Coordinates: 12°57′56″N 77°41′53″E

Indian Space Research Organisation

The Indian Space Research Organisation[a] (ISRO /ˈɪsroʊ/) is
the national space agency of India, headquartered in Bengaluru. It Indian Space Research
operates under the Department of Space (DOS) which is directly Organisation
overseen by the Prime Minister of India, while Chairman of ISRO
acts as executive of DOS as well. ISRO is the primary agency in
India to perform tasks related to space based applications, space
exploration and development of related technologies.[6] It is one
of six government space agencies in the world which possess full
launch capabilities, deploy cryogenic engines, launch extra-
terrestrial missions and operate large fleets of artificial
satellites.[7][8][b]
ISRO logo (adopted in 2002)[1][2]
The Indian National Committee for Space Research Agency overview
(INCOSPAR) was established by Jawaharlal Nehru under the
Abbreviation ISRO
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1962, on the urging of
scientist Vikram Sarabhai recognising the need in space research. Formed 15 August 1969
INCOSPAR grew and became ISRO in 1969, within DAE.[9] In Preceding INCOSPAR
1972, the Government of India had set up a Space Commission agency
and the Department of Space (DOS), bringing ISRO under the
DOS. The establishment of ISRO thus institutionalised space Type Space agency
research activities in India.[10][11] It since then has been managed Headquarters Bengaluru,
by the DOS, which governs various other institutions in India in Karnataka, India
domain of astronomy and space technology.[12] 12°57′56″N
77°41′53″E
ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched
by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975.[13] In 1980, ISRO Chairman S. Somanath[3]
launched satellite RS-1 onboard its own SLV-3 making India the Primary Satish Dhawan
sixth country to be capable of undertaking orbital launches. SLV- spaceports Space Centre
3 was followed by ASLV which was subsequently succeeded by (SDSC/SHAR) ·
development of many medium-lift launch vehicles, rocket
Thumba Equatorial
engines, satellite systems and networks enabling agency to launch
Rocket Launching
hundreds of domestic and foreign satellites and various deep
space missions for space exploration. Station (TERLS) ·
Kulasekharapatnam,
ISRO has the world's largest constellation of remote-sensing (proposed)
satellites and operates the two satellite navigation systems
Owner Department of
GAGAN and NAVIC. It has sent two missions to the Moon and
Space, Government
one to Mars.
of India
Goals in near future include expanding satellites fleet, landing a Employees 17,099 as of 2021[4]
rover on Moon, sending humans into space, development of a
Annual ₹13,949 crore
semi-cryogenic engine, sending more unmanned missions to the
Moon, Mars, Venus and Sun and deployment of more space budget (US$1.9 billion)
telescopes in orbit to observe cosmic phenomena and outerspace (2021–22) [5]
beyond the Solar System. Long-term plans include development Website www.isro.gov.in (htt
of reusable launchers, heavy and super heavy launch vehicles, ps://www.isro.gov.i
deploying a space station, sending exploration missions to n/)
external planets like Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune and asteroids and
manned missions to moons and planets.

ISRO's programs have played a significant role in the socio-economic development of India and have
supported both civilian and military domains in various aspects including disaster management,
telemedicine and navigation and reconnaissance missions. ISRO's spin off technologies also have founded
many crucial innovations for India's engineering and medical industries.

Contents
History
Formative years
1970s and 1980s
1990s and early 21st century
Agency logo
Goals and objectives
Organisation structure and facilities
Research facilities
Test facilities
Construction and launch facilities
Tracking and control facilities
Human resource development
Antrix Corporation Limited (Commercial Wing)
NewSpace India Limited (Commercial Wing)
Space Technology Incubation Centre
Advance Space Research Group
Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management
Other facilities
General satellite programmes
The IRS series
The INSAT series
Gagan Satellite Navigation System
Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC)
Other satellites
Launch vehicles
Satellite Launch Vehicle
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
GSLV Mark III
Human Spaceflight Programme
Astronaut training and other facilities
Crewed spacecraft
Space station
Planetary sciences and astronomy
Astrosat
Extraterrestrial exploration
Lunar exploration
Mars exploration
Future projects
Launch vehicles and engines
Semi-cryogenic engine
Methalox engine
Modular heavy rockets
Reusable launchers
Spacecraft propulsion and power
Extraterrestrial probes
Space telescopes and observatories
Forthcoming satellites
Applications
Telecommunication
Resource management
Military
Academic
Telemedicine
Biodiversity Information System
Cartography
Spin-offs
International cooperations
Notable collaborative projects
Statistics
Budget for the Department of Space
Controversies
S-band spectrum scam
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

History

Formative years
Modern space research in India is traced to the 1920s, when
scientist S. K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments leading to
the sounding of the ionosphere by applying ground-based radio
methods in Kolkata.[15] Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman
and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in
space sciences.[15] However, it was the period after 1945 that saw
important developments being made in coordinated space research
in India.[15] Organised space research in India was spearheaded by
two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai—founder of the Physical Research an Arcas rocket being loaded into
Laboratory at Ahmedabad—and Homi Bhabha, who established launch tube at Thumba Launching
the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945. [15] Initial Station. In the early days of ISRO,
experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic rocket parts were often transported
radiation, high altitude and airborne testing, deep underground on bicycles and bullock carts.[14]
experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of the deepest mining
sites in the world—and studies of the upper atmosphere.[16] Studies
were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.[16][17]

In 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Bhabha as its secretary.[17] The department
provided funding for space research throughout India.[18] During this time, tests continued on aspects of
meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field, a topic that was being studied in India since the establishment
of the observatory at Colaba in 1823. In 1954, the Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the
foothills of the Himalayas.[17] The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University,
Hyderabad. Space research was further encouraged by the government of India.[18] In 1957, the Soviet
Union launched Sputnik 1 and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space
launch.[18]

The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was set up in 1962 by PM Nehru on the
urging of Vikram Sarabhai.[11] There was no dedicated ministry for space program initially and all activities
of INCOSPAR relating to space technology continued to function within DAE.[9][10] H.G.S. Murthy was
appointed as the first Director of Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station.[19] Sounding rockets from
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station were fired marking the start of upper atmospheric research in
India.[20] Indigenous series of sounding rockets named Rohini was subsequently developed and started
undergoing launches from 1967 onwards.[21]

1970s and 1980s

Under the administration of Indira Gandhi, INCOSPAR was superseded by ISRO. Later in 1972, a space
commission and Department of Space (DOS) were set up to overview space technology development in
India specifically and ISRO was brought under DOS, institutionalising space research in India and forging
Indian space program into its existing form.[10][12]

India joined the Soviet Interkosmos program for space cooperation[22] and got its first satellite Aryabhatta
in orbit through a Soviet rocket.[13]

Efforts to develop an orbital launch vehicle begun after mastering sounding rocket technology. Concept
was to develop a launcher capable of providing sufficient velocity to a mass of 35 kg (77 lb) to enter low
Earth orbit. It took 7 years for ISRO to develop Satellite Launch Vehicle capable of putting 40 kg (88 lb)
into a 400 km (250 mi) orbit. SLV Launch Pad, ground stations, tracking networks, radars and other
communications were set up for launch campaign. Its first launch in 1979 carried a Rohini technology
payload but could not inject the satellite into its desired orbit. It was followed by a successful launch in
1980 carrying Rohini Series-I satellite making India the seventh country to reach Earth's orbit after USSR,
USA, France, United Kingdom, China and Japan. RS-1 was third Indian satellite to reach orbit as Bhaskara
had been launched from USSR in 1979. Efforts to develop a medium-lift launch vehicle capable of putting
600 kg (1,300 lb) class spacecrafts into 1000 km Sun-synchronous orbit had already begun in 1978[23]
which would later lead to development of PSLV.[24] SLV-3 later had two more launches before
discontinual in 1983.[25] ISRO's Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) was set up in 1985 and started
working on a more powerful engine Vikas based upon French Viking.[26] In 1987, facilities to test liquid
fueled rocket engines was established and development and testing of various rocket engines thrusters
began.[27]

