0
Case 2
𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼
Near the end of the solenoid , B =
2
If the solenoid is wound on a core of a material having relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 then
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑛 𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑛𝐼

. How can you increase the magnetic field of a solenoid?

Ans: The magnetic field due to a solenoid can be increased by
i) Increasing the no. of turns per unit length (n)
ii) Increasing the current (I)
iii) Inserting a soft iron core into the solenoid.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT IN TOROID(Q. Using Ampere’s circuital law

,derive an expression for the magnetic field along the axis of a toroidal solenoid.)

A toroid is a solenoid bent to form a ring shape .The toroid is a hollow circular ring on
which a large number of turns of a wire are closely wound.

19
Let n be the number of turns per unit length and I the current flowing through the toroid .Magnetic
field at all points inside the toroid equidistant from the centre O is same.

Magnetic field inside a toroid is constant and is always tangential to the circular closed path. Magnetic
field at any point inside the empty space surrounded by the toroid and outside the toroid, is zero,
because net current enclosed by these space is zero.

Consider a loop of radius r passes through the centre of the toroid. .

According to Ampere’s circuital law

̂ = μo × total current passing through the circle of radius r
̂ 𝒅𝒍
∮ 𝑩.

̂ = μo × (n2π r )𝑰
̂ 𝒅𝒍
∮ 𝑩.
̂ = 𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑩. 2π r
̂ 𝒅𝒍
∮ 𝑩.

𝑩. 2π r = μo × (n2π r )𝑰

Magnetic field inside the turns of toroid is given by B = μo nl

μo N I 𝑁
𝐵= 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛=
𝐿 𝐿
Case 1
At a point inside
B=0
Case2 At a point outside B = 0
FORCES BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL LINEAR CONDUCTORS CARRYING
CURRENT(Q. Derive an expression for the force per unit length between two long
straight parallel current carrying conductors. Hence define S.I unit of current
(ampere).) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXKihkHjYes

20
It is experimentally established fact that two current carrying conductors attract each other when the
current is in same direction and repel each other when the current are in opposite direction.

Consider C and D two infinite long straight conductors carrying currents I1 and 𝐼2 in the same
direction . They are parallel to each other at a distance r apart.

Consider a wire C will produce a field B1 at all near by points .The magnitude of B1 due to
current I1 at a distance r i.e. on wire D is

𝝁𝟎 𝑰
(𝒃𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑩 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓
)
𝜇0 2𝐼1
B1 = 4𝜋 𝑟

According to the right hand rule the direction of B1 is perpendicular to the plane of paper ,directed
inwards.

 Consider the unit length of wire D which lies in the M.F B1 and the force experienced by it
will be
𝐹2 = B1 𝐼2 𝑙 where l is unit length

𝜇0 2𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐹2 =
4𝜋 𝑟

 According to Flemings left hand rule force on conductor D acts perpendicular to D directed
towards C
 Similarly conductor C experiences a force ,
𝜇0 2𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐹1 =
4𝜋 𝑟

𝐹1 is perpendicular to C and directed towards D .Hence C and D attract each other

 .If currents in conductor C and D are in opposite directions , the forces act outwards and
hence they repel each other with the same force.

21
Definition of AMPERE

𝜇0 2𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐹 =
4𝜋 𝑟

If 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 1𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 1𝑚

𝜇0 2 𝜇0
𝐹 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 10−7 𝑇𝑚𝐴−1 𝑜𝑟 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7
4𝜋 4𝜋

𝐹 = 2 × 10−7 𝑁 /𝑚

One ampere is that steady current which when flowing through each of the two parallel uniform
long linear conductors placed in free space at a distance of 1 metre from each other will attract
or repel each other with a force of 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑵 per metre of their length

Q. Derive the expression for the torque on a rectangular current carrying loop
suspended in a uniform magnetic field.

TORQUE ON A RECTANGULAR CURRENT CARRYING COIL IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Consider a rectangular coil PORS suspended in a uniform M.F (B).

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑙

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑆𝑃 = 𝑏

I be the current in the direction PQRS and 𝜃 be the angle which plane of the coil makes with the
direction of M.F .

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 , 𝐹4 , be the forces acting on the four current carrying arms PQ,QR,RS,SP of the coil.

The forces 𝐹2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹4 are equal in magnitude and acting in opposite direction along the same straight
line ,they cancel each other.

According to Flemings left hand rule 𝐹1 acts outwards (The force in the arm PQ)

22
 𝐹1 = 𝐼 (𝑙 × 𝐵)

𝐹1 = 𝐼 𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃

Here 𝑃𝑄 ⊥ 𝐵, 𝜃 = 90°
𝐹1 = 𝐵𝐼 𝑙

The force in the arm RS , 𝐹3 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠

𝐹3 = 𝐼 𝑙 𝐵 sin 90°

𝐹3 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙

The forces 𝐹1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹3 are equal ,parallel and acting in opposite directions having different lines of
action, form a couple . Due to this the coil rotates in the anticlockwise direction.

