5 THE INTEGRAL

5.1 Approximating and Computing Area

Preliminary Questions
1. What are the right and left endpoints if [2, 5] is divided into six subintervals?
solution If the interval [2, 5] is divided into six subintervals, the length of each subinterval is 5−2 6 = 2.
1
5 7 9 5 7 9
The right endpoints of the subintervals are then 2 , 3, 2 , 4, 2 , 5, while the left endpoints are 2, 2 , 3, 2 , 4, 2 .
2. The interval [1, 5] is divided into eight subintervals.
(a) What is the left endpoint of the last subinterval?
(b) What are the right endpoints of the first two subintervals?
solution Note that each of the 8 subintervals has length 5−1
8 = 12 .
(a) The left endpoint of the last subinterval is 5 − 1
2 = 92 .
 
(b) The right endpoints of the first two subintervals are 1 + 1
2 = 3
2 and 1 + 2 1
2 = 2.

3. Which of the following pairs of sums are not equal?

4  4 
4 
5
(a) i,  (b) j 2, k2
i=1 =1 j =1 k=2


4 
5 
4 
5
(c) j, (i − 1) (d) i(i + 1), (j − 1)j
j =1 i=2 i=1 j =2

solution
(a) Only the name of the index variable has been changed, so these two sums are the same.
(b) These two sums are not the same; the second squares the numbers two through five while the first squares
the numbers one through four.
(c) These two sums are the same. Note that when i ranges from two through five, the expression i − 1 ranges
from one through four.
(d) These two sums are the same. Both sums are 1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + 4 · 5.


100 
100 
100 
100
4. Explain: j= j but 1 is not equal to 1.
j =1 j =0 j =1 j =0
100
solution The first term in the sum j =0 j is equal to zero, so it may be dropped. More specifically,


100 
100 
100
j =0+ j= j.
j =0 j =1 j =1

100
On the other hand, the first term in j =0 1 is not zero, so this term cannot be dropped. In particular,


100 
100 
100
1=1+ 1 = 1.
j =0 j =1 j =1

5. Explain why L100 ≥ R100 for f (x) = x −2 on [3, 7].

solution On [3, 7], the function f (x) = x −2 is a decreasing function; hence, for any subinterval of [3, 7],
the function value at the left endpoint is larger than the function value at the right endpoint. Consequently,
L100 must be larger than R100 .

571
572 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Exercises
1. Figure 15 shows the velocity of an object over a 3-minute (min) interval. Determine the distance traveled
over the intervals [0, 3] and [1, 2.5] (remember to convert from kilometers per hour to kilometers per minute).
km/h
30

20

10

min
1 2 3
FIGURE 15

solution The distance traveled by the object can be determined by calculating the area underneath the
velocity graph over the specified interval. During the interval [0, 3], the object travels
         
10 1 25 15 1 20 23
+ (1) + + (1) = ≈ 0.96 km.
60 2 60 60 2 60 24
During the interval [1, 2.5], it travels
        
25 1 15 1 20 1 1
+ + = = 0.5 km.
60 2 60 2 60 2 2

2. An ostrich (Figure 16) runs with velocity 20 km/h for 2 minutes (min), 12 km/h for 3 min, and 40 km/h
for another minute. Compute the total distance traveled and indicate with a graph how this quantity can be
interpreted as an area.

FIGURE 16 Ostriches can reach speeds as high as 70 km/h. (© Daryl Balfour/Gallo Images/Alamy)

solution The total distance traveled by the ostrich is

     
20 12 40 2 3 2 29
(2) + (3) + (1) = + + =
60 60 60 3 5 3 15
km. This distance is the area under the graph below which shows the ostrich’s velocity as a function of time.
y
40

30

20

10

0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

3. A rainstorm hit Portland, Maine, in October 1996, resulting in record rainfall. The rainfall rate R(t) on
October 21 is recorded, in centimeters per hour, in the following table, where t is the number of hours since
midnight. Compute the total rainfall during this 24-hour period and indicate on a graph how this quantity can
be interpreted as an area.

t (h) 0–2 2–4 4–9 9–12 12–20 20–24

R(t) (cm) 0.5 0.3 1.0 2.5 1.5 0.6
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 573

solution Over each interval, the total rainfall is the time interval in hours times the rainfall in centimeters
per hour. Thus
R = 2(0.5) + 2(0.3) + 5(1.0) + 3(2.5) + 8(1.5) + 4(0.6) = 28.5 cm.
The figure below is a graph of the rainfall as a function of time. The area of the shaded region represents the
total rainfall.
y
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
x
5 10 15 20 25

4. The velocity of an object is v(t) = 12t m/s. Use Eq. (2) and geometry to find the distance traveled over
the time intervals [0, 2] and [2, 5].
solution By equation Eq. (2), the distance traveled over the time interval [a, b] is
 b  b
v(t) dt = 12t dt;
a a

that is, the distance traveled is the area under the graph of the velocity function over the interval [a, b]. The
graph below shows the area under the velocity function v(t) = 12t m/s over the intervals [0, 2] and [2, 5].
Over the interval [0, 2], the area is a triangle of base 2 and height 24; therefore, the distance traveled is
1
(2)(24) = 24 meters.
2
Over the interval [2, 5], the area is a trapezoid of height 3 and base lengths 24 and 60; therefore, the distance
traveled is
1
(3)(24 + 60) = 126 meters.
2
y
60
50
40
30
20
10
x
1 2 3 4 5

5. Compute R5 and L5 over [0, 1] using the following values:

x 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

f (x) 50 48 46 44 42 40

solution x = 1−0
5 = 0.2. Thus,
L5 = 0.2 (50 + 48 + 46 + 44 + 42) = 0.2(230) = 46,
and
R5 = 0.2 (48 + 46 + 44 + 42 + 40) = 0.2(220) = 44.

6. Compute R6 , L6 , and M3 to estimate the distance traveled over [0, 3] if the velocity at half-second
intervals is as follows:

t (s) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

v (m/s) 0 12 18 25 20 14 20
574 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

solution For R6 and L6 , t = 3−0

6 = 0.5. For M3 , t = 3−0
3 = 1. Then

R6 = 0.5 (12 + 18 + 25 + 20 + 14 + 20) = 0.5(109) = 54.5 m,

L6 = 0.5 (0 + 12 + 18 + 25 + 20 + 14) = 0.5(89) = 44.5 m,

and

M3 = 1 (12 + 25 + 14) = 51 m.

7. Let f (x) = 2x + 3.
(a) Compute R6 and L6 over [0, 3].
(b) Use geometry to find the exact area A and compute the errors |A − R6 | and |A − L6 | in the approximations.
solution Let f (x) = 2x + 3 on [0, 3].
(a) We partition
[0, 3] into 6 equally-spaced subintervals.
The
left endpoints of the subintervals are
1 3 5 1 3 5
0, 2 , 1, 2 , 2, 2 whereas the right endpoints are 2 , 1, 2 , 2, 2 , 3 .

• Let a = 0, b = 3, n = 6, x = (b − a) /n = 12 , and xk = a + kx, k = 0, 1, . . . , 5 (left endpoints).

Then


5 
5
1
L6 = f (xk )x = x f (xk ) = (3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8) = 16.5.
2
k=0 k=0

• With xk = a + kx, k = 1, 2, . . . , 6 (right endpoints), we have


6 
6
1
R6 = f (xk )x = x f (xk ) = (4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9) = 19.5.
2
k=1 k=1

(b) Via geometry (see figure below), the exact area is A = 12 (3) (6) + 32 = 18. Thus, L6 underestimates the
true area (L6 − A = −1.5), while R6 overestimates the true area (R6 − A = +1.5).
y

x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

8. Repeat Exercise 7 for f (x) = 20 − 3x over [2, 4].

solution Let f (x) = 20 − 3x on [2, 4].
(a) We partition
[2, 4] into 6 equally-spaced subintervals.
The left
endpoints of the subintervals are
7 8 10 11 7 8 10 11
2, 3 , 3 , 3, 3 , 3 whereas the right endpoints are 3 , 3 , 3, 3 , 3 , 3 .

• Let a = 2, b = 4, n = 6, x = (b − a) /n = 13 , and xk = a + kx, k = 0, 1, . . . , 5 (left endpoints).

Then


5 
5
1
L6 = f (xk )x = x f (xk ) = (14 + 13 + 12 + 11 + 10 + 9) = 23.
3
k=0 k=0

• With xk = a + kx, k = 1, 2, . . . , 6 (right endpoints), we have


6 
6
1
R6 = f (xk )x = x f (xk ) = (13 + 12 + 11 + 10 + 9 + 8) = 21.
3
k=1 k=1
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 575

(b) Via geometry (see figure below), the exact area is A = 12 (2) (14 + 8) = 22. Thus, L6 overestimates the
true area (L6 − A = 1), while R6 underestimates the true area (R6 − A = −1).

y
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
x
1 2 3 4

9. Calculate R3 and L3 for f (x) = x 2 − x + 4 over [1, 4]. Then sketch the graph of f and the rectangles
that make up each approximation. Is the area under the graph larger or smaller than R3 ? Is it larger or smaller
than L3 ?

solution Let f (x) = x 2 − x + 4 and set a = 1, b = 4, n = 3, x = (b − a) /n = (4 − 1) /3 = 1.

Moreover, let xk = a + kx, k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
• Selecting the left endpoints of the subintervals, xk , k = 0, 1, 2, or {1, 2, 3}, we have


2 
2
L3 = f (xk )x = x f (xk ) = (1) (4 + 6 + 10) = 20.
k=0 k=0

• Selecting the right endpoints of the subintervals, xk , k = 1, 2, 3, or {2, 3, 4}, we have


3 
3
R3 = f (xk )x = x f (xk ) = (1) (6 + 10 + 16) = 32.
k=1 k=1

Here are figures of the three rectangles that approximate the area under the curve f (x) over the interval [1, 4].
Clearly, the area under the graph is larger than L3 but smaller than R3 .

y y

14 14
12 L3 12 R3
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
x x
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

√
10. Let f (x) = x 2 + 1 and x = 13 . Sketch the graph of f and draw the right-endpoint rectangles whose
6
area is represented by the sum f (1 + ix)x.
i=1

solution Because x = 13 and the sum evaluates f at 1 + ix for i from 1 through 6, it follows that the
interval over which we are considering f is [1, 3]. The sketch of f together with the six rectangles is shown
below.
y
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
576 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

11. Estimate R3 , M3 , and L6 over [0, 1.5] for the function in Figure 17.

y
5

x
0.5 1.0 1.5
FIGURE 17

solution Let f on [0, 32 ] be given by Figure 17. For n = 3, x = ( 32 − 0)/3 = 12 , {xk }3k=0 = 0, 12 , 1, 32 .
Therefore

1
3
1
R3 = f (xk ) = (2 + 1 + 2) = 2.5,
2 2
k=1
 
1
3
1 1
M3 = f xk − x = (3.25 + 1.25 + 1.25) = 2.875.
2 2 2
k=1

For n = 6, x = ( 32 − 0)/6 = 14 , {xk }6k=0 = 0, 14 , 12 , 34 , 1, 54 , 32 . Therefore

1
5
1
L6 = f (xk ) = (5 + 3.25 + 2 + 1.25 + 1 + 1.25) = 3.4375.
4 4
k=0

12. Calculate the area of the shaded rectangles in Figure 18. Which approximation do these rectangles
represent?

−
y = 4 x2
1+x

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

FIGURE 18

solution Each rectangle in Figure 18 has a width of 1 and the height is taken as the value of the function
at the midpoint of the interval. Thus, the area of the shaded rectangles is
 
26 22 18 14 10 6 18784
1 + + + + + = ≈ 9.965.
29 13 5 5 13 29 1885
Because there are six rectangles and the height of each rectangle is taken as the value of the function at the
midpoint of the interval, the shaded rectangles represent the approximation M6 to the area under the curve.
13. Let f (x) = x 2 .
(a) Sketch the function over the interval [0, 2] and the rectangles corresponding to L4 . Calculate the area
contained within them.
(b) Sketch the function over the interval [0, 2] again but with the rectangles corresponding to R4 . Calculate
the area contained within them.
(c) Make a conclusion about the area under the curve f (x) = x 2 over the interval [0, 2].
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 577

solution Let f (x) = x 2 . For n = 4, x = (2 − 0)/4 = 12 and {xk }4k=0 = {0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2}.
(a) A sketch of f over the interval [0, 2] with the rectangles corresponding to L4 is shown below. The area
contained within these rectangles is

 1 2 
3
L4 = f (xk )x = 0 + 0.52 + 12 + 1.52 = 1.75.
2
k=0

x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

(b) A sketch of f over the interval [0, 2] with the rectangles corresponding to R4 is shown below. The area
contained within these rectangles is

 1 2 
4
R4 = f (xk )x = 0.5 + 12 + 1.52 + 22 = 3.75.
2
k=1

x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

(c) From the figures in parts (a) and (b), it is clear that L4 underestimates the area under the curve f (x) = x 2
over the interval [0, 2] while R4 overestimates the area under the curve f (x) = x 2 over the interval [0, 2].
Thus, the area under the curve f (x) = x 2 over the interval [0, 2] is between 1.75 and 3.75.
√
14. Let f (x) = x.
(a) Sketch the function over the interval [0, 4] and the rectangles corresponding to L4 . Calculate the area
contained within them.
(b) Sketch the function over the interval [0, 4] again but with the rectangles corresponding to R4 . Calculate
the area contained within them.
√
(c) Make a conclusion about the area under the curve f (x) = x over the interval [0, 4].
√
solution Let f (x) = x. For n = 4, x = (4 − 0)/4 = 1 and {xk }4k=0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.
(a) A sketch of f over the interval [0, 4] with the rectangles corresponding to L4 is shown below. The area
contained within these rectangles is


3 √ √ √ √
L4 = f (xk )x = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 ≈ 4.146.
k=0

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

x
1 2 3 4
578 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

(b) A sketch of f over the interval [0, 4] with the rectangles corresponding to R4 is shown below. The area
contained within these rectangles is


4 √ √ √ √
R4 = f (xk )x = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ≈ 6.146.
k=1

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

x
1 2 3 4

√
(c) From the figures in parts (a) and (b), it is clear that L4 underestimates the area under
√ the curve f (x) = x
over the interval [0, 4] while R4 overestimates
√ the area under the curve f (x) = x over the interval [0, 4].
Thus, the area under the curve f (x) = x over the interval [0, 4] is between 4.146 and 6.146.

In Exercises 15–22, calculate the approximation for the given function and interval.