Parallelly, another solid fueled rocket Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle based upon SLV-3 was being
developed technologies to launch satellites into geostationary orbit. ASLV had limited success and multiple
launch failures was discontinued soon.[28] Alongside, technologies for Indian National Satellite System for
communication satellites[29] and Indian Remote Sensing Programme for earth observation satellites[30]
were developed and launches from overseas initiated. Number of satellites eventually expanded and
systems were established as among largest satellite constellations in the world with a number of multi-band
communication, radar imaging, optical imaging and meteorological satellites.[31]

1990s and early 21st century

Arrival of PSLV in 1990s became a major boost for Indian space program. With the exception of its first
flight in 1994 and two partial failures later, PSLV had a streak of more than 50 successful flights. PSLV
enabled India to launch all of its low Earth orbit satellites, small payloads to GTO and hundreds of foreign
satellites.[32] Along with the flights of PSLV, development of a new rocket namely Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was going on. India tried to obtain upper-stage cryogenic engines from
Russian Glavkosmos but was blocked by United States from doing so. As a result, KVD-1 engines were
imported from Russia under new agreement which had limited success[33] and a project to develop
indigenous cryogenic technology was launched in 1994, which took two decades to mature.[34] A new
agreement was signed with Russia for 7 KVD-1 cryogenic stages and 1 ground mock-up stage with no
technology transfer, instead of 5 cryogenic stages along with the technology and design as per the earlier
agreement.[35] These engines were used for the initial flights and were named GSLV Mk.1.[36] ISRO was
under US government sanctions between 6 May 1992 to 6 May 1994.[37]

After US refused to help India with Global Positioning System (GPS) during the Kargil war, ISRO was
induced to develop its own satellite navigation system IRNSS which is now expanding further.[38]

In 2003, when China sent humans into space, prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee urged scientists to
develop technologies to land humans on Moon[39] and Indian programs to send missions to Moon, other
planets and sending humans to space came into existence soon. ISRO launched Chandrayaan-1 in 2008,
which was world's first probe to verify the presence of water on the Moon[40] and Mars Orbiter Mission in
2013 which was first Asian spacecraft to enter Martian orbit and India being first country to do so in
maiden attempt.[41] Subsequently, cryogenic upper stage for GSLV rocket operationalised making India
sixth country to have full launch capabilities[7] and a new heavier-lift launcher GSLV Mk III was
introduced in 2014 for heavier satellites and enabling human space missions.[42] Since then, development
of bigger rockets, more advanced satellites and spacecrafts has been going on.

Agency logo

ISRO did not have an official logo unlike other space agencies until 2002. The adopted logo consisted of
an orange aero shooting upwards attached with two blue coloured satellite panels with the name of ISRO
written in two sets of text. One in orange colour in Devanagari on left side and another in blue colour in
English in Prakrta font.[1][2]

Goals and objectives

ISRO is the national space agency of India for the purpose of all space-
based applications like reconnaissance & communications and doing
research. It undertakes the design and development of space rockets,
satellites, explores upper atmosphere and deep space exploration
missions. ISRO also has incubated its technologies in India's private space
sector boosting its growth.[6][43] The Indian space programme was
founded and pushed ahead by the vision of Vikram Sarabhai, considered
the father of the Indian space programme.[44][45] As he said in 1969:

There are some who question the relevance of space

activities in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambiguity
of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with
the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the Vikram Sarabhai, first
Moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are chairperson of INCOSPAR,
convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, which would later be called
and in the community of nations, we must be second to none ISRO
in the application of advanced technologies to the real
problems of man and society, which we find in our country.
And we should note that the application of sophisticated
technologies and methods of analysis to our problems is not
to be confused with embarking on grandiose schemes, whose
primary impact is for show rather than for progress measured
in hard economic and social terms.

— Vikram Sarabhai[46]

Former president of India, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, said:

Very many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a
newly independent nation which was finding it difficult to feed its population. But neither
Prime Minister Nehru nor Prof. Sarabhai had any ambiguity of purpose. Their vision was very
clear: if Indians were to play a meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be
second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They
had no intention of using it merely as a means of displaying our might.

— A. P. J. Abdul Kalam[47]

India's economic progress has made its space programme more visible and active as the country aims for
greater self-reliance in space technology.[48] In 2008, India launched as many as eleven satellites, including
nine foreign and went on to become the first nation to launch ten satellites on one rocket.[48] ISRO has put
into operation two major satellite systems: the Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication
services, and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources.

Organisation structure and facilities

ISRO is managed by the Department of Space
(DoS) of the Government of India. DoS itself
falls under the authority of the Space
Commission and manages the following
agencies and institutes:[49][50][51]

Indian Space Research Organisation

Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm
of ISRO, Bangalore
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL),
Ahmedabad
National Atmospheric Research
Laboratory (NARL), Gadanki, Andhra The organisational structure of the Department of Space
Pradesh of the Government of India
NewSpace India Limited - Commercial
wing, Bangalore
North-Eastern Space Applications Centre[52] (NE-SAC), Umiam
Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), Mohali
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's
space university

Research facilities
 Facility Location Description
The largest ISRO base is also the main technical centre and the
venue of development of the SLV-3, ASLV, and PSLV series.[53] The
Vikram Sarabhai
Thiruvananthapuram base supports India's Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station
Space Centre
and the Rohini Sounding Rocket programme.[53] This facility is also
developing the GSLV series.[53]
The LPSC handles design, development, testing and implementation
of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid stages and liquid engines
Liquid Propulsion Thiruvananthapuram
for launch vehicles and satellites.[53] The testing of these systems is
Systems Centre and Bangalore
largely conducted at IPRC at Mahendragiri.[53] The LPSC, Bangalore
also produces precision transducers.[54]
Solar planetary physics, infrared astronomy, geo-cosmo physics,
Physical plasma physics, astrophysics, archaeology, and hydrology are some
Research Ahmedabad
of the branches of study at this institute.[53] An observatory at
Laboratory
Udaipur also falls under the control of this institution.[53]
Research & Development in the field of semiconductor technology,
Semi-Conductor
Chandigarh micro-electro mechanical systems and process technologies relating
Laboratory
to semiconductor processing.
National
Atmospheric The NARL carries out fundamental and applied research in
Tirupati
Research atmospheric and space sciences.
Laboratory
The SAC deals with the various aspects of the practical use of space
technology.[53] Among the fields of research at the SAC are geodesy,
Space satellite based telecommunications, surveying, remote sensing,
Applications Ahmedabad meteorology, environment monitoring etc.[53] The SAC also operates
Centre the Delhi Earth Station, which is located in Delhi and is used for
demonstration of various SATCOM experiments in addition to normal
SATCOM operations.[55]
North-Eastern
Providing developmental support to North East by undertaking
Space
Shillong specific application projects using remote sensing, GIS, satellite
Applications
communication and conducting space science research.
Centre

Test facilities

Facility Location Description

Formerly called LPSC-Mahendragiri, was declared a separate centre. It
ISRO Propulsion
Mahendragiri handles testing and assembly of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid
Complex
engines, and stages for launch vehicles and satellites.[53]

