Theory of Measurements and calibration (MPE 322)

Measurement: is an act of assigning a specific value to a physical variable.

We make measurements everyday in our life.

The selection of measurement devices and techniques depends on the

importance of the measured quantity.

Course description: This course provides a well-founded background in the

theory of engineering measurements. It gives the necessary elements for the
design of measurement systems and measurement test plans, with an emphasis
on the role of statistics and uncertainty analyses in design.
In this course we will cover some aspects that are generally related to
measurement process such as the characteristics of signals, probability and
statistics, error analysis, analog and digital electrical devices, and data
acquisition. In addition, we will focus on the devices and techniques used in
measuring some quantities that are related to mechanical power engineering
such as temperature, pressure, velocity, and flow rate.
Contents
Chapter 1: Basic concepts of measurement methods
Chapter 2: Static and dynamic characteristics of signals
Chapter 3: Probability and statistics
Chapter 4: Uncertainty analysis
Chapter 5: Analog electrical devices and measurements (Current, voltage, and
resistance)
Chapter 6: Sampling, digital devices, and data acquisition
Chapter 7: Temperature measurements
Chapter 8: Pressure & velocity measurements
Chapter 9: Flow measurements

Textbook:
Theory and design for Mechanical measurements, fifth edition, by Richard S.
Figliola, and Donald E. Beasley

Course coordinators: Prof dr Nabil Hassan, Dr. Mohamed Gobran, and Dr. Osama
Mesalhy

Grading: Total (125)

Class work (25), Oral exam (20), and Final (80)
 Chapter 1
Basic concepts of measurement methods

General measurement system: A measurement system is a tool

used for quantifying the measured variable.
Measurement system is composed of components that work
together to accomplish a specific objective. These components
are:
1- Sensor
2- Transducer
3- Signal conditioning stage
4- Output stage
Sensor: A physical element that employs some natural
phenomenon to sense the measured variable.
Transducer: The device that converts the sensed information
into a detectable signal. The signal might be electrical,
mechanical, optical, etc.
Examples

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

Cantilever --- Sensor
Laser+ photodiodes---- Transducer
 Components of a general measurement system
Signal conditioning: Takes the transducer signal and modifies it to a desired
magnitude. It performs amplification, removing portions of the signal through
some filtering technique, or providing mechanical or optical linkage between the
transducer and the output stage.
Output stage: indicates or records the measured value
Control stage: Contains a controller that interprets the measured signal and
makes a decision regarding the control of the process
 Experimental test plan
Experimental test plan serves to answer a question, so it
should be designed and executed to answer that question
alone.
In a test plan you:
1- Parameter design plan: includes determining the test
objective and identifying the process variables and
parameters and the means for their control.
Variables: are the entities that influence the test. For example
if you are measuring the fuel consumption of a car, the
variables will be (distance, consumed fuel, road, driver, weather
conditions, etc.). The variables may be:
dependent or independent and controlled or extraneous.

Controlled variable: can be held constant at a certain value

Extraneous variable: can not be kept constant

Extraneous variables can introduce differences in repeated

measurements under seemingly identical conditions.

Parameter: is a functional grouping of variables. A

parameter that has an effect on the behavior of the measured
variable is called a control parameter, i.e (Re).
• How extraneous variables affect measured data can be described in terms of noise
and interference.

Noise is a random variation in the value of the measured signal. Noise

increases data scatter.

Interference imposes undesirable deterministic trends on the measured signal.

2- System and tolerance design plan: Select a
measurement technique, equipment, and test
procedure based on some preconceived tolerance
limits for error.

3- Data reduction design plan: Plan how to analyze,

present, and use the anticipated data.
 Random tests
If we are measuring the variable y which depends some
controlled variables xa, xb, ….
Besides (xa, xb, …), the value of y is influenced by some
extraneous variables zj.
Y=f(xa, xb, …., zj)

Although the influence of the zj variables on these tests cannot

be eliminated, the possibility of their introducing a false trend
on y can be minimized by Randomization.

A random test: is that test in which a random order of change

in the values of the independent variables is applied.
 Example
Pressure calibration system.
The pressure transducer is
subjected to a known
pressure.
Identify the independent
and dependent variables in
the calibration and possible
extraneous variables

The independent variables: x, T If we choose six values of

The dependent variable is the gas pressure, p volume, 1- 6, where the
Extraneous variables would include: subscripts correspond to an
1- noise effects due to the room temperature, z1 increasing sequential order.
2-Line voltage variations, z2 (affect the excitation voltage
from the power supply and the performance of the One possibility, found by
voltmeter. using the random order for
3- Connecting wires between devices will act as an the volume
antenna and possibly will introduce interference, z3 to minimize the effect of
P=f(,T;z1,z2,z3) extraneous variable.
 Calibration
Calibration: is the process in which a known input value is applied to a
measurement system for the purpose of observing the system output
value. It establishes the relationship between the input and output
values. The known value used for the calibration is called the
standard.

Calibration process may be static or dynamic

Static calibration: In static calibration values of the variables involved
remain constant; that is, they do not vary with time or space.

Dynamic Calibration: When the variables of interest are time (or

space) dependent. So, a dynamic calibration determines the
relationship between an input of known dynamic behavior and the
measurement system output.
Static calibration curve
Static sensitivity, K(x): Is the
slope of the static calibration
curve .

Range and span

Range is the interval from min. to
max. value.
Span is the difference between
the minimum and maximum
value.

Resolution: Is the smallest

increment in the measured value
that can be discerned.
 Accuracy and error
The accuracy of a measurement refers to the closeness
of agreement between the measured value and the true
value
Error, e: is the difference between the measured
value and the true value or it may be calculated relative
to a reference value

Errors in measurements are classified as:

1- Random error
Random error causes a random variation in measured values found during
repeated measurements of a variable.
2- Systematic error
Systematic error causes an offset between the mean value of the data set
and its true value.
Uncertainty: is a numerical estimate of the possible range of the error in a
measurement (error can not be defined exactly because the true value is not
exact).
The uncertainty values assigned to an instrument or measurement system
specification are usually the result of several interacting random and systematic
errors inherent to the measurement system, the calibration procedure, and the
standard used to provide the known value.
 Errors in measuring instruments

Hysteresis error: Hysteresis error

refers to differences between an
upscale sequential test and a
downscale sequential test. In
sequential test the input value
increased or decreased sequentially.

Linearity error: for instruments that are full-scale output

designed to achieve linear relationship
between input and output, A random test breaks up
hysteresis effects

the linearity error is defined as

Sensitivity error: The sensitivity error,
uK, is a statistical measure of the
random error in the estimate of the
slope of the calibration curve.

Zero error: The drift in the zero

intercept (if the zero intercept is not
fixed) introduces a vertical shift of the
calibration curve. This shift is known
as the zero error with uncertainty, uz.
Zero error can usually be reduced by nulling the output
under a zero-input condition.

Instrument repeatability: is an
uncertainty based on a statistical measure called
the standard deviation, Sx, it is a measure of the
variation in the output for a given input.
The overall instrument error: is made by combining the estimates of all
known errors into a term called the instrument uncertainty. The estimate is
computed from the square root of the sum of the squares of all known
uncertainty values.