15. R3 , f (x) = 7 − x, [3, 5]

solution Let f (x) = 7 − x on [3, 5]. For n = 3, x = (5 − 3)/3 = 23 , and {xk }3k=0 = 3, 11 13
3 , 3 ,5 .
Therefore

2
3
R3 = (7 − xk )
3
k=1
 
2 10 8 2 16
= + + 2 = (8) = .
3 3 3 3 3

√
16. L6 , f (x) = 6x + 2, [1, 3]
√
solution Let f (x) = 6x + 2 on [1, 3]. For n = 6, x = (3 − 1)/6 = 1
3, and {xk }6k=0 =

4 5 7 8
1, 3 , 3 , 2, 3 , 3 , 3 . Therefore

1 
5
L6 = 6xk + 2
3
k=0
1 √ √ √ √ √ 
= 8 + 10 + 12 + 14 + 4 + 18 ≈ 7.146368.
3

17. M6 , f (x) = 4x + 3, [5, 8]

solution Let f (x) = 4x + 3 on [5, 8]. For n = 6, x = (8 − 5)/6 = 1

2, and {xk∗ }5k=0 =
{5.25, 5.75, 6.25, 6.75,
7.25, 7.75}. Therefore,

1  ∗
5

M6 = 4xk + 3
2
k=0
1
= (24 + 26 + 28 + 30 + 32 + 34)
2
1
= (174) = 87.
2
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 579

18. R5 , f (x) = x 2 + x, [−1, 1]

solution Let f (x) = x 2 + x on [−1, 1]. For n = 5, x = (1 − (−1))/5 = 2
5, and {xk }5k=0 =

−1, − 35 , − 15 , 15 , 35 , 1 . Therefore
        
2 2
5
2 9 3 1 1 1 1 9 3
R5 = (xk + xk ) = − + − + + + + +2
5 5 25 5 25 5 25 5 25 5
k=1
 
2 14 28
= = .
5 5 25

19. M5 , f (x) = ln x, [1, 3]

solution Let f (x) = ln x on [1, 3]. For n = 5, x = (3 − 1)/5 = 25 , and {xk∗ }4k=0 = { 65 , 85 , 2, 12
5 , 5 }.
14

Therefore,

2
4
M5 = ln xk∗
5
k=0
 
2 6 8 12 14
= ln + ln + ln 2 + ln + ln ≈ 1.300224.
5 5 5 5 5
√
20. M4 , f (x) = x, [3, 5]
√
solution Let f (x) = x on [3, 5]. For n = 4, x = (5 − 3)/4 = 12 , and {xk∗ }3k=0 = { 13
4 , 4 , 4 , 4 }.
15 17 19

Therefore,

1  ∗
3
M4 = xk
2
k=0
√ √ √ √ 
1 13 15 17 19
= + + + ≈ 3.990135.
2 2 2 2 2
π 
21. L4 , f (x) = cos2 x, π
6, 2
solution Let f (x) = cos2 x on [ π6 , π2 ]. For n = 4,
 
(π/2 − π/6) π π π π 5π π
x = = and {xk }4k=0 = , , , , .
4 12 6 4 3 12 2
Therefore

π  2
3
L4 = cos xk ≈ 0.410236.
12
k=0

22. L6 , f (x) = x 2 + 3|x|, [−2, 1]

solution Let f (x) = x 2 + 3 |x| on [−2, 1]. For n = 6, x = (1 − (−2))/6 = 1
2, and {xk }6k=0 =
{−2, −1.5, −1,
−0.5, 0, 0.5, 1}. Therefore

1 2
5
1
L6 = (xk + 3 |xk |) = (10 + 6.75 + 4 + 1.75 + 0 + 1.75) = 12.125.
2 2
k=0

In Exercises 23–28, write the sum in summation notation.

23. 47 + 57 + 67 + 77 + 87
solution The first term is 47 , and the last term is 87 , so it seems the kth term is k 7 . Therefore, the sum is:


8
k7.
k=4
580 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

24. (22 + 2) + (32 + 3) + (42 + 4) + (52 + 5)

solution The first term is 22 + 2, and the last term is 52 + 5, so it seems that the sum limits are 2 and 5,
and the kth term is k 2 + k. Therefore, the sum is:

5
(k 2 + k).
k=2

25. (22 + 2) + (23 + 2) + (24 + 2) + (25 + 2)

solution The first term is 22 + 2, and the last term is 25 + 2, so it seems the sum limits are 2 and 5, and
the kth term is 2k + 2. Therefore, the sum is:

5
(2k + 2).
k=2
  
26. 1 + 13 + 2 + 23 + · · · + n + n3
√ √
solution The first term is 1 + 13 and the last term is n + n3 , so it seems the summation limits are 1
√
through n, and the k-th term is k + k 3 . Therefore, the sum is
n 

k + k3.
k=1

1 2 n
27. + + ··· +
2·3 3·4 (n + 1)(n + 2)
1
solution The first summand is (1+1)·(1+2) . This shows us

1 2 n  i
n
+ + ··· + = .
2·3 3·4 (n + 1)(n + 2) (i + 1)(i + 2)
i=1

28. eπ + eπ/2 + eπ/3 + · · · + eπ/n

solution The first term is eπ/1 and the last term is eπ/n , so it seems the sum limits are 1 and n and the kth
term is eπ/k . Therefore, the sum is

n
eπ/k .
k=1

29. Calculate the sums:

5 
5 
4
(a) 9 (b) 4 (c) k3
i=1 i=0 k=2
solution

5 
5 
5
(a) 9 = 9 + 9 + 9 + 9 + 9 = 45. Alternatively, 9=9 1 = (9)(5) = 45.
i=1 i=1 i=1
5 
5 
5
(b) 4 = 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 24. Alternatively, 4=4 = (4)(6) = 24.
i=0 i=0 i=0
4
(c) k 3 = 23 + 33 + 43 = 99. Alternatively,
k=2
 4       

4  
1
44 43 42 14 13 12
k =
3
k 3
− k 3
= + + − + + = 99.
4 2 4 4 2 4
k=2 k=1 k=1

30. Calculate the sums:

4  π 
5
1 
2
(a) sin j (b) (c) 3j −1
2 k−1
j =3 k=3 j =0
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 581

solution

4      
jπ 3π 4π
(a) sin = sin + sin = −1 + 0 = −1.
2 2 2
j =3

5
1 1 1 1 13
(b) = + + = .
k−1 2 3 4 12
k=3

2
1 13
(c) 3j −1 = +1+3= .
3 3
j =0
31. Let b1 = 4, b2 = 1, b3 = 2, and b4 = −4. Calculate:
4 2 
3
(a) bi (b) (2bj − bj ) (c) kbk
i=2 j =1 k=1
solution

4
(a) bi = b2 + b3 + b4 = 1 + 2 + (−4) = −1.
i=2
2  
(b) 2bj − bj = (24 − 4) + (21 − 1) = 13.
j =1

3
(c) kbk = 1(4) + 2(1) + 3(2) = 12.
k=1

10 
10
32. Assume that a1 = −5, ai = 20, and bi = 7. Calculate:
i=1 i=1

10 
10 
10
(a) (4ai + 3) (b) ai (c) (2ai − 3bi )
i=1 i=2 i=1
solution

10 
10 
10
(a) (4ai + 3) = 4 ai + 3 1 = 4(20) + 3(10) = 110.
i=1 i=1 i=1
10 
10
(b) ai = ai − a1 = 20 − (−5) = 25.
i=2 i=1

10 
10 
10
(c) (2ai − 3bi ) = 2 ai − 3 bi = 2(20) − 3(7) = 19.
i=1 i=1 i=1

200
33. Calculate j . Hint: Write as a difference of two sums and use formula (3).
j =101
solution

200 
200 
100    
2002 200 1002 100
j= j− j= + − + = 20100 − 5050 = 15050.
2 2 2 2
j =101 j =1 j =1


30
34. Calculate (2j + 1)2 . Hint: Expand and use formulas (3)–(4).
j =1
solution

30 
30 
30 
30
(2j + 1)2 = 4 j2 + 4 j+ 1
j =1 j =1 j =1 j =1
   
303 302 30 302 30
=4 + + +4 + + 30
3 2 6 2 2
= 39,710.
582 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

In Exercises 35–42, use linearity and formulas (3)–(5) to rewrite and evaluate the sums.


20
35. 8j 3
j =1


20 
20  
204 203 202
solution 8j 3 = 8 j3 = 8 + + = 8(44,100) = 352,800.
4 2 4
j =1 j =1


30
36. (4k − 3)
k=1
solution


30 
30 
30
(4k − 3) = 4 k−3 1
k=1 k=1 k=1
 
302 30
=4 + − 3(30) = 4(465) − 90 = 1770.
2 2


150
37. n2
n=51
solution


150 
150 
50
n2 = n2 − n2
n=51 n=1 n=1
   
1503 1502 150 503 502 50
= + + − + +
3 2 6 3 2 6
= 1,136,275 − 42,925 = 1,093,350.


200
38. k3
k=101
solution


200 
200 
100
k = 3
k − 3
k3
k=101 k=1 k=1
   
2004 2003 2002 1004 1003 1002
= + + − + +
4 2 4 4 2 4
= 404,010,000 − 25,502,500 = 378,507,500.


50
39. j (j − 1)
j =0

solution


50 
50 
50 
50
j (j − 1) = (j 2 − j ) = j2 − j
j =0 j =0 j =0 j =0
   
503 502 50 502 50 503 50 124950
= + + − + = − = = 41650.
3 2 6 2 2 3 3 3


50 
50
The power sum formula is usable because j (j − 1) = j (j − 1).
j =0 j =1
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 583

30 
 
4j 2
40. 6j +
3
j =2

solution
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
30 
   4    
30 30 30 1 30 1
4j 2 4
6j + =6 j+ j2 = 6 ⎝ j− j⎠ + ⎝ j2 − j 2⎠
3 3 3
j =2 j =2 j =2 j =1 j =1 j =1 j =1
   
302 30 4 303 302 30
=6 + −1 + + + −1
2 2 3 3 2 6
4 37816 46168
= 6 (464) + (9454) = 2784 + = .
3 3 3


30
41. (4 − m)3
m=1

solution


30 
30
(4 − m)3 = (64 − 48m + 12m2 − m3 )
m=1 m=1


30 
30 
30 
30
= 64 1 − 48 m + 12 m2 − m3
m=1 m=1 m=1 m=1
   
(30)(31) 303 302 30 304 303 302
= 64(30) − 48 + 12 + + − + +
2 3 2 6 4 2 4
= 1920 − 22,320 + 113,460 − 216,225 = −123,165.

20 
 2
3m
42. 5+
2
m=1

solution
20 
 2   9 2
20 20 20
3m
5+ = 25 1 + 15 m+ m
2 4
m=1 m=1 m=1 m=1
   
202 20 9 203 202 20
= 25(20) + 15 + + + +
2 2 4 3 2 6
9
= 500 + 15(210) + (2870) = 10107.5.
4

In Exercises 43–46, use formulas (3)–(5) to evaluate the limit.


N
i
43. lim
N→∞ N2
i=1


N
i
solution Let sN = . Then,
N2
i=1

  
1 
N N
i 1 N2 N 1 1
sN = 2
= 2 i= 2 + = + .
N N N 2 2 2 2N
i=1 i=1

1
Therefore, lim sN = .
N→∞ 2
584 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL


N
j3
44. lim
N→∞ N4
j =1


N
j3
solution Let sN = . Then
N4
j =1

 
1  3
N
1 N4 N3 N2 1 1 1
sN = j = + + = + + .
N4 N4 4 2 4 4 2N 4N 2
j =1

1
Therefore, lim sN = .
N→∞ 4

N 2
i −i+1
45. lim
N→∞ N3
i=1


N 2
i −i+1
solution Let sN = . Then
N3
i=1
     

N 2
i −i+1 1 
N 
N 
N
sN = = 3 i 2
− i + 1
N3 N
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
    
1 N3 N2 N N2 N 1 2
= + + − + +N = + .
N3 3 2 6 2 2 3 3N 2
1
Therefore, lim sN = .
N→∞ 3
N  3
 
i 20
46. lim −
N→∞ N4 N
i=1
N  3
 
i 20
solution Let sN = − . Then
N4 N
i=1

 
1  3 20 
N N
1 N4 N3 N2 1 1 1
sN = 4
i − 1 = 4
+ + − 20 = + + − 20.
N N N 4 2 4 4 2N 4N 2
i=1 i=1

1 79
Therefore, lim sN = − 20 = − .
N→∞ 4 4
In Exercises 47–52, calculate the limit for the given function and interval. Verify your answer by using
geometry.

47. lim RN , f (x) = 9x, [0, 2]

N→∞

solution Let f (x) = 9x on [0, 2]. Let N be a positive integer and set a = 0, b = 2, and x =
(b − a)/N = (2 − 0)/N = 2/N . Also, let xk = a + kx = 2k/N , k = 1, 2, . . . , N be the right endpoints
of the N subintervals of [0, 2]. Then

    
2  36 
N N N
2k 36 N 2 N 18
RN = x f (xk ) = 9 = 2 k= 2 + = 18 + .
N N N N 2 2 N
k=1 k=1 k=1

The area under the graph is

 
18
lim RN = lim 18 + = 18.
N→∞ N→∞ N

The region under the graph is a triangle with base 2 and height 18. The area of the region is then 12 (2)(18) = 18,
which agrees with the value obtained from the limit of the right-endpoint approximations.
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 585

48. lim RN , f (x) = 3x + 6, [1, 4]

N→∞
solution Let f (x) = 3x + 6 on [1, 4]. Let N be a positive integer and set a = 1, b = 4, and x =
(b − a)/N = (4 − 1)/N = 3/N . Also, let xk = a + kx = 1 + 3k/N , k = 1, 2, . . . , N be the right
endpoints of the N subintervals of [1, 4]. Then
 N  
3 
N
9k
RN = x f (xk ) = 9+
N N
k=1 k=1


N 
N  
27 27 27 27 N2 N
= 1+ 2 j= (N ) + 2 +
N N N N 2 2
k=1 k=1
81 27
= + .
2 2N
The area under the graph is
 
81 27 81
lim RN = lim + = .
N→∞ N→∞ 2 2N 2
The region under the graph is a trapezoid with base width 3 and heights 9 and 18. The area of the region is then
2 (3)(9 + 18) = 2 , which agrees with the value obtained from the limit of the right-endpoint approximations.
1 81

49. lim LN , f (x) = 12 x + 2, [0, 4]

N→∞
solution Let f (x) = 12 x + 2 on [0, 4]. Let N > 0 be an integer, and set a = 0, b = 4, and x =
(4 − 0)/N = N4 . Also, let xk = 0 + kx = 4k N , k = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1 be the left endpoints of the N
subintervals. Then
 N−1    
4  1 4k 8  8 
N−1 N−1 N−1
LN = x f (xk ) = +2 = 1+ 2 k
N 2 N N N
k=0 k=0 k=0 k=0
 