Construction and launch facilities

 Facility Location Description
The venue of eight successful spacecraft projects is also one of the
main satellite technology bases of ISRO. The facility serves as a
venue for implementing indigenous spacecraft in India.[53] The
U R Rao Satellite
Bangalore satellites Aaryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, and IRS-1A were
Centre
constructed at this site, and the IRS and INSAT satellite series are
presently under development here. This centre was formerly known as
ISRO Satellite Centre.[54]
The Unit of ISRO responsible for the development of altitude sensors
Laboratory for
for all satellites. The high precision optics for all cameras and
Electro-Optics Bangalore
payloads in all ISRO satellites are developed at this laboratory,
Systems
located at Peenya Industrial Estate, Bangalore.
With multiple sub-sites the Sriharikota island facility acts as a
launching site for India's satellites.[53] The Sriharikota facility is also
the main launch base for India's sounding rockets.[54] The centre is
Satish Dhawan also home to India's largest Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant
Sriharikota
Space Centre (SPROB) and houses the Static Test and Evaluation Complex
(STEX).[54] The Second Vehicle Assembly Building (SVAB) at
Sriharikota is being realised as an additional integration facility, with
suitable interfacing to a second launch pad.[56][57]
Thumba
Equatorial
Rocket Thiruvananthapuram TERLS is used to launch sounding rockets.
Launching
Station

Tracking and control facilities

Facility Location Description

Indian Deep This network receives, processes, archives and distributes the spacecraft
Space Network Bangalore health data and payload data in real-time. It can track and monitor
(IDSN) satellites up to very large distances, even beyond the Moon.
The NRSC applies remote sensing to manage natural resources and study
National Remote aerial surveying.[53] With centres at Balanagar and Shadnagar it also has
Hyderabad
Sensing Centre training facilities at Dehradun acting as the Indian Institute of Remote
Sensing.[53]
Bangalore
(headquarters)
ISRO Telemetry, and a number Software development, ground operations, Tracking Telemetry and
Tracking and of ground Command (TTC), and support is provided by this institution.[53] ISTRAC
Command stations has Tracking stations throughout the country and all over the world in Port
Network throughout Louis (Mauritius), Bearslake (Russia), Biak (Indonesia) and Brunei.
India and the
world.[55]
Geostationary satellite orbit raising, payload testing, and in-orbit operations
Master Control Bhopal; are performed at this facility.[58] The MCF has Earth stations and the
Facility Hassan Satellite Control Centre (SCC) for controlling satellites.[58] A second MCF-
like facility named 'MCF-B' is being constructed at Bhopal.[58]
A network of telescopes and radars are being set up under the Directorate
of Space Situational Awareness and Management to monitor space debris
Space Situational and to safeguard space-based assets. The new facility will end ISRO's
Peenya,
Awareness dependence on Norad. The sophisticated multi-object tracking radar
Bangalore
Control Centre installed in Nellore, a radar in NE India and telescopes in
Thiruvananthapuram, Mount Abu and North India will be part of this
network.[59][60]
Human resource development
 Facility Location Description
The Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) is a premier
training and educational institute set up for developing
trained professionals (P.G. and PhD level) in the field of
remote sensing, geoinformatics and GPS technology for
Indian Institute of Remote natural resources, environmental and disaster management.
Dehradun
Sensing (IIRS) IIRS is also executing many R&D projects on remote
sensing and GIS for societal applications. IIRS also runs
various outreach programs (Live & Interactive and e-
learning) to build trained skilled human resources in the field
of remote sensing and geospatial technologies.
The institute offers undergraduate and graduate courses in
Indian Institute of Space Aerospace Engineering, Electronics and Communication
Science and Technology Thiruvananthapuram Engineering (Avionics), and Engineering Physics. The
(IIST) students of the first three batches of IIST were inducted
into different ISRO centres.
The centre works for education, research, and training,
mainly in conjunction with the INSAT programme.[53] The
Development and
main activities carried out at DECU include GRAMSAT and
Educational Ahmedabad
Communication Unit EDUSAT projects.[54] The Training and Development
Communication Channel (TDCC) also falls under the
operational control of the DECU.[55]
Space Technology
Incubation Centres (S-
TICs) at:

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
National Institute of
Technology Jalandhar
Maulana Azad National The S-TICs opened at premier technical universities in India
Institute of Technology to promote startups to build applications and products in
Agartala, Bhopal,
National Institute of tandem with the industry and would be used for future
Jalandhar, Nagpur
Technology Agartala space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry,
Rourkela,
National Institute of academia and ISRO under one umbrella to contribute
Tiruchirappalli
Technology, towards research and development (R&D) initiatives
Rourkela[61] relevant to the Indian Space Programme.[63]
National Institute of
Technology,
Tiruchirappalli
Visvesvaraya National
Institute of
Technology[62]

In line with ongoing effort to promote R&D in space

technology through the industry as well as academia, ISRO
Space Innovation Centre in collaboration with Veer Surendra Sai University of
at: Technology (VSSUT), Burla, Sambalpur, Odisha, has set up
Veer Surendra Sai Space Innovation Centre (VSSSIC)
Veer Surendra Sai Burla, Sambalpur
within its campus at Sambalpur. The objective of this
University of Space Innovation Research Lab is to promote and
Technology encourage the students in research and development in the
domain of Space Science and Technology at VSSUT and
other Institutes within this region.[64][65]
Regional Academy Centre Varanasi, Guwahati, All these centres are set up in tier-2 cities to create
for Space (RAC-S) at: Kurukshetra, Jaipur, awareness, strengthen academic collaboration and act as
Mangalore, Patna incubators for space technology, space science and space
Banaras Hindu applications. The activities of RAC-S will be to maximise
University the use of research potential, infrastructure, expertise,
Gauhati University experience and facilitate capacity building.
Kurukshetra University
 Malaviya National
Institute of Technology
National Institute of
Technology Karnataka
National Institute of
Technology Patna
Indian Institute of
Technology (BHU)
Varanasi[66]

Antrix Corporation Limited (Commercial Wing)

Set up as the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix's job is to promote products, services and technology
developed by ISRO.[67][68]

NewSpace India Limited (Commercial Wing)

Set up for marketing spin-off technologies, tech transfers through industry interface and scale up industry
participation in the space programmes.[69]

Space Technology Incubation Centre

ISRO has opened Space Technology Incubation Centres (S-TIC) at premier technical universities in India
which will incubate startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry and would be
used for future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella
to contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to the Indian Space Programme.
S-TICs are at the National Institute of Technology, Agartala serving for east region, National Institute of
Technology, Jalandhar for the north region, and the National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli for the
south region of India.[63]

Advance Space Research Group

Like NASA funded Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) managed by California Institute of Technology
(Caltech), ISRO with Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) implemented a joint
working framework in 2021 in which an Empowered Overseeing Committee (EOC) under Capacity
Building Programme Office (CBPO) of ISRO located in Bengaluru will approve all short, medium and
long term space research projects of common interest. In return, an Advance Space Research Group
(ASRG) formed at IIST under the guidance of EOC will have full access to ISRO facilities. The primary
aim is to transform IIST into a premier space research and engineering institute by 2028-2030 that can lead
future space exploration missions of ISRO.[70]

Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management

To reduce dependency on North America Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) for space situational
awareness and protect the civilian and military assets, ISRO is setting up telescopes and radars in four
locations to cover each direction. Leh, Mount Abu and Ponmudi were selected to station the telescopes and
radars that will cover North, West and South of Indian territory. The last one will be in Northeast India to
cover the entire eastern region. Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota already supports Multi-Object
Tracking Radar (MOTR).[71] All the telescopes and radars will come under Directorate of Space
Situational Awareness and Management (DSSAM) in Bengaluru. It will collect tracking data on inactive
satellites and will also perform research on active debris removal, space debris modelling and mitigation.