Torque 𝜏 = 𝐹1 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝐹3 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑏 𝑏
Torque 𝜏 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 2 sin 𝜃 + 𝐼𝑙𝐵 2 sin 𝜃

𝑏
Torque 𝜏 = 2 𝐼𝑙𝐵 2 sin 𝜃

Torque 𝜏 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵𝑏 sin 𝜃 where 𝑙 × 𝑏 = 𝐴

Torque 𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃

Where 𝐼 𝐴 = 𝑀 , 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚

Torque 𝝉 = 𝑴𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

𝝉 = 𝑴 × 𝑩 … … . (𝟑)

23
If loop has n turns then M = n I A

Torque 𝝉 = 𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

CASE 1

Minimum torque acts on a current carrying coil when it is suspended in magnetic field such
that its plane is perpendicular to magnetic field. But sin 𝜃 = 0( magnetic dipole moment and
magnetic field is parallel but the plane and B is perpendicular)

𝜃 = 0° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin0 = 0

𝝉= 𝟎

𝝉= 𝟎 𝒊𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎

Case 2

Maximum torque acts on a current carrying coil when it is suspended in magnetic field such
that its plane is parallel to magnetic field. But sin 𝜃 = 90 (angle between magnetic dipole
moment and B)

If the coil is set with its plane perpendicular to the direction of M.F ,then

𝜃 = 90° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 90 = 1

𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 = 𝑴𝑩

For n turns where M = IA

𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 = 𝒏𝑰𝑨 𝑩

THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF A REVOLVING ELECTRON

An atom consists of positively charged heavy nucleus around which negatively

charged electrons are revolving in circular orbit.

24
The electron of charge (-e) performs uniform circular motion around a stationary nucleus with period
of revolution T. If r be the radius of the orbit of revolution of the electron and v is the orbital velocity
then
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

2𝜋 𝑟
𝑇= … … . (1)
𝑣
𝑒
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = … … (2) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐼𝑂𝐷
𝑇
𝑒
∴ 𝐼=
2𝜋 𝑟
𝑣
𝑒𝑣
𝐼= … … (3)
2𝜋 𝑟
Magnitude of orbital magnetic moment 𝜇𝑙 associated with circular current is
𝜇𝑙 = 𝐼𝐴
𝑒𝑣
𝜇𝑙 = 2𝜋 𝑟
𝐴

Where 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑒𝑣
𝜇𝑙 = 2𝜋 𝑟
𝜋𝑟 2
𝑒𝑣𝑟
𝜇𝑙 = 2
…….(4) (when electron moves in circular path)

The direction of this magnetic moment is into the plane of paper. Negatively charged electron is
moving in anticlockwise direction, leading to a clockwise current.
Multiplying and dividing the right hand side of equation (4) by the mass of
electron, me then

𝑒 me 𝑣𝑟
𝜇𝑙 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 me 𝑣 𝑟 = 𝐿 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
2me
𝑒 L
𝜇𝑙 =
2me
𝑒 L
𝜇𝑙 = −
2me

The negative sign indicates that the orbital angular momentum of electron is opposite in the direction
to the orbital magnetic moment.

The ratio of magnetic dipole moment with angular momentum of

revolving electron is called the gyromagnetic ratio.
𝜇𝑙 𝑒
gyromagnetic ratio. 𝑳
= − 2m
e

gyromagnetic ratio ,Its value is 8.8 × 1010 C /kg for an electron,

𝒏𝒉
Bohr hypothesised that the angular momentum , 𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅

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where n is a natural number, n = 1, 2, 3, .... and h is a constant ,Planck’s constant with a value h
= 6.626 × 10–34 J s.

𝑒 𝒏𝒉
𝜇𝑙 =
2me 𝟐𝝅
𝑛𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝑙 =
4𝝅 me
𝑒ℎ
Take the value n = 1, 𝜇𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 4𝝅 me

𝜇𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 =9.27 × 10–24 Am2

This value is called the Bohr magneton.

μl minimum is the minimum magnetic moment an electron can achieve , when it moves in an orbit.

The electron is an elementary particle and it does not have an axis to spin around like a top or
our earth. Nevertheless it does possess the intrinsic magnetic moment. Its dipole moment is the
orbital magnetic moment.