8 (N − 1)2 N −1 4
=8+ + = 12 − .
N2 2 2 N
The area under the graph is
lim LN = 12.
N→∞

The region under the curve over [0, 4] is a trapezoid with base width 4 and heights 2 and 4. From this, we get
that the area is 12 (4)(2 + 4) = 12, which agrees with the answer obtained from the limit of the left-endpoint
approximations.
50. lim LN , f (x) = 4x − 2, [1, 3]
N→∞
solution Let f (x) = 4x − 2 on [1, 3]. Let N > 0 be an integer, and set a = 1, b = 3, and x =
(3 − 1)/N = N2 . Also, let xk = a + kx = 1 + 2k N , k = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1 be the left endpoints of the N
subintervals. Then
 N−1  
2  8k 16  4 
N−1 N−1 N−1
LN = x f (xk ) = +2 = 2 k+ 1
N N N N
k=0 k=0 k=0 k=0
 
16 (N − 1)2 N −1 4
= + + (N − 1)
N2 2 2 N
12
= 12 −
N
The area under the graph is
lim LN = 12.
N→∞

The region under the curve over [1, 3] is a trapezoid with base width 2 and heights 2 and 10. From this, we get
that the area is 12 (2)(2 + 10) = 12, which agrees with the answer obtained from the limit of the left-endpoint
approximations.
586 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

51. lim MN , f (x) = x, [0, 2]

N→∞
solution Let f (x) = x on [0, 2]. Let N > 0 be an integer and set a = 0, b = 2, and x = (b − a)/N =
∗
N . Also, let xk = 0 + (k − 2 )x = N , k = 1, 2, . . . N , be the midpoints of the N subintervals of [0, 2].
2 1 2k−1

Then

N
2  2k − 1
N
2 
N
MN = x f (xk∗ ) = = 2 (2k − 1)
N N N
k=1 k=1 k=1
   
2 
N
4 N2 N 2
= 2 k−N = + − = 2.
N2 N2 2 2 N
k=1

The area under the curve over [0, 2] is

lim MN = 2.
N→∞

The region under the curve over [0, 2] is a triangle with base and height 2, and thus area 2, which agrees with
the answer obtained from the limit of the midpoint approximations.
52. lim MN , f (x) = 12 − 4x, [2, 6]
N→∞
solution Let f (x) = 12 − 4x on [2, 6]. Let N > 0 be an integer and set a = 2, b = 6, and x =
(b − a)/N = N4 . Also, let xk∗ = a + (k − 12 )x = 2 + 4k−2
N , k = 1, 2, . . . N , be the midpoints of the N
subintervals of [2, 6]. Then
 N  
4 
N
∗ 16k − 8
MN = x f (xk ) = 4−
N N
k=1 k=1

16  64  32 
N N N
= 1− 2 k+ 2 1
N N N
k=1 k=1 k=1
 
16 64 N2 N 32
= (N ) − 2 + + (N ) = −16.
N N 2 2 N2
The area under the curve over [2, 6] is
lim MN = −16.
N→∞

The region under the curve over [2, 6] consists of a triangle of base 1 and height 4 above the axis and a triangle
of base 3 and height 12 below the axis. The area of this region is therefore
1 1
(1)(4) − (3)(12) = −16,
2 2
which agrees with the answer obtained from the limit of the midpoint approximations.
53. Show, for f (x) = 3x 2 + 4x over [0, 2], that
N  
2  12j 2 8j
RN = +
N N2 N
j =1

Then evaluate lim RN .

N→∞

solution Let f (x) = 3x 2 + 4x on [0, 2]. Let N be a positive integer and set a = 0, b = 2, and
x = (b − a)/N = (2 − 0)/N = 2/N . Also, let xj = a + j x = 2j/N , j = 1, 2, . . . , N be the right
endpoints of the N subintervals of [0, 3]. Then
   
N
2 
N
2j 2 2j
RN = x f (xj ) = 3 +4
N N N
j =1 j =1

N 
 
2 12j 2 8j
= +
N N2 N
j =1
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 587

Continuing, we find

24  2 16 
N N
RN = 3 j + 2 j
N N
j =1 j =1
   
24 N3 N N2 16 N2 N
= 3 + + + 2 +
N 3 2 6 N 2 2
20 4
= 16 + + 2
N N
Thus,
 
20 4
lim RN = lim 16 + + 2 = 16.
N→∞ N→∞ N N

54. Show, for f (x) = 3x 3 − x 2 over [1, 5], that

N  
4  192j 3 128j 2 28j
RN = + + +2
N N3 N2 N
j =1

Then evaluate lim RN .

N→∞

solution Let f (x) = 3x 3 − x 2 on [1, 5]. Let N be a positive integer and set a = 1, b = 5, and
x = (b − a)/N = (5 − 1)/N = 4/N . Also, let xj = a + j x = 1 + 4j/N , j = 1, 2, . . . , N be the right
endpoints of the N subintervals of [1, 5]. Then
   
4j 3 4j 2
f (xj ) = 3 1 + − 1+
N N
   
12j 48j 2 64j 3 8j 16j 2
=3 1+ + + − 1+ +
N N2 N3 N N2
192j 3 128j 2 28j
= 3
+ 2
+ + 2.
N N N
and

 N  
4  192j 3
N
128j 2 28j
RN = f (xj )x = + + + 2 .
N N3 N2 N
j =1 j =1

Continuing, we find

768  3 512  2 112  8 

N N N N
RN = j + j + j + 1
N4 N3 N2 N
j =1 j =1 j =1 j =1
 2  
768 N4 N3 N 512 N 3 N2 N
= + + + 3 + +
N4 4 2 2 N 3 2 6
 2 
112 N N 8
+ 2 + + (N )
N 2 2 N
1280 696 832
= + + .
3 N 3N 2
Thus,
 
1280 696 832 1280
lim RN = lim + + = .
N→∞ N→∞ 3 N 3N 2 3
588 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

In Exercises 55–62, find a formula for RN and compute the area under the graph as a limit.

55. f (x) = x 2 , [0, 1]

1−0 1
solution Let f (x) = x 2 on the interval [0, 1]. Then x = = and a = 0. Hence,
N N

  
1  2 1
N N
1 N3 N2 N 1 1 1
RN = x f (0 + j x) = j = + + = + +
N N2 N3 3 2 6 3 2N 6N 2
j =1 j =1

and
 
1 1 1 1
lim RN = lim + + = .
N→∞ N→∞ 3 2N 6N 2 3

56. f (x) = x 2 , [−1, 5]

5 − (−1) 6
solution Let f (x) = x 2 on the interval [−1, 5]. Then x = = and a = −1. Hence,
N N

 N  
6 
N
6j 2
RN = x f (−1 + j x) = −1 +
N N
j =1 j =1

6  72  216  2
N N N
= 1− 2 j+ 3 j
N N N
j =1 j =1 j =1
   
6 72 N2 N 216 N3 N2 N
= (N ) − 2 + + 3 + +
N N 2 2 N 3 2 6
72 36
= 42 + + 2
N N

and
 
72 36
lim RN = lim 42 + + 2 = 42.
N→∞ N→∞ N N

57. f (x) = 6x 2 − 4, [2, 5]

5−2 3
solution Let f (x) = 6x 2 − 4 on the interval [2, 5]. Then x = = and a = 2. Hence,
N N
    N  

N
3 
N
3j 2 3  72j 54j 2
RN = x f (2 + j x) = 6 2+ −4 = 20 + +
N N N N N2
j =1 j =1 j =1

216  162  2
N N
= 60 + 2
j+ 3 j
N N
j =1 j =1
   
216 N2 N 162 N3 N2 N
= 60 + 2 + + 3 + +
N 2 2 N 3 2 6
189 27
= 222 + + 2
N N

and
 
189 27
lim RN = lim 222 + + 2 = 222.
N→∞ N→∞ N N
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 589

58. f (x) = x 2 + 7x, [6, 11]

11 − 6 5
solution Let f (x) = x 2 + 7x on the interval [6, 11]. Then x =
= and a = 6. Hence,
N N
   

N
5 
N
5j 2 5j
RN = x f (6 + j x) = 6+ +7 6+
N N N
j =1 j =1

N  
5  25j 2 95j
= + + 78
N N2 N
j =1

125  3 475  390 

N N N
= j + j + 1
N3 N2 N
j =1 j =1 j =1
   
125 N3 N2 N 475 N2 N
= + + + + + 390
N3 3 2 6 N2 2 2
4015 300 125
= + +
6 N 6N 2
and
 
4015 300 125 4015
lim RN = lim + + = .
N→∞ N→∞ 6 N 6N 2 6

59. f (x) = x 3 − x, [0, 2]

2−0 2
solution =
Let f (x) = x 3 − x on the interval [0, 2]. Then x =
and a = 0. Hence,
N N
   N  

N
2 
N
2j 3 2j 2  8j 3 2j
RN = x f (0 + j x) = − = −
N N N N N3 N
j =1 j =1 j =1

16 
N
4 
N
= j3 − j
N4 N2
j =1 j =1
   
16 N4 N3 N2 4 N2 N
= + + − +
N4 4 2 2 N2 2 2
6 8
=2+ + 2
N N
and
 
6 8
lim RN = lim 2+ + 2 = 2.
N→∞ N→∞ N N

60. f (x) = 2x 3 + x 2 , [−2, 2]

2 − (−2) 4
solution Let f (x) = 2x 3 + x 2 on the interval [−2, 2]. Then x =
= and a = −2. Hence,
N N
     

N
4 
N
4j 3 4j 2
RN = x f (−2 + j x) = 2 −2 + + −2 +
N N N
j =1 j =1

N  
4  128j 3 176j 2 80j
= − + − 12
N N3 N2 N
j =1
     
512 N4 N3 N2 704 N3 N2 N 320 N2 N
= 4 + + − 3 + + + 2 + − 48
N 4 2 4 N 3 2 6 N 2 2
16 64 32
= + +
3 N 3N 2
590 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

and
 
16 64 32 16
lim RN = lim + + = .
N→∞ N→∞ 3 N 3N 2 3

61. f (x) = 2x + 1, [a, b] (a, b constants with a < b)

b−a
solution Let f (x) = 2x + 1 on the interval [a, b]. Then x =
. Hence,
N
 N    
(b − a) 
N
(b − a)
RN = x f (a + j x) = 2 a+j +1
N N
j =1 j =1

(b − a) 
N
2(b − a)2 
N
= (2a + 1) 1+ j
N N2
j =1 j =1
 
(b − a) 2(b − a)2 N2 N
= (2a + 1)N + +
N N2 2 2
(b − a)2
= (b − a)(2a + 1) + (b − a)2 +
N
and
 
(b − a)2
lim RN = lim (b − a)(2a + 1) + (b − a) + 2
N→∞ N→∞ N
= (b − a)(2a + 1) + (b − a)2 = (b2 + b) − (a 2 + a).

62. f (x) = x 2 , [a, b] (a, b constants with a < b)

b−a
solution Let f (x) = x 2 on the interval [a, b]. Then x = . Hence,
N
 N  
(b − a)  2
N
(b − a) (b − a)2
RN = x f (a + j x) = a + 2aj + j2
N N N2
j =1 j =1

a 2 (b − a)  2a(b − a)2  (b − a)3  2

N N N
= 1+ j + j
N N2 N3
j =1 j =1 j =1
   
a 2 (b − a) 2a(b − a)2 N2 N (b − a)3 N3 N2 N
= N+ + + + +
N N2 2 2 N3 3 2 6
a(b − a)2 (b − a)3 (b − a)3 (b − a)3
= a 2 (b − a) + a(b − a)2 + + + +
N 3 2N 6N 2
and
 
a(b − a)2 (b − a)3 (b − a)3 (b − a)3
lim RN = lim a 2 (b − a) + a(b − a)2 + + + +
N→∞ N→∞ N 3 2N 6N 2
(b − a)3 1 1
= a 2 (b − a) + a(b − a)2 + = b3 − a 3 .
3 3 3

In Exercises 63–66, describe the area represented by the limits.

N  
1  j 4
63. lim
N→∞ N N
j =1
solution The limit
N  
1  j 4
lim RN = lim
N→∞ N→∞ N N
j =1

represents the area between the graph of f (x) = x 4 and the x-axis over the interval [0, 1].
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 591

N  
3  3j 4
64. lim 2+
N→∞ N N
j =1

solution The limit

N  
3  3 4
lim RN = lim 2+j ·
N→∞ N→∞ N N
j =1

represents the area between the graph of f (x) = x 4 and the x-axis over the interval [2, 5].

5  −2+5j/N
N−1
65. lim e
N→∞ N
j =0

solution The limit

5  −2+5j/N
N−1
lim LN = lim e
N→∞ N→∞ N
j =0

represents the area between the graph of y = ex and the x-axis over the interval [−2, 3].
 
π 
N
π π jπ
66. lim sin − +
N→∞ 2N 3 4N 2N
j =1

solution The limit

 
π 
N
π π jπ
lim sin − +
N→∞ 2N 3 4N 2N
j =1

represents the area between the graph of y = sin x and the x-axis over the interval [ π3 , 5π
6 ].

In Exercises 67–72, express the area under the graph as a limit using the approximation indicated (in sum-
mation notation), but do not evaluate.

67. RN , f (x) = sin x over [0, π ]

solution Let f (x) = sin x over [0, π ] and set a = 0, b = π , and x = (b − a) /N = π/N . Then

  
π 
N N
kπ
RN = x f (xk ) = sin .
N N
k=1 k=1

Hence
 
π 
N
kπ
lim RN = lim sin
N→∞ N→∞ N N
k=1

is the area between the graph of f (x) = sin x and the x-axis over [0, π ].
68. RN , f (x) = x −1 over [1, 7]
7−1 6
solution Let f (x) = x −1 over the interval [1, 7]. Then x =
= and a = 1. Hence,
N N
 N  
6  6 −1
N
RN = x f (1 + j x) = 1+j
N N
j =1 j =1

and
N  
6  6 −1
lim RN = lim 1+j
N→∞ N→∞ N N
j =1

is the area between the graph of f (x) = x −1 and the x-axis over [1, 7].
592 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

√
69. LN , f (x) = 2x + 1 over [7, 11]
√ 11 − 7 4
solution Let f (x) = 2x + 1 over the interval [7, 11]. Then x = = and a = 7. Hence,
N N
 N−1 
4 
N−1
4
LN = x f (7 + j x) = 2(7 + j ) + 1
N N
j =0 j =0

and
N−1 
4  8j
lim LN = lim 15 +
N→∞ N→∞ N N
j =0
√
is the area between the graph of f (x) = 2x + 1 and the x-axis over [7, 11].
 