For early warning, ISRO initiated ₹400 crore project called Network for Space Object Tracking and
Analysis (NETRA). It will help the country track atmospheric entry, intercontinental ballistic missile
(ICBM), anti-satellite weapon and other space based attacks. All the radars and telescopes will be
connected through NETRA. The system will support remote and schedule operations. NETRA will follow
the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IASDCC) and United Nations Office for Outer
Space Affairs (UNOSA) guidelines. The objective of NETRA is to track objects at a distance of 36,000
km in geostationary orbit.[72][73]

India is going to sign memorandum of understanding (MoU) on Space Situational Awareness Data
Sharing Pact with the US by the end of 2021 that will enable NETRA collaborate with Combined Space
Operation Center (CSpOC) to protect the space based assets of both nations from natural and man-made
threats.[74]

Other facilities
Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) – Odisha
Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC), Bangalore
Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR)
Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS)
Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC)
Integrated Space Cell
Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA)
ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) – Thiruvananthapuram
Master Control Facility
National Deep Space Observation Centre (NDSPO)
Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC)

General satellite programmes

Since the launch of Aryabhata in 1975,[13] a number of satellite
series and constellations have been deployed by Indian and foreign
launchers. At present, ISRO operates one of the largest
constellations of active communication and earth imaging satellites
for military and civilian uses.[31]

The IRS series

The Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are the series of India's
earth observation satellites. The IRS series provides remote sensing
services and is the largest collection of remote sensing satellites for
civilian use in operation today in the world.[31] All the satellites are INSAT-1B
placed in polar Sun-synchronous orbit (except GISATs) and
provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal
resolutions to enable several programmes to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial
versions are composed of the 1 (A, B, C, D) nomenclature while the later versions were divided into sub-
classes named based on their functioning and uses including Oceansat, Cartosat, HySIS, EMISAT and
ResourceSat etc.. The names although again were unified into prefix "EOS" again regardless of
functioning again in 2020.[75] These satellites hold a wide range of applications including optical, radar and
electronic reconnaissance for Indian agencies, city planning, oceanography and environmental studies.

The INSAT series

The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) are the family of

communication satellites of India. It is a series of multipurpose
geostationary satellites built and launched by ISRO to satisfy the
telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-
rescue needs of the country. Since the introduction of first satellite
in 1983, INSAT has become the largest domestic communication
system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the
Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India
Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The
INSAT-1B satellite: The broadcasting
overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with
sector in India is highly dependent on
INSAT system. the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.[76] The
nomenclature of satellite series was shifted to "GSAT" from
"INSAT" which was further changed to "CMS" from 2020
onwards.[77] These satellites have been in use by Indian Armed Forcesas well.[78][79] GSAT-9 or
"SAARC Satellite" is a notable example for serving communication services for India's smaller
neighbors.[80]

Gagan Satellite Navigation System

The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS
Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the Satellite-
Based Communications, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic Management plan for civil aviation. The
Indian SBAS system has been given an acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A
national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of Technology Demonstration System over
the Indian air space as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India and
ISRO. Technology Demonstration System was completed during 2007 by installing eight Indian Reference
Stations at eight Indian airports and linked to the Master Control Centre located near Bangalore.[81]

Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC)

IRNSS with an operational name NavIC is an independent regional

navigation satellite system developed by India. It is designed to
provide accurate position information service to users in India as
well as the region extending up to 1500 km from its borders, which
is its primary service area. IRNSS provides two types of services,
namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service
(RS) and provides a position accuracy of better than 20 m in the
primary service area.[82] It is an autonomous regional satellite Coverage of the IRNSS in blue, as of
navigation system developed by Indian Space Research 2020
Organisation, which is under total control of Indian government. The requirement of such a navigation
system is driven by the fact that access to global navigation systems like GPS is not guaranteed in hostile
situations.

Other satellites

Kalpana-1 (MetSat-1) was ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite.[83][84] Indo-French satellite
SARAL on 25 February 2013. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa") is a cooperative altimetry
technology mission, used for monitoring the oceans' surface and sea levels. AltiKa measures ocean surface
topography with an accuracy of 8 mm, against 2.5 cm on average using altimeters, and with a spatial
resolution of 2 km.[85][86]

Launch vehicles

During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own

launch vehicles owing to geopolitical and economic
considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country
developed a sounding rocket, and by the 1980s,
research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3
and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch
Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting
infrastructure.[87] ISRO further applied its energies to
the advancement of launch vehicle technology
resulting in the realisation of the successful PSLV and
GSLV vehicles.

Satellite Launch Vehicle

Satellite Launch Vehicle (known as SLV-3) was the Comparison of Indian carrier rockets. Left to right:
first space rocket to be developed by India. The initial SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, GSLV Mark III
launch in 1979 was a failure followed by a successful
launch in 1980 making way for India into the club of
countries with orbital launch capabilities. The development of bigger rockets was pushed ahead
thereafter.[24]

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle

Augmented or Advanced Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) was another small launch vehicle realised in
1980s to develop technologies required to place satellites into geostationary orbit. ISRO did not have
adequate funds to develop ASLV and PSLV at once. Since ASLV suffered repeated failures, it was
dropped in favour of a new project.[88][28]

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle or PSLV is the first medium-lift launch vehicle from India which enabled
India to launch all its remote-sensing satellites into Sun-synchronous orbit. PSLV had a failure in its maiden
launch in 1993. Besides other two partial failure, PSLV has become primary workhorse for ISRO with
more than 50 launches placing hundreds of Indian and foreign
satellites into orbit.[89]

Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

1990s 3 1 1 5
2000s 11 0 0 11
2010s 33 0 1 34
2020s 3 0 0 3
Total 50 1 2 53

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

(GSLV)
Stamp depicting SLV-3 D1 carrying
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle was envisaged in 1990s RS-D1 satellite to orbit
to transfer significant payloads to geostationary orbit. ISRO initially
had great problem in development of GSLV as development of
CE-7.5 in India took a decade. US had blocked India from
obtaining cryogenic technology from Russia which induced India
to develop its own cryogenic engines.[33]

Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

2000s 2 2 1 5
2010s 6 0 3 9
Total 8 2 4 14

GSLV Mark III

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk III),

also known as LVM3, is the heaviest rocket in operational service
with ISRO. Equipped with a more powerful cryogenic engine and
boosters than GSLV, it has significantly higher playload capacity PSLV-C11 lifts off carrying
Chandrayaan-1, first Indian mission
and allows India to launch all its communication satellites.[90]
to the moon.
LVM3 is expected to carry India's first manned mission to space[91]
and will be the testbed for SCE-200 engine which will power
India's heavy lift rockets in future.[92]

Decade-wise summary of GSLV Mark III launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

2010s 4 0 0 4[93]

Human Spaceflight Programme

First proposal to send humans in space was discussed in ISRO in
2006 which subsequently led to the beginning of work on required
infrastructure and spacecrafts.[94][95] The trials for crewed space
missions began in 2007 with the 600 kg Space Capsule Recovery
Experiment (SRE), launched using the Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle (PSLV) rocket, and safely returned to earth 12 days
later.[96]