THE MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

.(a) With the help of a diagram, explain the principle and working of a moving coil
galvanometer.

b) "Increasing the current sensitivity of a galvanometer may not necessarily increase

its voltage sensitivity." Justify this statement
(c) What is the importance of a radial magnetic field and how is it produced?
(d) Why is it that while using a moving coil galvanometer as a voltmeter a high
resistance in series is required whereas in an ammeter a shunt is used?

It is a device which is used detect the small amount of electric current. It is most sensitive device and
used in many electrical instruments. It is the major basic component of Ammeter and Voltmeter.
Principle:

26
Moving coil galvanometer is based on the fact that when a current carrying rectangular coil is placed
in a magnetic field it experience torque.
Construction
The galvanometer consists of a coil, with many turns, free to rotate about a fixed axis , in a uniform
radial magnetic field. There is a cylindrical soft iron core which not only makes the field radial but
also increases the strength of the magnetic field. The coil is suspended by a phosphor-bronze strip
between the poles pieces of a strong permanent magnet. When a current flows through the coil, a
torque acts on it. This
Theory:
Let n be the no of turns of the coil and B be the strength of the magnetic field in which the coil is
suspended .When a current I flows through the rectangular coil, the coil gets deflected, the suspension
wire is twisted and rotating torque is developed on it.
Working:
The galvanometer consists of a coil, with many turns, free to rotate
about a fixed axis , in a uniform radial magnetic field. There is a cylindrical soft iron core which not
only makes the field radial but also increases the strength of the magnetic field. When a current flows
through the coil, a torque acts on it. This torque is given by
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝝉 = 𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎° 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎° = 1
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝝉 = 𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩

The magnetic torque nIAB tends to rotate the coil. The phosphor bronze strip gets twisted. As a result
, a couple comes into play which will try to restore the coil to its original position .If ∅ is the twist
produced in phosphor bronze strip due to rotation of coil (or The magnetic torque NIAB tends to
rotate the coil. A spring Sp provides a counter torque kφ that balances the magnetic torque NIAB;
resulting in a steady angular deflection φ).

Restoring torque 𝝉 = 𝑲 ∅ Where K is torsional constant. Or

restoring torque per unit twist,

𝝉
K=∅

Counter torque k φ that balances the magnetic torque nIAB; resulting in a steady angular deflection φ
In equilibrium
k φ = nI AB
𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩
∅=
𝑲
𝑲 ∅
𝑰=
𝒏𝑨𝑩
𝑲
𝑰 = 𝑮 ∅ 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑮 =
𝒏𝑨𝑩

27
G is known as galvanometer constant
I∝ ∅
So the deflection of galvanometer is directly proportional to the current on the rectangular coil. Hence
we use linear scale in galvanometer.

 Uniform radial magnetic field. In a radial magnetic field, magnetic torque

remains maximum everywhere. It is produced due to cylindrical pole pieces
and soft iron core.
 Soft iron core in galvanometer. The cylindrical soft iron core, when placed
inside the coil of a galvanometer, makes the magnetic field stronger and radial
in the space between it and pole pieces, such that whatever the position of
the rotation of the coil may be, the magnetic field is always parallel to its
plane.
 For radial magnetic field, sin θ = 1,
so torque τ = NIAB.

(VIM) Properties of material of wire used as suspension in moving coil galvanometer

(Phosphor Bronze strip)
 Non magnetic substance
 Good conductor of electricity
 High tensile strength
 Low torosional constant (K)
 Low temperature coefficient of resistance.
Soft iron core helps to ,
 makes the field radial
 increases the strength of magnetic field

 The soft iron core attracts the magnetic lines of force and hence the strength
of the magnetic field increases if we use soft iron core. Thus the sensitivity
of galvanometer increases.
In a moving coil galvanometer the coil is wound on a metallic frame so that
the opposing eddy currents provide electromagnetic damping which
opposes the motion of the coil.or It is a damping technique where
electromagnetically induced current slow down the motion of an object without
any actual contact” ( electromagnetic damping is one of the most fascinating damping
technique. This uses electromagnetically induced current to control/regulate/slow down
the motion of the object without any actual physical contact with the moving object. )

Current sensitivity of a galvanometer.

The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced when unit current
passes through the galvanometer. A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it produces large deflection
for a small current.

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k φ = nI AB
𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩
∅=
𝑲
𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩
∅ 𝑲
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝒔 = =
𝑰 𝑰
𝒏𝑨𝑩
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝒔 =
𝑲
Unit -- rad / A
Figure of merit of a galvanometer is the reciprocal of current sensitivity.
( The figure of merit of a galvanometer is the current required to produce a
deflection of one division in the galvanometer scale.)
𝟏
= 𝒇𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒕
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑲
𝒇𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒕 =
𝒏𝑨𝑩

The current sensitivity of a galvanometer can be increased by

1. increasing the number of turns

2. increasing the magnetic field B

3. increasing the area of the coil

4. decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire. This explains why phosphor-
bronze wire is used as the suspension wire which has small couple per unit twist.

Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer

The voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection per unit voltage.
∅
𝑽𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉
, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑛𝐼𝐴𝐵
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐾
𝐼𝑅
𝑛𝐴𝐵 1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑠 = ( )
𝐾 𝑅
𝐼𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝒕𝒚.
𝑅
𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒗
Unit of 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚— 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕

29
 Increasing the current sensitivity does not increase the voltage sensitivity. When the number of turns
(n) is doubled, current sensitivity is also doubled . But increasing the number of turns correspondingly
increases the resistance (R). Hence voltage sensitivity remains unchanged.

The Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer can be increased by

i) Increasing the area of the coil (A)

ii) Increasing the strength of the m.f. (B)
iii) Decreasing the couple per unit twist (C)

Conditions for sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer

𝒏𝑨𝑩
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝒔 =
𝑲
A galvanometer will be highly sensitive ,if
 n is large, B is large, A is large and K is small
 A galvanometer will be highly sensitive ,if it shows large deflection even when a small
current is passed through it
 The value of n cannot be increased beyond a certain limit because it increases the resistance
of the galvanometer. It tends to decrease the sensitivity.
 The value of B can be increased by using a strong horse shoe magnet.
 The value of A cannot be increased beyond a certain limit because in that case the coil will
not be in a uniform M.F. It makes galvanometer bulky and un manageable.
 The value of K can be decreased . The value of K depends upon the nature of material used.
Q,,The galvanometer cannot as such be used as an ammeter to measure the value of the current in a
given circuit. Why?
This is for two reasons: (i) Galvanometer is a very sensitive device, it gives a full-scale deflection for
very weak current or a current of the order of µ A. (ii) For measuring currents, the galvanometer has
to be connected in series, and as it has a large resistance, this will change the value of the current in

the circuit.
Q. The galvanometer cannot as such be used as an voltmeter to measure the value of the potential
difference in a given circuit. Why?
Because, when a galvanometer is connected in parallel to the conductor in order to measure potential
difference across it; due to low resistance of the galvanometer, a large part of the current will flow
through it. As a result, current flowing through the conductor and hence potential difference across it
will decrease.
SHUNT RESISTANCE
Shunt: “Shunt is a low resistance connected in parallel with the galvanometer”.
⇒ it protect the galvanometer from damage, when large current flows through it.

30
⇒ when shunt is connected in series all the current flows through it and damage the
galvanometer, but when it is connected in parallel maximum current flows through
shunt and protect galvanometer

Conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter

Ammeter: “An ammeter is a low resistance Galvanometer
It is used to measure the current in a circuit”.

A galvanometer is converted into an

ammeter by connecting a low resistance called shunt resistance in parallel with it. As a result, when
large current flows in a circuit, only a small fraction of the current passes through the galvanometer
and the remaining larger portion of the current passes through the low resistance. The low
resistance connected in parallel with the galvanometer is called shunt resistance. The scale is
marked in ampere.

Galvanometer resistance = G

Shunt resistance = S

Current in the circuit = I

∴ Current through the shunt resistance = I = (I–Ig)

Since the galvanometer and shunt resistance are parallel, potential is common.

(I–Ig) S = Ig G

𝐼𝑔 𝐺
𝑆=
(𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )

The shunt resistance is very small because Ig is only a fraction of I.

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The effective resistance of the ammeter R p , when G in parallel with S
1 1 1 𝑆+𝐺 GS
= + = = Rp =
Rp 𝐺 𝑆 𝐺𝑆 G+S

R p is very low and this explains why an ammeter should be connected in series. When
connected in series, the ammeter does not appreciably change the resistance and current in the circuit.
Hence an ideal ammeter is one which has zero resistance.

(Q) A galvanometer cannot be used to measure potential difference across a conductor in the
circuit.Give reason

A galvanometer cannot be used to measure potential difference across a conductor in the circuit
,because ,when a galvanometer is connected in parallel to the conductor, a large current flows through
the galvanometer because galvanometer has low resistance. As a result , current flowing through the
conductor and potential difference across conductor decreases

Conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter( A device of infinite resistance)

A voltmeter is a high resistance Galvanometer. It is used to measure the potential
difference between two point of a circuit in volt”.

A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with it.
The scale is calibrated in volt.

Let V is the potential difference, and Ig is the current through the galvanometer.

Total resistance = G + R

By Ohm’s law V =IR

V
I=R

V
Ig =
G+R

V
G+R =
Ig

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 V
R= − G
Ig

This value of resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer ,it works as a voltmeter

The effective resistance = G+R

The resistance of voltmeter is very large as compared to that of galvanometer

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