70. LN , f (x) = cos x over π8 , π4
π  π
− π π
π
solution Let f (x) = cos x over the interval 8 , 4 . Then x =
π 4 8
= 8
= and a = π
8,
N N 8N
Hence:

N−1 π  π 
N−1 π π 
LN = x f + j x = cos +j
8 8N 8 8N
j =0 j =0

and

π 
N−1 π π 
lim LN = lim cos +j
N→∞ N→∞ 8N 8 8N
j =0

is the area between the graph of f (x) = cos x and the x-axis over [ π8 , π4 ].
 
71. MN , f (x) = tan x over 12 , 1
1− 12
solution Let f (x) = tan x over the interval [ 12 , 1]. Then x = N = 1
2N and a = 12 . Hence

       
1 
N N
1 1 1 1 1
MN = x f + j− x = tan + j−
2 2 2N 2 2N 2
j =1 j =1

and so
  
1 
N
1 1 1
lim MN = lim tan + j−
N→∞ N→∞ 2N 2 2N 2
j =1

is the area between the graph of f (x) = tan x and the x-axis over [ 12 , 1].
72. MN , f (x) = x −2 over [3, 5]
solution Let f (x) = x −2 over the interval [3, 5]. Then x = 5−3
N = 2
N and a = 3. Hence

     N   
2  1 −2
N
1 2
MN = x f 3+ j − x = 3+ j−
2 N N 2
j =1 j =1

and so
N   
2  2 1 −2
lim MN = lim 3+ j−
N→∞ N→∞ N N 2
j =1

is the area between the graph of f (x) = x −2 and the x-axis over [3, 5].

 2
1 
N
j
73. Evaluate lim 1− by interpreting it as the area of part of a familiar geometric figure.
N→∞ N N
j =1
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 593

solution The limit


 2
1 
N
j
lim RN = lim 1−
N→∞ N→∞ N N
j =1
√
represents the area between the graph of y = f (x) = 1 − x 2 and the x-axis over the interval [0, 1]. This is
the portion of the circular disk x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 that lies in the first quadrant. Accordingly, its area is 14 π (1)2 = π4 .

In Exercises 74–76, let f (x) = x 2 and let RN , LN , and MN be the approximations for the interval [0, 1].
1 1 1 1 1
74. Show that RN = + + 2
. Interpret the quantity + as the area of a region.
3 2N 6N 2N 6N 2
solution Let f (x) = x 2 on [0, 1]. Let N > 0 be an integer and set a = 0, b = 1 and x = 1−0
N = 1
N.
Then

  
1  2 1
N N
1 N3 N2 N 1 1 1
RN = x f (0 + j x) = j = 3 + + = + + .
N N2 N 3 2 6 3 2N 6N 2
j =1 j =1

The quantity
1 1 1 1 1
+ in RN = + +
2N 6N 2 3 2N 6N 2
represents the collective area of the parts of the rectangles that lie above the graph of f (x). It is the error
between RN and the true area A = 13 .

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

75. Show that

1 1 1 1 1
LN = − + , MN = −
3 2N 6N 2 3 12N 2
Then rank the three approximations RN , LN , and MN in order of increasing accuracy (use Exercise 74).
solution Let f (x) = x 2 on [0, 1]. Let N be a positive integer and set a = 0, b = 1, and x =
(b − a) /N = 1/N . Let xk = a + kx = k/N , k = 0, 1, . . . , N and let xk∗ = a + (k + 12 )x = (k + 12 )/N,
k = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1. Then

 N−1  
1  k 2 1  2
N−1 N−1
LN = x f (xk ) = = 3 k
N N N
k=0 k=0 k=1
 
1 (N − 1)3 (N − 1)2 N −1 1 1 1
= + + = − +
N3 3 2 6 3 2N 6N 2
 2 N−1  

N−1
1  k+
N−1 1
1  2 1
MN = x f (xk∗ ) = 2
= k + k +
N N N3 4
k=0 k=0 k=0
N−1  N−1  N−1 
1   1 
= 3 k +
2
k + 1
N 4
k=1 k=1 k=0
    
1 (N − 1)3 (N − 1)2 N −1 (N − 1)2 N −1 1 1 1
= 3 + + + + + N = −
N 3 2 6 2 2 4 3 12N 2
594 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

1 1 1 1
The error of RN is given by + 2
, the error of LN is given by − + and the error of MN is
2N 6N 2N 6N 2
1
given by − . Of the three approximations, RN is the least accurate, then LN and finally MN is the most
12N 2
accurate.

76. For each of RN , LN , and MN , find the smallest integer N for which the error is less than 0.001.
solution
• For RN , the error is less than 0.001 when:
1 1
+ < 0.001.
2N 6N 2
We find an adequate solution in N :
1 1
+ < 0.001
2N 6N 2
3N + 1 < 0.006(N 2 )
0 < 0.006N 2 − 3N − 1,
√
in particular, if N > 3+0.012
9.024
= 500.333. Hence R501 is within 0.001 of A.
• For LN , the error is less than 0.001 if
 
 1 1 
− + < 0.001.
 2N 6N 2 
We solve this equation for N :
 
 1 1 

 2N − 6N 2  < 0.001
 
 3N − 1 
 
 6N 2  < 0.001

3N − 1 < 0.006N 2
0 < 0.006N 2 − 3N + 1,
√
3+ 9−0.024
which is satisfied if N > 0.012 = 499.666. Therefore, L500 is within 0.001 units of A.
• For MN , the error is given by − 12N 2 , so the error is less than 0.001 if
1

1
< 0.001
12N 2
1000 < 12N 2
9.13 < N

Therefore, M10 is within 0.001 units of the correct answer.

In Exercises 77–82, use the Graphical Insight on page 264 to obtain bounds on the area.
√
77. Let A be the area under f (x) = x over [0, 1]. Prove that 0.51 ≤ A ≤ 0.77 by computing R4 and L4 .
Explain your reasoning.
solution For n = 4, x = 1−0
4 = 1
4 and {xi }4i=0 = {0 + ix} = {0, 14 , 12 , 34 , 1}. Therefore,
 √ √ 

4
1 1 2 3
R4 = x f (xi ) = + + + 1 ≈ .768
4 2 2 2
i=1
 √ √ 

3
1 1 2 3
L4 = x f (xi ) = 0+ + + ≈ .518.
4 2 2 2
i=0
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 595

In the plot below, you can see the rectangles whose area is represented by L4 under the graph and the top of
those whose area is represented by R4 above the graph. The area A under the curve is somewhere between
L4 and R4 , so

.518 ≤ A ≤ .768.

L4 , R4 and the graph of f (x).

78. Use R5 and L5 to show that the area A under y = x −2 over [10, 13] satisfies 0.0218 ≤ A ≤ 0.0244.
solution Let f (x) = x −2 over the interval [10, 13]. Because f is a decreasing function over this interval,
it follows that RN ≤ A ≤ LN for all N . Taking N = 5, we have x = 3/5 and
 
3 1 1 1 1 1
R5 = + + + + = 0.021885.
5 10.62 11.22 11.82 12.42 132
Moreover,
 
3 1 1 1 1 1
L5 = + + + + = 0.0243344.
5 102 10.62 11.22 11.82 12.42
Thus,

0.0218 < R5 ≤ A ≤ L5 < 0.0244.

 
79. Use R4 and L4 to show that the area A under the graph of y = sin x over 0, π2 satisfies 0.79 ≤ A ≤ 1.19.
solution Let f (x) = sin x. f (x) is increasing over the interval [0, π/2], so the Insight on page 264
applies, which indicates that L4 ≤ A ≤ R4 . For n = 4, x = π/2−0
4 = π8 and {xi }4i=0 = {0 + ix}4i=0 =
{0, 8 , 4 , 8 , 2 }. From this,
π π 3π π

π π
3 4
L4 = f (xi ) ≈ 0.79, R4 = f (xi ) ≈ 1.18.
8 8
i=0 i=1

Hence A is between 0.79 and 1.19.

Left and Right endpoint approximations to A.

80. Show that the area A under f (x) = x −1 over [1, 8] satisfies
1
2 + 1
3 + 1
4 + 1
5 + 1
6 + 1
7 + 1
8 ≤A≤1+ 1
2 + 1
3 + 1
4 + 1
5 + 1
6 + 1
7

solution Let f (x) = x −1 , 1 ≤ x ≤ 8. Since f is decreasing, the left endpoint approximation L7

overestimates the true area between the graph of f and the x-axis, whereas the right endpoint approximation
R7 underestimates it. Accordingly,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + + = R 7 < A < L7 = 1 + + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7
596 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Left endpoint approximation, n = 7 Right endpoint approximation, n = 7

1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

81. Show that the area A under y = x 1/4 over [0, 1] satisfies LN ≤ A ≤ RN for all N . Use a
computer algebra system to calculate LN and RN for N = 100 and 200, and determine A to two decimal
places.
solution On [0, 1], f (x) = x 1/4 is an increasing function; therefore, LN ≤ A ≤ RN for all N . We find

L100 = 0.793988 and R100 = 0.80399,

while

L200 = 0.797074 and R200 = 0.802075.

Thus, A = 0.80 to two decimal places.

82. Show that the area A under y = 4/(x 2 + 1) over [0, 1] satisfies RN ≤ A ≤ LN for all N .
Determine A to at least three decimal places using a computer algebra system. Can you guess the exact value
of A?
solution On [0, 1], the function f (x) = 4/(x 2 + 1) is decreasing, so RN ≤ A ≤ LN for all N . From the
values in the table below, we find A = 3.142 to three decimal places. It appears that the exact value of A is π .
N RN LN
10 3.03993 3.23992
100 3.13158 3.15158
1000 3.14059 3.14259
10000 3.14149 3.14169
100000 3.14158 3.14160

83. In this exercise, we evaluate the area A under the graph of y = ex over [0, 1] [Figure 19(A)] using the
formula for a geometric sum (valid for r  = 1):


N−1
rN − 1
1 + r + r 2 + · · · + r N−1 = rj = 1
r −1
j =0

1  j/N
N−1
(a) Show that LN = e .
N
j =0
e−1
(b) Apply Eq. (1) with r = e1/N to prove LN = .
N (e1/N − 1)
(c) Compute A = lim LN using L’Hôpital’s Rule.
N→∞

solution
(a) Let f (x) = ex on [0, 1]. With n = N , x = (1 − 0)/N = 1/N and
j
xj = a + j x =
N
for j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N . Therefore,


N−1
1  j/N
N−1
LN = x f (xj ) = e .
N
j =0 j =0

(b) Applying Eq. (1) with r = e1/N , we have

1 (e1/N )N − 1 e−1
LN = = .
N e 1/N −1 N (e1/N − 1)
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 597

Therefore,
1
A = lim LN = (e − 1) lim .
N→∞ N→∞ N (e1/N − 1)
(c) Using L’Hôpital’s Rule,
N −1 −N −2
A = (e − 1) lim = (e − 1) lim = (e − 1) lim e−1/N = e − 1.
N→∞ e1/N − 1 N→∞ −N −2 e1/N N→∞

84. Use the result of Exercise 83 to show that the area B under the graph of f (x) = ln x over [1, e] is equal
to 1. Hint: Relate B in Figure 19(B) to the area A computed in Exercise 83.
y y
y = ex
3 y = ln x
e
1
2

1
A B

x x
1 1 e

(A) (B)
FIGURE 19

solution Because y = ln x and y = ex are inverse functions, we note that if the area B is reflected across
the line y = x and then combined with the area A, we create a rectangle of width 1 and height e. The area of
this rectangle is therefore e, and it follows that the area B is equal to e minus the area A. Using the result of
Exercise 83, the area B is equal to
e − (e − 1) = 1.

Further Insights and Challenges

85. Although the accuracy of RN generally improves as N increases, this need not be true for small values
of N . Draw the graph of a positive continuous function f on an interval such that R1 is closer than R2 to the
exact area under the graph. Can such a function be monotonic?
solution Let δ be a small positive number less than 14 . (In the figures below, δ = 1
10 . But imagine δ being
very tiny.) Define f (x) on [0, 1] by
⎧
⎪
⎪ 1 if 0 ≤ x < 12 − δ
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 1 − x if 1 − δ ≤ x < 1
f (x) = 2δ δ 2 2
⎪
δ − 2δ if 2 ≤ x < 2 + δ
x 1 1 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩1 if 1 + δ ≤ x ≤ 1
2

Then f is continuous on [0, 1]. (Again, just look at the figures.)

• The exact area between f and the x-axis is A = 1 − 12 bh = 1 − 12 (2δ)(1) = 1 − δ. (For δ = 1
10 , we
have A = 109
.)
• With R1 = 1, the absolute error is |E1 | = |R1 − A| = |1 − (1 − δ)| = δ. (For δ = 10 1
, this absolute
error is |E1 | = 10 .)
1
   
• With R2 = 12 , the absolute error is |E2 | = |R2 − A| =  12 − (1 − δ) = δ − 12  = 12 − δ. (For δ = 101
,
we have |E2 | = 5 .)
2

• Accordingly, R1 is closer to the exact area A than is R2 . Indeed, the tinier δ is, the more dramatic the
effect.
• For a monotonic function, this phenomenon cannot occur. Successive approximations from either side
get progressively more accurate.
598 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Graph of f(x) Right endpt approx, n = 1 Right endpt approx, n = 2

1 1 1
0.8
0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4
0.2
0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.5 1 0.5 1
x

86. Draw the graph of a positive continuous function on an interval such that R2 and L2 are both smaller
than the exact area under the graph. Can such a function be monotonic?
solution In the plot below, the area under the saw-tooth function f (x) is 3, whereas L2 = R2 = 2. Thus
L2 and R2 are both smaller than the exact area. Such a function cannot be monotonic; if f (x) is increasing, then
LN underestimates and RN overestimates the area for all N , and, if f (x) is decreasing, then LN overestimates
and RN underestimates the area for all N .
Left/right-endpoint approximation, n = 2

1 2

87. Explain graphically: The endpoint approximations are less accurate when f
(x) is large.
solution When f
is large, the graph of f is steeper and hence there is more gap between f and LN or
RN . Recall that the top line segments of the rectangles involved in an endpoint approximation constitute a
piecewise constant function. If f
is large, then f is increasing more rapidly and hence is less like a constant
function.
y y

3 3
Smaller f' Larger f'

2 2

1 1

0 x 0 x
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4

88. Prove that for any function f on [a, b],

b−a
R N − LN = (f (b) − f (a)) 2
N
solution For any f (continuous or not) on I = [a, b], partition I into N equal subintervals. Let x =
(b − a)/N and set xk = a + kx, k = 0, 1, . . . N . Then we have the following approximations
 to the area
between the graph of f and the x-axis: the left endpoint approximation LN = x N−1 f (xk and right
)
N k=0
endpoint approximation RN = x k=1 f (xk ). Accordingly,
   