In 2009, the Indian Space Research Organisation proposed a

budget of ₹124 billion (equivalent to ₹260 billion or
US$3.5 billion in 2020) for its human spaceflight programme. An
uncrewed demonstration flight was expected after seven years from
the final approval and a crewed mission to be launched after seven
years of funding.[97] Manned mission initially wasn't a priority and
was left on backburner for several years.[98] A space capsule
recovery experiment in 2014[99][100] and a pad abort test in
2018[101] were followed by PM Modi's announcement on
Independence Day address 15 August 2018 that India will send GSLV-F08 launches GSAT-6A into
astronauts into space by 2022 on the new Gaganyaan geostationary transfer orbit (2018).
spacecraft.[102] Till date, ISRO has developed most of the
technologies needed such as crew module and crew escape system,
space food and life support systems. The project would cost less
than ₹100 billion and would include sending 2 or 3 Indians to
space, 300–400 km (190–250 mi) above in a spacecraft for at least
seven days using a GSLV Mk-III launch vehicle.[103][104]

Astronaut training and other facilities

The newly established Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) will

coordinate the IHSF campaign.[105][106] ISRO will set up an
astronaut training centre in Bangalore to prepare personnel for
flights on board the crewed vehicle. The centre will use simulation
facilities to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery
operations and survival in zero gravity, and will undertake studies
of the radiation environment of space. ISRO had to build
centrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the
GSLV Mk III D1 being moved from
launch. Existing launch facilities in Satish Dhawan Space Centre
assembly building to the launch pad
would have to be upgraded for the Indian Human Spaceflight
campaign.[107] Human Space Flight Centre and Glavcosmos
signed an agreement on 1 July 2019 for the selection, support, medical examination and space training of
Indian astronauts.[108] An ISRO Technical Liaison Unit (ITLU) was to be set up in Moscow to facilitate
the development of some key technologies and establishment of special facilities which are essential to
support life in space.[109] The training of four Indian Air Force personnel was undertaken in Yuri Gagarin
Cosmonaut Training Center and was completed in March 2021.[110]

Crewed spacecraft
ISRO is working towards an orbital crewed spacecraft that can operate for seven days in a low Earth orbit.
The spacecraft, called Gaganyaan, will be the basis of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. The
spacecraft is being developed to carry up to three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped
with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its maiden crewed mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-
tonne spacecraft will orbit the Earth at 400 km (250 mi) in altitude for up to seven days with a two-person
crew on board. As of February 2021, the crewed mission is planned to be launched on ISRO's GSLV Mk
III in 2023.[111]

Space station

India plans to build a space station as a follow-up programme of the Gaganyaan mission. ISRO chairman
K. Sivan has said that India will not join the International Space Station programme and will instead build a
20 tonne space station on its own.[112][113] It is expected to be placed in a low Earth orbit of a 400-
kilometre (250 mi) altitude and be capable of harbouring three humans for 15–20 days. Rough time-frame
is five to seven years after completion of Gaganyaan project.[114][115]

Planetary sciences and astronomy

There is a national balloon launching facility at Hyderabad jointly supported by TIFR and ISRO. This
facility has been extensively used for carrying out research in high energy (i.e., X- and gamma-ray)
astronomy, IR astronomy, middle atmospheric trace constituents including CFCs & aerosols, ionisation,
electric conductivity and electric fields.[116]

The flux of secondary particles and X-ray and gamma-rays of atmospheric origin produced by the
interaction of the cosmic rays is very low. This low background, in the presence of which one has to detect
the feeble signal from cosmic sources is a major advantage in conducting hard X-ray observations from
India. The second advantage is that many bright sources like Cyg X-1, Crab Nebula, Scorpius X-1 and
Galactic Centre sources are observable from Hyderabad due to their favourable declination. With these
considerations, an X-ray astronomy group was formed at TIFR in 1967 and development of an instrument
with an orientable X-ray telescope for hard X-ray observations was undertaken. The first balloon flight
with the new instrument was made on 28 April 1968 in which observations of Scorpius X-1 were
successfully carried out. In a succession of balloon flights made with this instrument between 1968 and
1974 a number of binary X-ray sources including Cyg X-1 and Her X-1, and the diffuse cosmic X-ray
background were studied. Many new and astrophysically important results were obtained from these
observations.[117]

ISRO played a role in the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude of
between 20–40 km (12–25 mi). The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found
elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin.[118] These three
bacteria can be considered to be extremophiles. The bacteria were named as Bacillus isronensis in
recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus
aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter hoylei after the
distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.[119]

Astrosat

Launched in 2015, Astrosat is India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory. Its observation
study includes active galactic nuclei, hot white dwarfs, pulsations of pulsars, binary star systems, and
supermassive black holes located at the centre of the galaxy.[120]
Extraterrestrial exploration

Lunar exploration

Chandryaan (lit. 'Mooncraft') are the series of India's lunar

exploration spacecrafts. Initial mission included orbiter and
controlled impact probes while further missions include landers,
Astrosat-1 in deployed configuration
rovers and sampling missions also.[92][121]

Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon. The robotic

lunar exploration mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor
called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched the spacecraft using
a modified version of the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish
Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. The vehicle was inserted into
lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. It carried high-resolution remote
sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-
ray frequencies. During its 312 days operational period (2 years
planned), it surveyed the lunar surface to produce a complete map Rendering of Chandrayaan-1
of its chemical characteristics and 3-dimensional topography. The spacecraft
polar regions were of special interest, as they possibly had ice
deposits. The spacecraft carried 11 instruments: 5 Indian and 6 from
foreign institutes and space agencies (including NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Brown
University and other European and North American institutes/companies), which were carried free of cost.
Chandrayaan-1 became the first lunar mission to discover existence of water on the Moon.[122] The
Chandrayaan-1 team was awarded the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009
award,[123] the International Lunar Exploration Working Group's International Co-operation award in
2008,[124] and the National Space Society's 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering
category.[125][126]

Chandrayaan-2

Chandrayaan-2 is the second mission to the Moon, which included an orbiter, a lander and a rover.
Chandrayaan-2 was launched on a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-MkIII) on
22 July 2019, consisted of a lunar orbiter, the Vikram lander, and the Pragyan lunar rover, all of which were
developed in India.[127][128] It was the first mission meant to explore the little-explored lunar south pole
region.[129] The main objective of the Chandrayaan-2 mission is to demonstrate ISRO's ability to soft-land
on the lunar surface and operate a robotic rover on the surface. Some of its scientific aims are to conduct
studies of lunar topography, mineralogy, elemental abundance, the lunar exosphere, and signatures of
hydroxyl and water ice.[130]

The Vikram lander, carrying the Pragyan rover, was scheduled to land on the near side of the Moon, in a
south polar region at a latitude of about 70° south at approximately 1:50 am(IST) on 7 September 2019.
However, the lander deviated from its intended trajectory starting from an altitude of 2.1 kilometres
(1.3 mi), and telemetry was lost seconds before touchdown was expected.[131] A review board concluded
that the crash-landing was caused by a software glitch.[132] The lunar orbiter was efficiently positioned in
an optimal lunar orbit, extending its expected service time from one year to seven years.[133] There will be
another attempt for soft landing on moon in 2023, but without an orbiter.[134]
Mars exploration
Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or (Mangalyaan-1)

The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known as

Mangalyaan, was launched into Earth orbit on 5 November 2013
by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and has entered
Mars orbit on 24 September 2014.[135] India thus became the first
country to enter Mars orbit on its first attempt. It was completed at a
record low cost of $74 million.[136]

MOM was placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014 at

8:23 am IST. The spacecraft had a launch mass of 1,337 kg
(2,948 lb), with 15 kg (33 lb) of five scientific instruments as
payload.

The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter Mission

team the 2015 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering
category.[137][138] Vikram lander mounted on top of the
Chandrayaan-2 orbiter

Future projects
Along with a number of communication and Earth observation
satellites in future, ISRO aims to send humans into space and later
establish a space station to facilitate a few weeks long stay of
astronauts. Agency aims to develop and operationalise more
powerful and less pollutive rocket engines to eventually develop
much heavier rockets, develop electric and nuclear propulsion for
satellites and spacecrafts for reduced weight and longer lives,
landing a rover on the Moon, sending missions to Sun, Venus, Artist's rendering of the Mars Orbiter
Mars, asteroids, comets and the outer Solar System, deploying Mission spacecraft, with Mars in the
more telescopes in space and developing satellite navigation background
systems with global coverage.[139] Long-term plans may include
manned landings on Moon and other planets as well.[140]

Launch vehicles and engines

Semi-cryogenic engine

SCE-200 is a rocket grade kerosene (dubbed "ISROsene") and LOX based semi-cryogenic rocket engine
inspired from RD-120. The engine will be less pollutive and far more powerful. When mated with GSLV
Mark III, the engine will boost its payload capacity and will be used in clusters in future to power India's
heavy rockets.[141]

Methalox engine

Methane and LOX based engines are being developed to ensure reusability of engines. Methane is less
pollutive, leaves no residue and hence engine needs no refurbishment.[141] LPSC has already undertaken
cold flow tests of engine prototypes in 2020.[27]
Modular heavy rockets

A number of concepts of heavy and super-heavy lift launch vehicles are currently being studied by the
agency. Launchers are being designed to be modular to facilitate interchangeability of parts and reduce the
time of production. There have been multiple mentions of a 10 tonnes capacity "HLV" and an
"SHLV"capable of delivering 50-100 tonnes into orbit in various reports, statements and presentations from
ISRO officials.[142][143]

ISRO has a target to develop a launcher in the 2020s which will be capable of carrying nearly 16 tonnes to
geostationary transfer orbit which would be nearly four times that of the existing GSLV Mark III.[141]
ISRO has also been confirmed to be conducting preliminary research for the development of a Super
heavy-lift launch vehicle which is planned to have a lifting capacity of over 50–60 tonnes into earth's
orbit.[144]

A rocket family of five medium to heavy-lift class modular rockets dubbed as "Unified Modular Launch
Vehicle" (UMLV) or just "Unified Launch Vehicle" (ULV) are being planned which will share parts and
will replace ISRO's existing PSLV, GSLV and LVM3 rockets completely. The rocket family will be
powered by SCE-200 cryogenic engine and will have a capacity of lifting from 4.9 tonnes to 16 tonnes to
geostationary transfer orbit.[145]

Reusable launchers

There have been two reusable launcher projects ongoing at ISRO.

One is ADMIRE test vehicle, conceived as a VTVL system and
another is RLV-TD programme, being run to develop a spacecraft
similar to American space shuttle which will be launched vertically
but land like a plane.[146]

For realising a two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) fully re-usable launch

vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been
conceived. For this purpose, the winged Reusable Launch Vehicle
Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The
RLV-TD is acting as a flying testbed to evaluate various
technologies such as hypersonic flight, autonomous landing,
powered cruise flight, and hypersonic flight using air-breathing
propulsion. First in the series of demonstration trials was the
Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX). ISRO launched the
prototype's test flight from the Sriharikota spaceport in February
2016. The prototype, called RLV-TD, weighs around 1.5 tonnes
and flew up to a height of 70 km (43 mi).[147] The test flight, RLV-TD HEX01 from Satish Dhawan
known as HEX, was completed on 23 May 2016. A scaled up Space Centre First Launch Pad
version of could serve as fly-back booster stage for their winged (SDSC SHAR) on 23 May 2016.
TSTO concept.[148] The test is to be followed by a landing
experiment (LEX) and return flight experiment (REX).[149]

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is a compact small-lift launch vehicle primarily aimed at tapping
small satellites market. This launcher can be quickly assembled with low power and hence facilitates far
higher launch frequency. SSLV can place 500 kg (1,100 lb) in 500 km (310 mi) low Earth orbit and 300 kg
(660 lb) in Sun-synchronous orbit.[150]
Spacecraft propulsion and power
Electric thrusters

India has been working on replacing conventional chemical propulsion with hall effect and plasma thrusters
which would help in cutting down spacecrafts' mass.[141] GSAT-4 was first Indian spacecraft to carry
electric thrusters but failed to reach orbit.[151] GSAT-9 launched later in 2017 had partial electric
propulsion. GSAT-20 is expected to be first fully electric satellite from India.[152][153]

Alpha source thermoelectric propulsion technology

Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), also called alpha source thermoelectric technology by ISRO
is a type of atomic battery which uses nuclear decay heat of radioactive material to power the
spacecraft.[154] In January 2021, U R Rao Satellite Centre issued an Expression of Interest (EoI) for design
and development of a 100 W RTG. RTGs ensure much longer spacecraft life and have less mass than solar
panels on satellites. Development of RTGs will allow ISRO to undertake long endurance deep space
missions to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.[155][156]

Extraterrestrial probes

Destination Craft name Launch vehicle Year

Sun Aditya-L1 PSLV-XL 2022
Moon Chandrayaan-3 GSLV Mk III 2022
Venus Shukrayaan-1 GSLV Mk II 2024
Mars Orbiter Mission 2
Mars GSLV Mk III 2024
(Mangalyaan 2)
Jupiter
Saturn
TBD TBD TBD
Uranus
Neptune

Lunar exploration

Chandryaan-3 is India's planned second attempt to soft land on the Moon after failure of Chandrayaan-2 in
doing so. The mission will only include a lander-rover set and will communicate with the orbiter of
previous mission. The technology demonstrated in a successful Moon landing will be used in joint Indo-
Japanese Lunar Polar Exploration Mission for sampling and analysis of lunar soil.[157]

Mars exploration

The next Mars mission, Mars Orbiter Mission 2 or Mangalyaan 2 has been proposed for launch in
2024.[158] The newer spacecraft will be significantly heavier and better equipped than its predecessor.[92]It
will only consist of an Orbiter.[159]

Venus exploration

ISRO is assessing an orbiter mission to Venus called Shukrayaan-1, that could launch as early as 2023 to
study its atmosphere.[160] Some budget has been allocated to perform preliminary studies as part of 2017–
18 Indian budget under Space Sciences,[161][162][163] and solicitations for potential instruments were
requested in 2017[164] and in 2018. Mission to Venus is scheduled for 2025 that will include a payload
instrument called Venus Infrared Atmospheric Gases Linker (VIRAL) which is co-developed with
Laboratoire atmosphères, milieux, observations spatiales (LATMOS) under French National Centre for
Scientific Research (CNRS) and Roscosmos.[165]

Solar probes

ISRO is scheduled to carry out a mission to study the Solar corona, due for launch in 2022.[166][167] The
probe is named Aditya-L1 and will have a mass of about 400 kg (880 lb).[168] It is the first Indian space-
based solar coronagraph to study the corona in visible and near-IR bands. Launch of the Aditya mission
was planned during the heightened solar activity period in 2012, but was postponed to 2021 due to the
extensive work involved in the fabrication, and other technical aspects. The main objective of the mission is
to study coronal mass ejections (CMEs), their properties (the structure and evolution of their magnetic fields
for example), and consequently constrain parameters that affect space weather.