N 
N−1
RN − LN = x f (xk ) − x f (xk )
k=1 k=0
 N−1  N−1 
 
= x f (xN ) + f (xk ) − f (x0 ) − f (xk )
k=1 k=1
b−a
= x (f (xN ) − f (x0 )) = (f (b) − f (a)) .
N
b−a
In other words, RN − LN = (f (b) − f (a)).
N
 S E C T I O N 5.1 Approximating and Computing Area 599

89. In this exercise, we prove that lim RN and lim LN exist and are equal if f is increasing [the
N→∞ N→∞
case of f decreasing is similar]. We use the concept of a least upper bound discussed in Appendix B.
(a) Explain with a graph why LN ≤ RM for all N, M ≥ 1.
(b) By (a), the sequence {LN } is bounded, so it has a least upper bound L. By definition, L is the smallest
number such that LN ≤ L for all N . Show that L ≤ RM for all M.
(c) According to (b), LN ≤ L ≤ RN for all N . Use Eq. (2) to show that lim LN = L and lim RN = L.
N→∞ N→∞
solution
(a) Let f (x) be positive and increasing, and let N and M be positive integers. From the figure below at the
left, we see that LN underestimates the area under the graph of y = f (x), while from the figure below at the
right, we see that RM overestimates the area under the graph. Thus, for all N, M ≥ 1, LN ≤ RM .
y y

x x

(b) Because the sequence {LN } is bounded above by RM for any M, each RM is an upper bound for the
sequence. Furthermore, the sequence {LN } must have a least upper bound, call it L. By definition, the least
upper bound must be no greater than any other upper bound; consequently, L ≤ RM for all M.
(c) Since LN ≤ L ≤ RN , RN − L ≤ RN − LN , so |RN − L| ≤ |RN − LN |. From this,
lim |RN − L| ≤ lim |RN − LN |.
N→∞ N→∞

By Eq. (2),
1
lim |RN − LN | = lim |(b − a)(f (b) − f (a))| = 0,
N→∞ N→∞ N
so lim |RN − L| ≤ |RN − LN | = 0, hence lim RN = L.
N→∞ N→∞
Similarly, |LN − L| = L − LN ≤ RN − LN , so
(b − a)
|LN − L| ≤ |RN − LN | = (f (b) − f (a)).
N
This gives us that
1
lim |LN − L| ≤ lim |(b − a)(f (b) − f (a))| = 0,
N→∞ N→∞ N
so lim LN = L.
N→∞
This proves lim LN = lim RN = L.
N→∞ N→∞

90. Use Eq. (2) to show that if f is positive and monotonic, then the area A under its graph over
[a, b] satisfies
b−a
|RN − A| ≤ |f (b) − f (a)| 3
N
solution Let f (x) be continuous, positive, and monotonic on [a, b]. Let A be the area between the graph
of f and the x-axis over [a, b]. For specificity, say f is increasing. (The case for f decreasing on [a, b] is
similar.) As noted in the text, we have LN ≤ A ≤ RN . By Exercise 88 and the fact that A lies between LN
and RN , we therefore have
b−a
0 ≤ R N − A ≤ RN − L N = (f (b) − f (a)) .
N
Hence
b−a b−a
|RN − A| ≤ (f (b) − f (a)) = |f (b) − f (a)| ,
N N
where f (b) − f (a) = |f (b) − f (a)| because f is increasing on [a, b].
600 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

In Exercises 91–92, use Eq. (3) to find a value of N such that |RN − A| < 10−4 for the given function and
interval.
√
91. f (x) = x, [1, 4]
√
solution Let f (x) = x on [1, 4]. Then b = 4, a = 1, and
4−1 3 3
|RN − A| ≤ (f (4) − f (1)) = (2 − 1) = .
N N N
√
We need 3
N< 10−4 , which gives N > 30000. Thus |R30001 − A| < 10−4 for f (x) = x on [1, 4].
√
92. f (x) = 9 − x 2 , [0, 3]
√
solution Let f (x) = 9 − x 2 on [0, 3]. Then b = 3, a = 0, and
b−a 3 9
|RN − A| ≤ |f (b) − f (a)| = (3) = .
N N N
√
We need 9
N < 10−4 , which gives N > 90000. Thus |R90001 − A| < 10−4 for f (x) = 9 − x 2 on [0, 3].

93. Prove that if f is positive and monotonic, then MN lies between RN and LN and is closer to the
actual area under the graph than both RN and LN . Hint: In the case that f is increasing, Figure 20 shows
that the part of the error in RN due to the ith rectangle is the sum of the areas A + B + D, and for MN it is
|B − E|. On the other hand, A ≥ E.

D
A
E

B
F
C

x
x i−1 Midpoint xi

FIGURE 20

b−a
solution Suppose f (x) is monotonic increasing on the interval [a, b], x = ,
N
{xk }N
k=0 = {a, a + x, a + 2x, . . . , a + (N − 1)x, b}

and
 
$ %N−1 a + (a + x) (a + x) + (a + 2x) (a + (N − 1)x) + b
xk∗ k=0
= , ,..., .
2 2 2
Note that xi < xi∗ < xi+1 implies f (xi ) < f (xi∗ ) < f (xi+1 ) for all 0 ≤ i < N because f (x) is monotone
increasing. Then
     
b−a  b−a  b−a 
N−1 N−1 N
∗
LN = f (xk ) < MN = f (xk ) < RN = f (xk )
N N N
k=0 k=0 k=1

Similarly, if f (x) is monotone decreasing,

     
b−a  b−a  
N−1 N−1 N
b − a
LN = f (xk ) > MN = f (xk∗ ) > RN = f (xk )
N N N
k=0 k=0 k=1

Thus, if f (x) is monotonic, then MN always lies in between RN and LN .

Now, as in Figure 20, consider the typical subinterval [xi−1 , xi ] and its midpoint xi∗ . We let A, B, C, D, E,
and F be the areas as shown in Figure 20. Note that, by the fact that xi∗ is the midpoint of the interval,
A = D + E and F = B + C. Let ER represent the right endpoint approximation error ( = A + B + D),
let EL represent the left endpoint approximation error ( = C + F + E) and let EM represent the midpoint
approximation error ( = |B − E|).
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 601

• If B > E, then EM = B − E. In this case,

ER − EM = A + B + D − (B − E) = A + D + E > 0,

so ER > EM , while

EL − EM = C + F + E − (B − E) = C + (B + C) + E − (B − E) = 2C + 2E > 0,

so EL > EM . Therefore, the midpoint approximation is more accurate than either the left or the right
endpoint approximation.
• If B < E, then EM = E − B. In this case,

ER − EM = A + B + D − (E − B) = D + E + D − (E − B) = 2D + B > 0,

so that ER > EM while

EL − EM = C + F + E − (E − B) = C + F + B > 0,

so EL > EM . Therefore, the midpoint approximation is more accurate than either the right or the left
endpoint approximation.
• If B = E, the midpoint approximation is exactly equal to the area.
Hence, for B < E, B > E, or B = E, the midpoint approximation is more accurate than either the left
endpoint or the right endpoint approximation.

5.2 The Definite Integral

Preliminary Questions
 5
1. What is dx [the function is f (x) = 1]?
3
 5  5
solution dx = 1 · dx = 1(5 − 3) = 2.
3 3
 7
2. Let I = f (x) dx, where f is continuous. State whether the following are true or false:
2
(a) I is the area between the graph and the x-axis over [2, 7].
(b) If f (x) ≥ 0, then I is the area between the graph and the x-axis over [2, 7].
(c) If f (x) ≤ 0, then −I is the area between the graph of f and the x-axis over [2, 7].

solution
&b
(a) False. a f (x) dx is the signed area between the graph and the x-axis.
(b) True.
(c) True.
 π
3. Explain graphically: cos x dx = 0.
0

solution Because cos(π − x) = − cos x, the “negative" area between the graph of y = cos x and the
x-axis over [ π2 , π ] exactly cancels the “positive" area between the graph and the x-axis over [0, π2 ].
 −5  −1
4. Which is negative, 8 dx or 8 dx?
−1 −5
 −5
solution Because −5 − (−1) = −4, 8 dx is negative.
−1
602 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Exercises
In Exercises 1–10, draw a graph of the signed area represented by the integral and compute it using geometry.

 3
1. 2x dx
−3

solution The region bounded by the graph of y = 2x and the x-axis over the interval [−3, 3] consists of
two right triangles. One has area 12 (3)(6) = 9 below the axis, and the other has area 12 (3)(6) = 9 above the
axis. Hence,
 3
2x dx = 9 − 9 = 0.
−3

6
4
2
x
−3 −2 −1 −2 1 2 3
−4
−6

 3
2. (2x + 4) dx
−2

solution The region bounded by the graph of y = 2x + 4 and the x-axis over the interval [−2, 3] consists
of a single right triangle of area 12 (5)(10) = 25 above the axis. Hence,
 3
(2x + 4) dx = 25.
−2

10
8
6
4
2
x
−2 −1 1 2 3

 1
3. (3x + 4) dx
−2

solution The region bounded by the graph of y = 3x + 4 and the x-axis over the interval [−2, 1] consists
of two right triangles. One has area 21 ( 23 )(2) = 23 below the axis, and the other has area 12 ( 73 )(7) = 49
6 above
the axis. Hence,
 1 49 2 15
(3x + 4) dx = − = .
−2 6 3 2

8
6
4
2
x
−2 −1 1
−2
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 603

 1
4. 4 dx
−2
solution The region bounded by the graph of y = 4 and the x-axis over the interval [−2, 1] is a rectangle
of area (3)(4) = 12 above the axis. Hence,
 1
4 dx = 12.
−2
y

4
3
2
1
x
−2 −1 1

 8
5. (7 − x) dx
6
solution The region bounded by the graph of y = 7 − x and the x-axis over the interval [6, 8] consists
of two right triangles. One triangle has area 12 (1)(1) = 12 above the axis, and the other has area 12 (1)(1) = 12
below the axis. Hence,
 8
1 1
(7 − x) dx = − = 0.
6 2 2
y

1
0.5
x
2 4 6 8
− 0.5
−1

 3π/2
6. sin x dx
π/2

2 ] consists
solution The region bounded by the graph of y = sin x and the x-axis over the interval [ π2 , 3π
of two parts of equal area, one above the axis and the other below the axis. Hence,
 3π/2
sin x dx = 0.
π/2
y

1
0.5
x
1 2 3 4
−0.5
−1

 5
7. 25 − x 2 dx
0
√
solution The region bounded by the graph of y = 25 − x 2 and the x-axis over the interval [0, 5] is
one-quarter of a circle of radius 5. Hence,
 5
1 25π
25 − x 2 dx = π(5)2 = .
0 4 4
y

5
4
3
2
1
x
1 2 3 4 5
604 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 3
8. |x| dx
−2

solution The region bounded by the graph of y = |x| and the x-axis over the interval [−2, 3] consists of
two right triangles, both above the axis. One triangle has area 12 (2)(2) = 2, and the other has area 12 (3)(3) = 92 .
Hence,
 3
9 13
|x| dx = + 2 = .
−2 2 2
y

x
−2 −1 1 2 3

 2
9. (2 − |x|) dx
−2

solution The region bounded by the graph of y = 2 − |x| and the x-axis over the interval [−2, 2] is a
triangle above the axis with base 4 and height 2. Consequently,
 2
1
(2 − |x|) dx = (2)(4) = 4.
−2 2
y

x
−2 −1 1 2

 5
10. (3 + x − 2|x|) dx
−2

solution The region bounded by the graph of y = 3 + x − 2|x| and the x-axis over the interval [−2, 5]
consists of a triangle below the axis with base 1 and height 3, a triangle above the axis of base 4 and height 3
and a triangle below the axis of base 2 and height 2. Consequently,
 5
1 1 1 5
(3 + x − 2|x|) dx = − (1)(3) + (4)(3) − (2)(2) = .
−2 2 2 2 2
y
3
2
1
−2 4
x
2
−1
−2
−3

 10
11. Calculate (8 − x) dx in two ways:
0
(a) As the limit lim RN
N→∞
(b) By sketching the relevant signed area and using geometry
& 10 & 10
solution Let f (x) = 8 − x over [0, 10]. Consider the integral 0 f (x) dx = 0 (8 − x) dx.
(a) Let N be a positive integer and set a = 0, b = 10, x = (b − a) /N = 10/N . Also, let xk = a + kx =
10k/N , k = 1, 2, . . . , N be the right endpoints of the N subintervals of [0, 10]. Then
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 605

N    N   N 

N
10  10k 10  10 
RN = x f (xk ) = 8− = 8 1 − k
N N N N
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
  
10 10 N2 N 50
= 8N − + = 30 − .
N N 2 2 N
 
50
Hence lim RN = lim 30 − = 30.
N→∞ N→∞ N
(b) The region bounded by the graph of y = 8 − x and the x-axis over the interval [0, 10] consists of two
right triangles. One triangle has area 12 (8)(8) = 32 above the axis, and the other has area 12 (2)(2) = 2 below
the axis. Hence,
 10
(8 − x) dx = 32 − 2 = 30.
0
y
8
6
4
2
10
x
2 4 6 8

 4
12. Calculate (4x − 8) dx in two ways:
−1
(a) As the limit lim RN
N→∞
(b) By using geometry
 4  4
solution Let f (x) = 4x − 8 over [−1, 4]. Consider the integral f (x) dx = (4x − 8) dx.
−1 −1
• Let N be a positive integer and set a = −1, b = 4, x = (b − a) /N = 5/N . Then xk = a + kx =
−1 + 5k/N, k = 1, 2, . . . , N are the right endpoints of the N subintervals of [−1, 4]. Then
N   N  N 
N
5  20k 60  100 
RN = x f (xk ) = −4 + −8 =− 1 + 2 k
N N N N
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
 
60 100 N2 N
=− (N ) + 2 +
N N 2 2
50 50
= −60 + 50 + = −10 + .
N N
 
50
Hence lim RN = lim −10 + = −10.
N→∞ N→∞ N
• The region bounded by the graph of y = 4x − 8 and the x-axis over the interval [−1, 4] consists of a
triangle below the axis with base 3 and height 12 and a triangle above the axis with base 2 and height 8.
Hence,
 4
1 1
(4x − 8) dx = − (3)(12) + (2)(8) = −10.
−1 2 2
y

5
−1
x
1 2 3 4
−5
−10

In Exercises 13 and 14, refer to Figure 14.

 2  6
13. Evaluate: (a) f (x) dx (b) f (x) dx
0 0
606 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

solution Let f (x) be given by Figure 14.