Asteroids and outer solar system

Conceptual studies are underway to launch spacecrafts to asteroids and Jupiter as well in long term. The
ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every 33 months. If the mission to Jupiter is
launched, a flyby of Venus would be required.[169] Development of RTEG might facilitate agency to
further undertake deeper space missions like to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.[155]

Space telescopes and observatories

AstroSat-2

AstroSat-2 is the successor of Astrosat mission.[170]

XPoSat

The X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is a planned mission to study polarisation. It is planned to have a
mission life of five years and is planned to be launched in 2022.[171][172] The spacecraft is planned to carry
the Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays (POLIX) payload which will study the degree and angle of
polarisation of bright astronomical X-ray sources in the energy range 5–30 keV.[173]

Exoworlds

Exoworlds is a joint proposal by ISRO, IIST and the University of Cambridge for a space telescope
dedicated for atmospheric studies of exoplanets. The proposal is aiming for readiness by 2025.[174][175]

Forthcoming satellites
 Satellite Launch
Year Purpose Notes
name vehicle
EOS- PSLV - Jan
Radar imaging
4/RISAT-1A C52 2022
EOS-
SSLV - Q1
2/Microsat-
D1 2022
2A
NET 20
EOS-6 PSLV - Earth
Jan
/Oceansat-3 C53 observation
2022
GSLV
NVS-01 Mk II - 2022 Navigation
F14
GSLV
GSAT-20 2022 Communications
Mk III
Geospatial imagery to facilitate continuous observation
GSLV Earth
GISAT 2 2022 of Indian sub-continent, quick monitoring of natural
Mk II observation
hazards and disaster.
Facilitates continuous real-time communication between
Data relay and Low Earth orbit bound spacecraft to the ground station
GSLV
IDRSS 2022 satellite tracking as well as inter-satellite communication. Such a satellite
Mk II
constellation in geostationary orbit can track a low altitude spacecraft
up to almost half of its orbit.
NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint
project between NASA and ISRO to co-develop and
GSLV January Earth
NISAR launch a dual frequency synthetic aperture radar satellite
Mk II 2023 observation
to be used for remote sensing. It is notable for being the
first dual band radar imaging satellite.
Disturbed and quite-type Ionosphere System at High
2024–
DISHA PSLV Aeronomy Altitude (DISHA) satellite constellation with two satellites
25[176]
in 450 km (280 mi) LEO.[158]

Earth Follow-up to HySIS hyperspectral Earth imaging

AHySIS-2 PSLV 2024
observation satellite.[177]

Applications

Telecommunication

India uses its satellite communication network – one of the largest in the world – for applications such as
land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather
forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication.[178] Business, administrative services,
and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NIC) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite
technology.[179] Dinshaw Mistry, on the subject of practical applications of the Indian space program,
writes:

"The INSAT-2 satellites also provide telephone links to remote areas; data transmission for
organisations such as the National Stock Exchange; mobile satellite service communications
for private operators, railways, and road transport; and broadcast satellite services, used by
India's state-owned television agency as well as commercial television channels. India's
 EDUSAT (Educational Satellite), launched aboard the GSLV in 2004, was intended for adult
literacy and distance learning applications in rural areas. It augmented and would eventually
replace such capabilities already provided by INSAT-3B."

Resource management

The IRS satellites have found applications with the Indian Natural Resource Management program, with
Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres in five Indian cities, and with Remote Sensing Application
Centres in twenty Indian states that use IRS images for economic development applications. These include
environmental monitoring, analysing soil erosion and the impact of soil conservation measures, forestry
management, determining land cover for wildlife sanctuaries, delineating groundwater potential zones,
flood inundation mapping, drought monitoring, estimating crop acreage and deriving agricultural
production estimates, fisheries monitoring, mining and geological applications such as surveying metal and
mineral deposits, and urban planning.

Military

Integrated Space Cell, under the Integrated Defence Staff headquarters of the Indian Ministry of
Defence,[180] has been set up to utilise more effectively the country's space-based assets for military
purposes and to look into threats to these assets.[181][182] This command will leverage space technology
including satellites. Unlike an aerospace command, where the air force controls most of its activities, the
Integrated Space Cell envisages cooperation and coordination between the three services as well as civilian
agencies dealing with space.[180] With 14 satellites, including GSAT-7A for the exclusive military use and
the rest as dual use satellites, India has the fourth largest number of satellites active in the sky which
includes satellites for the exclusive use of Indian Air Force and Indian Navy respectively.[183] GSAT-7A,
an advanced military communications satellite exclusively for the Indian Air Force,[184] is similar to Indian
Navy's GSAT-7, and GSAT-7A will enhance Network-centric warfare capabilities of the Indian Air Force
by interlinking different ground radar stations, ground airbase and Airborne early warning and control
(AWACS) aircraft such as Beriev A-50 Phalcon and DRDO AEW&CS.[184][185] GSAT-7A will also be
used by Indian Army's Aviation Corps for its helicopters and UAV's operations.[184][185] In 2013, ISRO
launched GSAT-7 for the exclusive use of the Indian Navy to monitor the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) with
the satellite's 2,000-nautical-mile (3,700 km; 2,300 mi) 'footprint' and real-time input capabilities to Indian
warships, submarines and maritime aircraft.[183] To boost the network-centric operations of the IAF, ISRO
launched GSAT-7A on 19 December 2018.[186][183] The RISAT series of radar-imaging earth observation
satellites is also meant for Military use.[187] ISRO launched EMISAT on 1 April 2019. EMISAT is an
electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite which has a weight of 436-kg. It will help improve the situational
awareness of the Indian Armed Forces by providing information and location of hostile radars.[188]

India's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India's 150–200-kilometre
(93–124 mi) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space programme, the intermediate range
Agni missile is drawn from the Indian space programme's SLV-3. In its early years, when headed by
Vikram Sarabhai and Satish Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects such as
the SLV-3. Eventually, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) based missile
programme borrowed human resources and technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
(elected president of India in 2002), who had headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, moved to DRDO to direct
India's missile programme. About a dozen scientists accompanied Kalam from ISRO to DRDO, where he
designed the Agni missile using the SLV-3's solid fuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missile-derived)
second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended and used for civilian-economic
applications, but they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 New Delhi's Ministry of Defence temporarily
blocked the use of IRS-1C by India's environmental and agricultural ministries to monitor ballistic missiles
near India's borders. In 1997, the Indian Air Force's "Airpower Doctrine" aspired to use space assets for
surveillance and battle management.[189]

Academic

Institutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University and the Indian Institutes of Technology use
satellites for scholarly applications.[190] Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological
programme using space technology, reaching 2400 villages through video programming in local languages
aimed at educational development via ATS-6 technology developed by NASA.[191] This experiment—
named Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—conducted large scale video broadcasts
resulting in significant improvement in rural education.[191] Education could reach far remote rural places
with the help of above programs.

Telemedicine

ISRO has applied its technology for telemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical
professionals in urban locations via satellites.[190] Since high-quality healthcare is not universally available
in some of the remote areas of India, the patients in remote areas are diagnosed and analysed by doctors in
urban centers in real time via video conferencing.[190] The patient is then advised medicine and
treatment.[190] The patient is then treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty hospitals' under
instructions from the doctor.[190] Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung
areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients.[190]

Biodiversity Information System

ISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002.[192]
Nirupa Sen details the program: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote
sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1: 250,000 scale.
This has been put together in a web-enabled database that links gene-level information of plant species with
spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India,
Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with
collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO."[192]

Cartography

The Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to enable
it for cartographic purposes.[44] IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named
IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.[44] The CARTOSAT-2 project, equipped with single
panchromatic camera that supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeeded the CARTOSAT-1
project.[193]

Spin-offs

ISRO's research has been diverted into spin-offs to develop various technologies for other sectors.
Examples include bionic limbs for people without or amputated limbs, silica aerogel to keep Indian soldiers
warm who are serving in extremely cold areas, distress alert transmitters for accidents, Doppler weather
radar and various sensors and machines for inspection work in engineering industries.[194][195]
International cooperations
ISRO has signed various formal cooperative arrangements in the form of either Agreements or Memoranda
of Understanding (MoU) or Framework Agreements with Afghanistan, Algeria, Argentina, Armenia,
Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, Finland,
France, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Maldives, Mauritius,
Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar, Norway, Peru, Portugal, South Korea, Russia, São Tomé and
Príncipe, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Oman, Sweden, Syria, Tajikistan, Thailand, the
Netherlands, Tunisia, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Uzbekistan,
Venezuela and Vietnam. Formal cooperative instruments have been signed with international multilateral
bodies including European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), European
Commission, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT),
European Space Agency (ESA) and South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).[196]

Notable collaborative projects

Chandryaan-1

Chandrayaan-1 also carried scientific payloads to the moon from NASA, ESA, Bulgarian
Space Agency, and other institutions/companies in North America and Europe.[197]

Indo-French satellite missions

ISRO has two collaborative satellite missions with CNES, namely Megha-Tropiques to study water cycle
in the tropical atmosphere[198] and SARAL for altimetry.[199] A third mission consisting of an earth
observation satellite with thermal infrared imager, TRISHNA (Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High
resolution Natural resource Assessment) is being planned between two countries.[200]

LUPEX

Lunar Polar Exploration Mission is a joint Indo-Japanese mission to study the surface of polar moon where
India is tasked with providing soft landing technologies.[201]

NISAR

NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint Indo-US radar project carrying an L Band and
an S Band radar. It will be world's first radar imaging satellite to use dual frequencies.[202]

Some other notable instances include:

ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search
and Rescue.
India has established a Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and
the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations.
India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,
Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research
(COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International
Space University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS).[198]
Contributing to planned BRICS virtual constellation for remote sensing.[203][204]

Statistics
Last updated: 4 March 2021[205]

Total number of foreign satellites launched by ISRO: 342 (35 countries)[205]

Spacecraft missions: 117
Launch missions: 77
Student satellites: 10 [206]
Re-entry missions: 2

Budget for the Department of Space

Controversies

S-band spectrum scam

In India, electromagnetic spectrum, being a scarce resource for

wireless communication, is auctioned by the Government of India to
telecom companies for use. As an example of its value, in 2010, 20
MHz of 3G spectrum was auctioned for ₹677 billion (US$9.0 billion).
This part of the spectrum is allocated for terrestrial communication
(cell phones). However, in January 2005, Antrix Corporation
Allotted budget department-
(commercial arm of ISRO) signed an agreement with Devas
Multimedia (a private company formed by former ISRO employees wise in %age (year 2019-
20) for ISRO
and venture capitalists from the US) for lease of S band transponders
(amounting to 70 MHz of spectrum) on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 Space technology (67.41%)
and GSAT 6A) for a price of ₹14 billion (US$190 million), to be paid
Space applications (15.11%)
over a period of 12 years. The spectrum used in these satellites
INSAT operations (7.08%)
(2500 MHz and above) is allocated by the International
Space sciences (2.28%)
Telecommunication Union specifically for satellite-based
communication in India. Hypothetically, if the spectrum allocation is Others (8.09%)
changed for utilisation for terrestrial transmission and if this 70 MHz of
spectrum were sold at the 2010 auction price of the 3G spectrum, its
value would have been over ₹2,000 billion (US$27 billion). This was a hypothetical situation. However,
the Comptroller and Auditor General of India considered this hypothetical situation and estimated the
difference between the prices as a loss to the Indian Government.[207][208]

There were lapses on implementing Government of India procedures. Antrix/ISRO had allocated the
capacity of the above two satellites to Devas Multimedia on an exclusive basis, while rules said it should
always be non-exclusive. The Cabinet was misinformed in November 2005 that several service providers
were interested in using satellite capacity, while the Devas deal was already signed. Also, the Space
Commission was kept in the dark while taking approval for the second satellite (its cost was diluted so that
Cabinet approval was not needed). ISRO committed to spending ₹7.66 billion (US$100 million) of public
money on building, launching, and operating two satellites that were leased out for Devas.

In late 2009, some ISRO insiders exposed information about the Devas-Antrix deal,[208][209] and the
ensuing investigations resulted in the deal being annulled. G. Madhavan Nair (ISRO Chairperson when the
agreement was signed) was barred from holding any post under the Department of Space. Some former
scientists were found guilty of "acts of commission" or "acts of omission". Devas and Deutsche Telekom
demanded US$2 billion and US$1 billion, respectively, in damages.[210] Government of India's
Department of Revenue and Ministry of Corporate Affairs initiated an inquiry into Devas shareholding.
The Central Bureau of Investigation concluded investigations into the Antrix-Devas scam and registered a
case against the accused in the Antrix-Devas deal under Section 120-B, besides Section 420 of IPC and
Section 13(2) read with 13(1)(d) of PC Act, 1988 on 18 March 2015 against the then Executive Director of
Antrix Corporation, two officials of USA-based company, Bangalore based private multimedia company,
and other unknown officials of Antrix Corporation or Department of Space.[211][212]

Devas Multimedia started arbitration proceedings against Antrix in June 2011. In September 2015, the
International Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce ruled in favour of Devas, and
directed Antrix to pay US$672 million (Rs 44.35 billion) in damages to Devas.[213] Antrix opposed the
Devas plea for tribunal award in the Delhi High Court.[214]

See also
Comparison of Asian national space programs
Deep Ocean mission
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
List of government space agencies
List of ISRO missions
New Space India Limited
Science and technology in India
Space industry of India
Swami Vivekananda Planetarium
Telecommunications in India
Timeline of Solar System exploration

Notes
a. ISO 15919: Bhāratīya Antarikṣ Anusandhān Saṅgaṭhan Bhāratīya Antrikṣ Anusandhān
Saṅgaṭhan
b. CNSA (China), ESA (most of Europe), ISRO, (India), JAXA (Japan), NASA (United States)
and Roscosmos (Russia) are space agencies with full launch capabilities.

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^'Additional Project Director' "Abhijeet Meshram" Saying About Chandrayan-2 at SHIKHAR DHAWAN
SPACE STATION on (18 May 2019)

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Publishing, ISBN 978-93-86826-27-5
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Further reading
The Economics of India's Space Programme, by U. Sankar, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-568345-5
The Indian Space Programme, by Gurbir Singh, Astrotalkuk Publications, ISBN 978-
0956933737
Reach For the Stars: The Evolution of India's Rocket Programme, by Gopal Raj, ISBN 978-
0670899500
From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India's Space Journey, by ISRO, ISBN 978-
9351776895
Brief History of Rocketry in ISRO, by P V Manoranjan Rao and P Radhakrishnan, ISBN 978-
8173717642
India's Rise as a Space Power, by U R Rao, ISBN 978-9382993483

External links
Media related to Indian Space Research Organisation at Wikimedia Commons
Official website (http://www.isro.gov.in)
"Official website of the Department of Space of the Government of India" (http://www.dos.go
v.in). dos.gov.in.

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