&2
(a) The definite integral 0 f (x) dx is the signed area of a semicircle of radius 1 which lies below the x-axis.
Therefore,
 2
1 π
f (x) dx = − π (1)2 = − .
0 2 2
&6
(b) The definite integral 0 f (x) dx is the signed area of a semicircle of radius 1 which lies below the x-axis
and a semicircle of radius 2 which lies above the x-axis. Therefore,
 6
1 1 3π
f (x) dx = π (2)2 − π (1)2 = .
0 2 2 2
 4  6
14. Evaluate: (a) f (x) dx (b) |f (x)| dx
1 1
solution Let f (x) be given by Figure 14.
&4
(a) The definite integral 1 f (x) dx is the signed area of one-quarter of a circle of radius 1 which lies below
the x-axis and one-quarter of a circle of radius 2 which lies above the x-axis. Therefore,
 4
1 1 3
f (x) dx = π (2)2 − π (1)2 = π.
1 4 4 4
&6
(b) The definite integral 1 |f (x)| dx is the signed area of one-quarter of a circle of radius 1 and a semicircle
of radius 2, both of which lie above the x-axis. Therefore,
 6
1 1 9π
|f (x)| dx = π (2)2 + π (1)2 = .
1 2 4 4
y
y = f(x)

x
2 4 6

FIGURE 14 The two parts of the graph are semicircles.

In Exercises 15 and 16, refer to Figure 15.

 3  5
15. Evaluate g(t) dt and g(t) dt.
0 3
solution
• The region bounded by the curve y = g(x) and the x-axis over the interval [0, 3] is comprised of two
right triangles, one with area 12 below the axis, and one with area 2 above the axis. The definite integral
is therefore equal to 2 − 12 = 32 .
• The region bounded by the curve y = g(x) and the x-axis over the interval [3, 5] is comprised of another
two right triangles, one with area 1 above the axis and one with area 1 below the axis. The definite
integral is therefore equal to 0.
 a  c
16. Find a, b, and c such that g(t) dt and g(t) dt are as large as possible.
0 b
y
y = g(t)
2

t
1 2 3 4 5
−1

−2

FIGURE 15
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 607
 a
solution To make the value of g(t) dt as large as possible, we want to include as much positive area
0  c
as possible. This happens when we take a = 4. Now, to make the value of g(t) dt as large as possible, we
b
want to make sure to include all of the positive area and only the positive area. This happens when we take
b = 1 and c = 4.
17. Describe the partition P and the set of sample points C for the Riemann sum shown in Figure 16. Compute
the value of the Riemann sum.

y
34.25

20
15

x
0.5 1 2 2.5 3 3.2 4.5 5

FIGURE 16

solution The partition P is defined by

x0 = 0 < x1 = 1 < x2 = 2.5 < x3 = 3.2 < x4 = 5

The set of sample points is given by C = {c1 = 0.5, c2 = 2, c3 = 3, c4 = 4.5}. Finally, the value of the
Riemann sum is

34.25(1 − 0) + 20(2.5 − 1) + 8(3.2 − 2.5) + 15(5 − 3.2) = 96.85.

18. Compute R(f, P , C) for f (x) = x 2 + x for the partition P and the set of sample points C in Figure 16.
[The curve shown is not f (x) = x 2 + x.]
solution

R(f, P , C) = f (0.5)(1 − 0) + f (2)(2.5 − 1) + f (3)(3.2 − 2.5) + f (4.5)(5 − 3.2)

= 0.75(1) + 6(1.5) + 12(0.7) + 24.75(1.8) = 62.7

In Exercises 19–22, calculate the Riemann sum R(f, P , C) for the given function, partition, and choice of
sample points. Also, sketch the graph of f and the rectangles corresponding to R(f, P , C).

19. f (x) = x, P = {1, 1.2, 1.5, 2}, C = {1.1, 1.4, 1.9}

solution Let f (x) = x. With

P = {x0 = 1, x1 = 1.2, x3 = 1.5, x4 = 2} and C = {c1 = 1.1, c2 = 1.4, c3 = 1.9},

we get

R(f, P , C) = x1 f (c1 ) + x2 f (c2 ) + x3 f (c3 )

= (1.2 − 1)(1.1) + (1.5 − 1.2)(1.4) + (2 − 1.5)(1.9) = 1.59.

Here is a sketch of the graph of f and the rectangles.

y

2
1.5
1
0.5
x
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
608 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

20. f (x) = 2x + 3, P = {−4, −1, 1, 4, 8}, C = {−3, 0, 2, 5}

solution Let f (x) = 2x + 3. With

P = {x0 = −4, x1 = −1, x2 = 1, x3 = 4, x4 = 8} and C = {c1 = −3, c2 = 0, c3 = 2, c4 = 5},

we get

R(f, P , C) = x1 f (c1 ) + x2 f (c2 ) + x3 f (c3 ) + x4 f (c4 )

= (−1 − (−4))(−3) + (1 − (−1))(3) + (4 − 1)(7) + (8 − 4)(13) = 70.

Here is a sketch of the graph of f and the rectangles.

y
20
15
10
5
−4 −2
x
2 4 6 8
−5

21. f (x) = x 2 + x, P = {2, 3, 4.5, 5}, C = {2, 3.5, 5}

solution Let f (x) = x 2 + x. With

P = {x0 = 2, x1 = 3, x3 = 4.5, x4 = 5} and C = {c1 = 2, c2 = 3.5, c3 = 5},

we get

R(f, P , C) = x1 f (c1 ) + x2 f (c2 ) + x3 f (c3 )

= (3 − 2)(6) + (4.5 − 3)(15.75) + (5 − 4.5)(30) = 44.625.

Here is a sketch of the graph of f and the rectangles.

y

30
25
20
15
10
5
x
1 2 3 4 5

$ %
22. f (x) = sin x, P = 0, π6 , π3 , π2 , C = {0.4, 0.7, 1.2}
solution Let f (x) = sin x. With
π π π

P = x0 = 0, x1 = , x3 = , x4 = and C = {c1 = 0.4, c2 = 0.7, c3 = 1.2},

6 3 2
we get

R(f, P , C) = x1 f (c1 ) + x2 f (c2 ) + x3 f (c3 )

π  π π π π
= − 0 (sin 0.4) + − (sin 0.7) + − (sin 1.2) = 1.029225.
6 3 6 2 3
Here is a sketch of the graph of f and the rectangles.
y

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 609

In Exercises 23–28, sketch the signed area represented by the integral. Indicate the regions of positive and
negative area.
 5
23. (4x − x 2 ) dx
0
&5
solution Here is a sketch of the signed area represented by the integral 0 (4x − x 2 ) dx.

y
4
2
5
x
1 2 3 4
−2
−4

 π/4
24. tan x dx
−π/4
& π/4
solution Here is a sketch of the signed area represented by the integral −π/4 tan x dx.

y
1.0
0.5 +
−0.6 −0.2
x
0.2 0.4 0.6
− −0.5
−1.0

 2π
25. sin x dx
π
& 2π
solution Here is a sketch of the signed area represented by the integral π sin x dx.

0.4
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−0.4
−
−0.8

−1.2

 3π
26. sin x dx
0
& 3π
solution Here is a sketch of the signed area represented by the integral 0 sin x dx.

1
0.5 + +
x
2 4 6 8 10
−0.5 −
−1

 2
27. ln x dx
1/2
&2
solution Here is a sketch of the signed area represented by the integral 1/2 ln x dx.
610 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

0.6
0.4
+
0.2

0.5 − 1.0 1.5 2.0

−0.2
−0.4
−0.6

 1
28. tan−1 x dx
−1
&1 −1 x dx.
solution Here is a sketch of the signed area represented by the integral −1 tan

0.5
+
x
−1 −0.5 0.5 1
−
−0.5

In Exercises 29–32, determine the sign of the integral without calculating it. Draw a graph if necessary.
 1
29. x 4 dx
−2

solution The integrand is always positive. The integral must therefore be positive, since the signed area
has only positive part.
 1
30. x 3 dx
−2

solution By symmetry, the positive area from the interval [0, 1] is cancelled by the negative area from
[−1, 0]. With the interval [−2, −1] contributing more negative area, the definite integral must be negative.
 2π
31. x sin x dx
0

solution As you can see from the graph below, the area below the axis is greater than the area above the
axis. Thus, the definite integral is negative.
y

0.2
+
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−0.2
−
−0.4
−0.6

 2π sin x
32. dx
0 x
solution From the plot below, you can see that the area above the axis is bigger than the area below the
axis, hence the integral is positive.
y

1
0.8
0.6
+
0.4
0.2
x
1 2 3 4 − 5 6
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 611

In Exercises 33–42, use properties of the integral and the formulas in the summary to calculate the integrals.
 4
33. (6t − 3) dt
0
 4  4  4
1
solution (6t − 3) dt = 6 t dt − 3 1 dt = 6 · (4)2 − 3(4 − 0) = 36.
0 0 0 2
 2
34. (4x + 7) dx
−3
solution
 2  2  2
(4x + 7) dx = 4 x dx + 7 dx
−3 −3 −3
  
0 2
=4 x dx + x dx + 7(2 − (−3))
−3 0
  
2 −3
=4 x dx − x dx + 35
0 0
 
1 2 1
=4 2 − (−3)2 + 35 = 25.
2 2
 9
35. x 2 dx
0
9 
1
solution By formula (5), x 2 dx = (9)3 = 243.
0 3
 5
36. x 2 dx
2
 5  5  2
1 1
solution x dx =
2
x dx −
2
x 2 dx = (5)3 − (2)3 = 39.
2 0 0 3 3
 1
37. (u2 − 2u) du
0
solution
 1  1  1  
1 3 1 1 2
(u2 − 2u) du = u2 du − 2 u du = (1) − 2 (1)2 = − 1 = − .
0 0 0 3 2 3 3
 1/2
38. (12y 2 + 6y) dy
0
solution
 1/2  1/2  1/2
(12y 2 + 6y) dy = 12 y 2 dy + 6 y dy
0 0 0
 3  
1 1 1 1 2
= 12 · +6·
3 2 2 2
1 3 5
= + = .
2 4 4
 1
39. (7t 2 + t + 1) dt
−3
solution First, write
 1  0  1
(7t 2 + t + 1) dt = (7t 2 + t + 1) dt + (7t 2 + t + 1) dt
−3 −3 0
 −3  1
=− (7t 2 + t + 1) dt + (7t 2 + t + 1) dt
0 0
612 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Then,
 1    
1 1 1 1
(7t 2 + t + 1) dt = − 7 · (−3)3 + (−3)2 − 3 + 7 · 13 + 12 + 1
−3 3 2 3 2
   
9 7 1 196
= − −63 + − 3 + + +1 = .
2 3 2 3
 3
40. (9x − 4x 2 ) dx
−3
solution First write
 3  0  3
(9x − 4x 2 ) dx = (9x − 4x 2 ) dx + (9x − 4x 2 ) dx
−3 −3 0
 −3  3
=− (9x − 4x 2 ) dx + (9x − 4x 2 ) dx.
0 0
Then,
 3    
1 1 1 1
(9x − 4x 2 ) dx = − 9 · (−3)2 − 4 · (−3)3 + 9 · (3)2 − 4 · (3)3
−3 2 3 2 3
   
81 81
=− + 36 + − 36 = −72.
2 2
 1
41. (x 2 + x) dx
−a
&b &b &b
solution First, 0 (x 2 + x) dx = 0 x 2 dx + 0 x dx = 13 b3 + 12 b2 . Therefore
 1  0  1  1  −a
(x + x) dx =
2
(x + x) dx +
2
(x + x) dx =
2
(x + x) dx −
2
(x 2 + x) dx
−a −a 0 0 0
   
1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 5
= ·1 + ·1 − (−a)3 + (−a)2 = a 3 − a 2 + .
3 2 3 2 3 2 6
 a2
42. x 2 dx
a
solution
  
a2 a2 a 1  2 3 1 1 1
x 2 dx = x 2 dx − x 2 dx = a − (a)3 = a 6 − a 3 .
a 0 0 3 3 3 3

In Exercises 43–47, calculate the integral, assuming that

 5  5
f (x) dx = 5, g(x) dx = 12
0 0
 5
43. (f (x) + g(x)) dx
0
 5  5  5
solution (f (x) + g(x)) dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx = 5 + 12 = 17.
0 0 0
 5 
1
44. 2f (x) − g(x) dx
0 3
 5   5 
1 1 5 1
solution 2f (x) − g(x) dx = 2 f (x) dx − g(x) dx = 2(5) − (12) = 6.
0 3 0 3 0 3
 0
45. g(x) dx
5
 0  5
solution g(x) dx = − g(x) dx = −12.
5 0
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 613

 5
46. (f (x) − x) dx
0
 5  5  5 1 15
solution (f (x) − x) dx = f (x) dx − x dx = 5 − (5)2 = − .
0 0 0 2 2
 5
47. Is it possible to calculate g(x)f (x) dx from the information given?
0
&5
solution It is not possible to calculate 0 g(x)f (x) dx from the information given.
48. Prove by computing the limit of right-endpoint approximations:
 b b4
x 3 dx = 1
0 4

solution Let f (x) = x 3 , a = 0 and x = (b − a)/N = b/N . Then

N   N   

N
b  3 b3 b4  3 b4 N 4 N3 N2 b4 b4 b4
RN = x f (xk ) = k · 3 = 4 k = 4 + + = + + .
N N N N 4 2 4 4 2N 4N 2
k=1 k=1 k=1
  
b b4 b4 b4 b4
Hence x dx = lim RN = lim
3
+ + = .
0 N→∞ N→∞ 4 2N 4N 2 4
In Exercises 49–54, evaluate the integral using the formulas in the summary and Eq. (1).
 3
49. x 3 dx
0
 3 34 81
solution By Eq. (1), x 3 dx = = .
0 4 4
 3
50. x 3 dx
1
 3  3  1 1 4 1 4
solution x 3 dx = x 3 dx − x 3 dx = (3) − (1) = 20.
1 0 0 4 4
 3
51. (x − x 3 ) dx
0
 3  3  3 1 2 1 4 63
solution (x − x ) dx =
3
x dx − x 3 dx = 3 − 3 =− .
0 0 0 2 4 4
 1
52. (2x 3 − x + 4) dx
0
solution Applying the linearity of the definite integral, Eq. (1), the formula from Example 4 and the
formula for the definite integral of a constant:
 1  1  1  1
1 1
(2x 3 − x + 4) dx = 2 x 3 dx − x dx + 4 dx = 2 · (1)4 − (1)2 + 4 = 4.
0 0 0 0 4 2
 1
53. (12x 3 + 24x 2 − 8x) dx
0
solution
 1  1  1  1
(12x 3 + 24x 2 − 8x) dx = 12 x 3 dx + 24 x2 − 8 x dx
0 0 0 0
1 1 1
= 12 · 14 + 24 · 13 − 8 · 12
4 3 2
=3+8−4=7
614 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 2
54. (2x 3 − 3x 2 ) dx
−2
solution
 2  0  2
(2x 3 − 3x 2 ) dx = (2x 3 − 3x 2 ) dx + (2x 3 − 3x 2 ) dx
−2 −2 0
 2  −2
= (2x 3 − 3x 2 ) dx − (2x 3 − 3x 2 ) dx
0 0
 2  2  −2  −2
=2 x 3 dx − 3 x 2 dx − 2 x 3 dx + 3 x 2 dx
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
= 2 · (2)4 − 3 · (2)3 − 2 · (−2)4 + 3 · (−2)3
4 3 4 3
= 8 − 8 − 8 − 8 = −16.

In Exercises 55–58, calculate the integral, assuming that

 1  2  4
f (x) dx = 1, f (x) dx = 4, f (x) dx = 7
0 0 1
 4
55. f (x) dx
0
 4  1  4
solution f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx = 1 + 7 = 8.
0 0 1
 2
56. f (x) dx
1
 2  2  1
solution f (x) dx = f (x) dx − f (x) dx = 4 − 1 = 3.
1 0 0
 1
57. f (x) dx
4
 1  4
solution f (x) dx = − f (x) dx = −7.
4 1
 4
58. f (x) dx
2
&4
solution From Exercise 55, 0 f (x) dx = 8. Accordingly,
 4  4  2
f (x) dx = f (x) dx − f (x) dx = 8 − 4 = 4.
2 0 0

In Exercises 59–62, express each integral as a single integral.

 3  7
59. f (x) dx + f (x) dx
0 3
 3  7  7
solution f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
0 3 0
 9  9
60. f (x) dx − f (x) dx
2 4
      
9 9 4 9 9 4
solution f (x) dx − f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx − f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
2 4 2 4 4 2
 9  5
61. f (x) dx − f (x) dx
2 2
      
9 5 5 9 5 9
solution f (x) dx − f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx − f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
2 2 2 5 2 5
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 615

 3  9
62. f (x) dx + f (x) dx
7 3
      
3 9 7 7 9 9
solution f (x) dx + f (x) dx = − f (x) dx + f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
7 3 3 3 7 7

 b
In Exercises 63–66, calculate the integral, assuming that f is integrable and f (x) dx = 1 − b−1 for all
1
b > 0.
 5
63. f (x) dx
1
 5 4
solution f (x) dx = 1 − 5−1 = .
1 5
 5
64. f (x) dx
3
 5  5  3    
1 1 2
solution f (x) dx = f (x) dx − f (x) dx = 1 − − 1− = .
3 1 1 5 3 15
 6
65. (3f (x) − 4) dx
1
 6  6  6 35
solution (3f (x) − 4) dx = 3 f (x) dx − 4 1 dx = 3(1 − 6−1 ) − 4(6 − 1) = − .
1 1 1 2
 1
66. f (x) dx
1/2
  −1   
1 1 1/2
solution f (x) dx = − f (x) dx = − 1 − = 1.
1/2 1 2
 b  b
67. Explain the difference in graphical interpretation between f (x) dx and |f (x)| dx.
a a
&b
solution When f (x) takes on both positive and negative values on [a, b], a f (x) dx represents the
&b
signed area between f (x) and the x-axis, whereas a |f (x)| dx represents the total (unsigned) area between
&b
f (x) and the x-axis. Any negatively signed areas that were part of a f (x) dx are regarded as positive areas
&b
in a |f (x)| dx. Here is a graphical example of this phenomenon.

Graph of f (x) Graph of | f (x)|

10 30
x
−4 −2 2 4 20
−10
−20 10

−30 x
−4 −2 2 4

68. Use the graphical interpretation of the definite integral to explain the inequality
 b   b
 
 f (x) dx ≤ |f (x)| dx
 
a a

where f is continuous. Explain also why equality holds if and only if either f (x) ≥ 0 for all x or f (x) ≤ 0
for all x.
solution Let A+ denote the unsigned area under the graph of y = f (x) over the interval [a, b] where
f (x) ≥ 0. Similarly, let A− denote the unsigned area when f (x) < 0. Then
 b
f (x) dx = A+ − A− .
a
616 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Moreover,
  
 b  b
 
f (x) dx  ≤ A+ + A− = |f (x)| dx.

a a

Equality holds if and only if one of the unsigned areas is equal to zero; in other words, if and only if either
f (x) ≥ 0 for all x or f (x) ≤ 0 for all x.
69. Let f (x) = x. Find an interval [a, b] such that
 b   b
  1 3
 f (x) dx = and |f (x)| dx =
  2 2
a a

solution If a > 0, then f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], so

 b   b
 
 f (x) dx  = |f (x)| dx

a a

by the previous exercise. We find a similar result if b < 0. Thus, we must have a < 0 and b > 0. Now,
 b
1 1
|f (x)| dx = a 2 + b2 .
a 2 2
Because
 b 1 2 1 2
f (x) dx = b − a ,
a 2 2
then
 
 b  1
 f (x) dx  = |b2 − a 2 |.
 2
a

If b2 > a2, then

1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1
a + b = and (b − a 2 ) =
2 2 2 2 2
√
yield a = −1 and b = 2. On the other hand, if b2 < a 2 , then
1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1
a + b = and (a − b2 ) =
2 2 2 2 2
√
yield a = − 2 and b = 1.
 2π  2π
70. Evaluate I = sin2 x dx and J = cos2 x dx as follows. First show with a graph that
0 0
I = J . Then prove that I + J = 2π .
solution The graphs of f (x) = sin2 x and g(x) = cos2 x are shown below at the left and right, respec-
tively. It is clear that the shaded areas in the two graphs are equal, thus
 2π  2π
I= sin2 x dx = cos2 x dx = J.
0 0

Now, using the fundamental trigonometric identity, we find

 2π  2π
I +J = (sin x + cos x) dx =
2 2
1 · dx = 2π.
0 0

Combining this last result with I = J yields I = J = π .

y y

1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
x x
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 617

In Exercises 71–74, calculate the integral.

 6
71. |3 − x| dx
0
solution Over the interval, the region between the curve and the interval [0, 6] consists of two triangles
above the x axis, each of which has height 3 and width 3, and so area 92 . The total area, hence the definite
integral, is 9.
y

x
1 2 3 4 5 6

Alternately,
 6  3  6
|3 − x| dx = (3 − x) dx + (x − 3) dx
0 0 3
     
3 3 6 3 6
=3 dx − x dx + x dx − x dx − 3 dx
0 0 0 0 3

1 1 1
= 9 − 32 + 62 − 32 − 9 = 9.
2 2 2
 3
72. |2x − 4| dx
1
solution The area between |2x − 4| and the x axis consists of two triangles above the x-axis, each with
width 1 and height 2, and hence with area 1. The total area, and hence the definite integral, is 2.
y

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Alternately,
 3  2  3
|2x − 4| dx = (4 − 2x) dx + (2x − 4) dx
1 1 2
       
2 2 1 3 2 3
=4 dx − 2 x dx − x dx + 2 x dx − x dx − 4 dx
1 0 0 0 0 2
   
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
=4−2 2 − 1 +2 3 − 2 − 4 = 2.
2 2 2 2
 1
73. |x 3 | dx
−1
solution
'
x3 x≥0
|x 3 | =
−x 3 x < 0.

Therefore,
 1  0  1  −1  1 1 1 1
|x 3 | dx = −x 3 dx + x 3 dx = x 3 dx + x 3 dx = (−1)4 + (1)4 = .
−1 −1 0 0 0 4 4 2
618 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 2
74. |x 2 − 1| dx
0
solution
'
x2 − 1 1≤x≤2
|x − 1| =
2
−(x − 1) 0 ≤ x < 1.
2

Therefore,
 2  1  2
|x 2 − 1| dx = (1 − x 2 ) dx + (x 2 − 1) dx
0 0 1
     
1 1 2 1 2
= dx − x dx +
2
x dx −
2
x dx −
2
1 dx
0 0 0 0 1
 
1 1 1
= 1 − (1) + (8) − (1) − 1 = 2.
3 3 3
75. Use the Comparison Theorem to show that
 1  1  2  2
x dx ≤
5
x 4 dx, x dx ≤
4
x 5 dx
0 0 1 1

solution On the interval [0, 1], x 5 ≤ x 4 , so, by Theorem 5,

 1  1
x dx ≤
5
x 4 dx.
0 0

On the other hand, x4 ≤ x5 for x ∈ [1, 2], so, by the same Theorem,
 2  2
x 4 dx ≤ x 5 dx.
1 1

6 1 
1 1
76. Prove that ≤ dx ≤ .
3 4 x 2
solution On the interval [4, 6], 16 ≤ x1 , so, by Theorem 5,
 6  6
1 1 1
= dx ≤ dx.
3 4 6 4 x
On the other hand, 1
x ≤ 1
4 on the interval [4, 6], so
 6  6
1 1 1 1
dx ≤ dx = (6 − 4) = .
4 x 4 4 4 2
&6
Therefore 3 ≤
dx ≤ 12 , as desired.
1 1
4 x
 0.3
77. Prove that 0.0198 ≤ sin x dx ≤ 0.0296. Hint: Show that 0.198 ≤ sin x ≤ 0.296 for x in [0.2, 0.3].
0.2
solution For 0 ≤ x ≤ π6 ≈ 0.52, we have d
dx (sin x) = cos x > 0. Hence sin x is increasing on [0.2, 0.3].
Accordingly, for 0.2 ≤ x ≤ 0.3, we have
m = 0.198 ≤ 0.19867 ≈ sin 0.2 ≤ sin x ≤ sin 0.3 ≈ 0.29552 ≤ 0.296 = M
Therefore, by the Comparison Theorem, we have
 0.3  0.3  0.3
0.0198 = m(0.3 − 0.2) = m dx ≤ sin x dx ≤ M dx = M(0.3 − 0.2) = 0.0296.
0.2 0.2 0.2
 π/4
78. Prove that 0.277 ≤ cos x dx ≤ 0.363.
π/8
solution cos x is decreasing on the interval [π/8, π/4]. Hence, for π/8 ≤ x ≤ π/4,
cos(π/4) ≤ cos x ≤ cos(π/8).
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 619

√
Since cos(π/4) = 2/2,
√  π/4 √  π/4
π 2 2
0.277 ≤ · = dx ≤ cos x dx.
8 2 π/8 2 π/8

Since cos(π/8) ≤ 0.924,

 π/4  π/4 π
cos x dx ≤ 0.924 dx = (0.924) ≤ 0.363.
π/8 π/8 8
& π/4
Therefore 0.277 ≤ cos x ≤ 0.363.
π/8

π/2 sin x
√
2
79. Prove that 0 ≤ dx ≤ .
π/4 x 2
solution Let
sin x
f (x) = .
x
As we can see in the sketch below, f is decreasing on the interval [π/4, π/2]. Therefore
√
f (x) ≤ f (π/4) for
all x in [π/4, π/2]. Moreover, f (x) ≥ 0 for all x in [π/4, π/2]. Now, f (π/4) = π , so:
2 2

 π/2  π/2 √ √ √
π sin x 2 2 π 2 2 2
0=0· ≤ dx ≤ dx = · = .
4 π/4 x π/4 π 4 π 2
y

2 2/p y = sin x
x
2/p

x
p/4 p /2

 1 dx
80. Find upper and lower bounds for √ .
0 5x 3 + 4
solution Let
1
f (x) = √ .
x3 +4
f is decreasing for x on the interval [0, 1], so f (1) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (0) for all x in [0, 1]. f (0) = 1
2 and
f (1) = √1 , so
5
 1  1  1
1 1
√ dx ≤ f (x) dx ≤ dx
0 5 0 0 2
 1
1 1
√ ≤ f (x) dx ≤ .
5 0 2
 b  b
81. Suppose that f (x) ≤ g(x) on [a, b]. By the Comparison Theorem, f (x) dx ≤ g(x) dx.
a a
Is it also true that f
(x) ≤ g
(x) for x ∈ [a, b]? If not, give a counterexample.
solution The assertion f
(x) ≤ g
(x) is false. Consider a = 0, b = 1, f (x) = x, g(x) = 2. f (x) ≤ g(x)
for all x in the interval [0, 1], but f
(x) = 1 while g
(x) = 0 for all x.
82. State whether true or false. If false, sketch the graph of a counterexample.
 b
(a) If f (x) > 0, then f (x) dx > 0.
a
 b
(b) If f (x) dx > 0, then f (x) > 0.
a
620 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

solution
&b
(a) It is true that if f (x) > 0 for x ∈ [a, b], then a f (x) dx > 0.
&b
(b) It is false that if a f (x) dx > 0, then f (x) > 0 for x ∈ [a, b]. Indeed, in Exercise 3, we saw that
&1
−2 (3x + 4) dx = 7.5 > 0, yet f (−2) = −2 < 0. Here is the graph from that exercise.

6
4
2
x
−2 −1 1
−2

Further Insights and Challenges  a

83. Explain graphically: If f is an odd function, then f (x) dx = 0.
−a

solution If f is an odd function, then f (−x) = −f (x) for all x. Accordingly, for every positively signed
area in the right half-plane where f is above the x-axis, there is a corresponding negatively signed area in the
left half-plane where f is below the x-axis. Similarly, for every negatively signed area in the right half-plane
where f is below the x-axis, there is a corresponding positively signed area in the left half-plane where f is
above the x-axis. We conclude that the net area between the graph of f and the x-axis over [−a, a] is 0, since
the positively signed areas and negatively signed areas cancel each other out exactly.
y

4
2
−1
x
−2 1 2
−2
−4

 1
84. Compute (sin x)(sin2 x + 1) dx.
−1

solution Let f (x) = sin x(sin2 x + 1). sin x is an odd function, while sin2 x is an even function, so:

f (−x) = sin(−x)(sin2 (−x) + 1) = − sin x(sin2 x + 1) = −f (x).

Therefore, f is an odd function. The function is odd and the interval is symmetric around the origin so, by
the previous exercise, the integral must be zero.
85. Let k and b be positive. Show, by comparing the right-endpoint approximations, that
 b  1
x dx = b
k k+1
x k dx
0 0

solution Let k and b be any positive numbers. Let f (x) = x k on [0, b]. Since f is continuous, both
&b &1
0 f (x) dx and 0 f (x) dx exist. Let N be a positive integer and set x = (b − 0) /N = b/N. Let xj =
a + j x = bj/N , j = 1, 2, . . . , N be the right endpoints of the N subintervals of [0, b]. Then the right-
&b &b
endpoint approximation to 0 f (x) dx = 0 x k dx is
⎛ ⎞
 N  
b  bj k 
N N
1
RN = x f (xj ) = = bk+1 ⎝ k+1 j k⎠ .
N N N
j =1 j =1 j =1
&1 &1
In particular, if b = 1 above, then the right-endpoint approximation to 0 f (x) dx = 0 x k dx is

 N  
1  j k 1  k
N N
1
SN = x f (xj ) = = k+1 j = k+1 RN
N N N b
j =1 j =1 j =1
 S E C T I O N 5.2 The Definite Integral 621

In other words, RN = bk+1 SN . Therefore,

 b  1
x dx = lim RN = lim b SN = b
k k+1 k+1
lim SN = b k+1
x k dx.
0 N→∞ N→∞ N→∞ 0

86. Verify for 0 ≤ b ≤ 1 by interpreting in terms of area:

 b
1  1
1 − x 2 dx = b 1 − b2 + sin−1 b
0 2 2
√
solution The function f (x) = 1 − x 2 is the quarter circle of radius 1 in the first quadrant. For 0 ≤ b ≤ 1,
&b√
the area represented by the integral 0 1 − x 2 dx can be divided into two parts. The area of the triangular
√
part is 12 (b) 1 − b2 using the Pythagorean Theorem. The area of the sector with angle θ where sin θ = b, is
&b√ √
given by 12 (1)2 (θ ). Thus 0 1 − x 2 dx = 12 b 1 − b2 + 12 θ .
y

θ
x
b 1

87. Suppose that f and g are continuous functions such that, for all a,
 a  a
f (x) dx = g(x) dx
−a −a

Give an intuitive argument showing that f (0) = g(0). Explain your idea with a graph.
solution Let h(x) = f (x) − g(x). Then h is continuous and
 a  a  a  a
h(x) dx = [f (x) − g(x)] dx = f (x) dx − g(x) dx = 0
−a −a −a −a

for all a. Suppose, for sake of contradiction, that h(0)  = 0. Without loss of generality, we may assume that
h(0) > 0. Because h is continuous, there exists an a > 0 such that h(x) > 0 for all x ∈ [−a, a]. See the
figure below. It then follows that
 a
h(x) dx > 0,
−a

which contradicts the condition that

 a
h(x) dx = 0
−a

for all a. Thus, h(0) must be equal to 0; that is, f (0) − g(0) = 0, or f (0) = g(0).
y

x
−a a

88. Theorem 4 remains true without the assumption a ≤ b ≤ c. Verify this for the cases b < a < c and
c < a < b.
&c
solution The additivity property of definite integrals states for a ≤ b ≤ c, we have a f (x) dx =
&b &c
a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx.
622 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

&c &a
• Suppose that we have b < a < c. By the additivity property, we have b f (x) dx = b f (x) dx +
&c &c &c &a &b &c
a f (x) dx. Therefore, a f (x) dx = b f (x) dx − b f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx.
&b &a
• Now suppose that we have c < a < b. By the additivity property, we have c f (x) dx = c f (x) dx +
&b &c &a &b &b &b
f (x) dx. Therefore, a f (x) dx = − c f (x) dx = a f (x) dx − c f (x) dx = a f (x) dx +
&ac
b f (x) dx.
• Hence the additivity property holds for all real numbers a, b, and c, regardless of their relationship
amongst each other.

5.3 The Indefinite Integral

Preliminary Questions
1. Find an antiderivative of the function f (x) = 0.
solution Since the derivative of any constant is zero, any constant function is an antiderivative for the
function f (x) = 0.

2. Is there a difference between finding the general antiderivative of a function f and evaluating f (x) dx?

solution No difference. The indefinite integral is the symbol for denoting the general antiderivative.
3. Jacques was told that f and g have the same derivative, and he wonders whether f (x) = g(x). Does
Jacques have sufficient information to answer his question?
solution No. Knowing that the two functions have the same derivative is only good enough to tell Jacques
that the functions may differ by at most an additive constant. To determine whether the functions are equal
for all x, Jacques needs to know the value of each function for a single value of x. If the two functions produce
the same output value for a single input value, they must take the same value for all input values.
4. Suppose that F
(x) = f (x) and G
(x) = g(x). Which of the following statements are true? Explain.
(a) If f = g, then F = G.
(b) If F and G differ by a constant, then f = g.
(c) If f and g differ by a constant, then F = G.
solution
(a) False. Even if f (x) = g(x), the antiderivatives F and G may differ by an additive constant.
(b) True. This follows from the fact that the derivative of any constant is 0.
(c) False. If the functions f and g are different, then the antiderivatives F and G differ by a linear function:
F (x) − G(x) = ax + b for some constants a and b.
5. Is y = x a solution of the following initial value problem?
dy
= 1, y(0) = 1
dx
solution Although dx d
x = 1, the function f (x) = x takes the value 0 when x = 0, so y = x is not a
solution of the indicated initial value problem.

Exercises
In Exercises 1–8, find the general antiderivative of f and check your answer by differentiating.

1. f (x) = 18x 2
solution
 
1
18x dx = 18
2
x 2 dx = 18 · x 3 + C = 6x 3 + C.
3
As a check, we have
d
(6x 3 + C) = 18x 2
dx
as needed.
 S E C T I O N 5.3 The Indefinite Integral 623

2. f (x) = x −3/5
solution

x 2/5 5
x −3/5 dx = + C = x 2/5 + C.
2/5 2
As a check, we have
 
d 5 2/5
x +C = x −3/5
dx 2

as needed.
3. f (x) = 2x 4 − 24x 2 + 12x −1
solution
   
1
(2x 4 − 24x 2 + 12x −1 ) dx = 2 x 4 dx − 24 x 2 dx + 12 dx
x
1 1
= 2 · x 5 − 24 · x 3 + 12 ln |x| + C
5 3
2
= x 5 − 8x 3 + 12 ln |x| + C.
5
As a check, we have
 
d 2 5
x − 8x 3 + 12 ln |x| + C = 2x 4 − 24x 2 + 12x −1
dx 5

as needed.
4. f (x) = 9x + 15x −2
solution
  
(9x + 15x −2 ) dx = 9 x dx + 15 x −2 dx

1 x −1
= 9 · x 2 + 15 · +C
2 −1
9
= x 2 − 15x −1 + C.
2
As a check, we have
 
d 9 2
x − 15x −1 + C = 9x + 15x −2
dx 2

as needed.
5. f (x) = 2 cos x − 9 sin x
solution
  
(2 cos x − 9 sin x) dx = 2 cos x dx − 9 sin x dx

= 2 sin x − 9(− cos x) + C = 2 sin x + 9 cos x + C

As a check, we have
d
(2 sin x + 9 cos x + C) = 2 cos x + 9(− sin x) = 2 cos x − 9 sin x
dx
as needed.
624 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

6. f (x) = 4x 7 − 3 cos x
solution
  
(4x 7 − 3 cos x) dx = 4 x 7 dx − 3 cos x dx

1 1
= 4 · x 8 − 3 sin x + C = x 8 − 3 sin x + C.
8 2
As a check, we have
 
d 1 8
x − 3 sin x + C = 4x 7 − 3 cos x,
dx 2
as needed.
7. f (x) = 12ex − 5x −2
solution
  
(12ex − 5x −2 ) dx = 12 ex dx − 5 x −2 dx = 12ex − 5(−x −1 ) + C = 12ex + 5x −1 + C.

As a check, we have
d  x 
12e + 5x −1 + C = 12ex + 5(−x −2 ) = 12ex − 5x −2
dx
as needed.
8. f (x) = ex − 4 sin x
solution
 
(e − 4 sin x) dx = e − 4 sin x dx
x x

= ex − 4(− cos x) + C = ex + 4 cos x + C.

As a check, we have
d  x
e + 4 cos x + C = ex − 4 sin x
dx
as needed.
9. Match functions (a)–(d) with their antiderivatives (i)–(iv).
(a) f (x) = sin x (i) F (x) = cos(1 − x)
(b) f (x) = x sin(x 2 ) (ii) F (x) = − cos x
(c) f (x) = sin(1 − x) (iii) F (x) = − 12 cos(x 2 )
(d) f (x) = x sin x (iv) F (x) = sin x − x cos x
solution
(a) An antiderivative of sin x is − cos x, which is (ii).As a check, we have dx d
(− cos x) = − (− sin x) = sin x.
(b) An antiderivative of x sin(x 2 ) is − 2 cos(x 2 ), which is (iii). This is because, by the Chain Rule, we have
1
  
dx − 2 cos(x ) = − 2 − sin(x ) · 2x = x sin(x ).
d 1 2 1 2 2

(c) An antiderivative of sin (1 − x) is cos (1 − x) or (i). As a check, we have dx d

cos(1 − x) = − sin(1 −
x) · (−1) = sin(1 − x).
(d) An antiderivative of x sin x is sin x − x cos x, which is (iv). This is because
d
(sin x − x cos x) = cos x − (x (− sin x) + cos x · 1) = x sin x
dx

In Exercises 10–39, evaluate the indefinite integral.


10. (9x + 2) dx

9
solution (9x + 2) dx = x 2 + 2x + C.
2
 S E C T I O N 5.3 The Indefinite Integral 625

11. (4 − 18x) dx

solution (4 − 18x) dx = 4x − 9x 2 + C.

12. x −3 dx

x −2 1
solution x −3 dx = + C = − x −2 + C.
−2 2

13. t −6/11 dt

t 5/11 11
solution t −6/11 dt = + C = t 5/11 + C.
5/11 5

14. (5t 3 − t −3 ) dt

5 4 t −2 5 1
solution (5t 3 − t −3 ) dt = t − + C = t 4 + t −2 + C.
4 −2 4 2

15. (18t 5 − 10t 4 − 28t) dt

solution (18t 5 − 10t 4 − 28t) dt = 3t 6 − 2t 5 − 14t 2 + C.

16. 14s 9/5 ds

s 14/5
solution 14s 9/5 ds = 14 · + C = 5s 14/5 + C.
14/5

17. (z−4/5 − z2/3 + z5/4 ) dz

z1/5 z5/3 z9/4 3 4
solution (z−4/5 − z2/3 + z5/4 ) dz = − + + C = 5z1/5 − z5/3 + z9/4 + C.
1/5 5/3 9/4 5 9

3
18. dx
2

3 3
solution dx = x + C.
2 2

1
19. √3
dx
x
 
1 x 2/3 3
solution √3
dx = x −1/3 dx = + C = x 2/3 + C.
x 2/3 2

dx
20.
x 4/3
 
dx −4/3 x −1/3 3
solution = x dx = + C = − 1/3 + C.
x 4/3 −1/3 x

36 dt
21.
t3
 
36 −3 t −2 18
solution dt = 36t dt = 36 + C = − 2 + C.
t3 −2 t

22. x(x 2 − 4) dx
 
1 4
solution x(x 2 − 4) dx = (x 3 − 4x) dx = x − 2x 2 + C.
4
626 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

23. (t 1/2 + 1)(t + 1) dt

solution
 
(t 1/2 + 1)(t + 1) dt = (t 3/2 + t + t 1/2 + 1) dt

t 5/2 1 t 3/2
= + t2 + +t +C
5/2 2 3/2
2 5/2 1 2 2 3/2
= t + t + t +t +C
5 2 3

12 − z
24. √ dz
z
 
12 − z 2
solution √ dz = (12z−1/2 − z1/2 ) dz = 24z1/2 − z3/2 + C.
z 3
 3
x + 3x − 4
25. dx
x2
solution
 
x 3 + 3x − 4
dx = (x + 3x −1 − 4x −2 ) dx
x2
1 2
= x + 3 ln |x| + 4x −1 + C
2
  
1 1
26. sin x − cos x dx
3 4
  
1 1 1 1
solution sin x − cos x dx = − cos x − sin x + C.
3 4 3 4

27. 12 sec x tan x dx

solution 12 sec x tan x dx = 12 sec x + C.

28. (θ + sec2 θ ) dθ

1
solution (θ + sec2 θ ) dθ = θ 2 + tan θ + C.
2

29. (csc t cot t) dt

solution (csc t cot t) dt = − csc t + C.

30. sin(7x) dx

1
solution sin(7x) dx = − cos(7x) + C.
7

31. sec2 (−3θ ) dθ

1
solution sec2 (−3θ ) dθ = − tan(−3θ ) + C.
3

32. (θ − cos(−θ )) dθ

1 1
solution (θ − cos(−θ )) dθ = θ 2 + sin(−θ ) + C = θ 2 − sin θ + C.
2 2
 S E C T I O N 5.3 The Indefinite Integral 627

33. 25 sec2 (3z) dz

25
solution 25 sec2 (3z) dz = tan(3z) + C.
 3
34. sec x tan x dx

solution sec x tan x dx = sec x + C.
   
1 2 θ
35. cos(3θ ) − sec dθ
2 4
     
1 θ 1 θ
solution cos(3θ ) − sec2 dθ = sin(3θ ) − 2 tan + C.
2 4 3 4
  
4
36. − ex dx
x
  
4
solution −e x
dx = 4 ln |x| − ex + C.
x

37. (3e5x ) dx

3
solution (3e5x ) dx = e5x + C.
 5
38. e3t−4 dt

1
solution e3t−4 dt = e3t−4 + C.
 3
39. (8x − 4e 5−2x
) dx

solution (8x − 4e5−2x ) dx = 4x 2 + 2e5−2x + C.
40. In Figure 3, is graph (A) or graph (B) the graph of an antiderivative of y = f (x)?
y y y

x
x
x

y = f(x) (A) (B)

FIGURE 3

solution Let F be an antiderivative of f . By definition, this means F

(x) = f (x). In other words, f
provides information as to the increasing/decreasing behavior of F . Since, moving left to right, f transitions
from − to + to − to + to − to +, it follows that F must transition from decreasing to increasing to decreasing
to increasing to decreasing to increasing. This describes the graph in (A)!
41. In Figure 4, which of graphs (A), (B), and (C) is not the graph of an antiderivative of y = f (x)? Explain.
y

y = f (x)

y y y

x x
x

(A) (B) (C)

FIGURE 4
628 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

solution Let F be an antiderivative of f (x). Notice that f (x) = F

(x) changes sign from − to + to −
to +. Hence, F must transition from decreasing to increasing to decreasing to increasing.
• Both graph (A) and graph (C) meet the criteria discussed above and only differ by an additive constant.
Thus either could be an antiderivative of f .
• Graph (B) does not have the same local extrema as indicated by f and therefore is not an antiderivative
of f .

42. Show that F (x) = 13 (x + 13)3 is an antiderivative of f (x) = (x + 13)2 .

solution Note that
d d 1
F (x) = (x + 13)3 = (x + 13)2 .
dx dx 3
Thus, F (x) = 13 (x + 13)3 is an antiderivative of f (x) = (x + 13)2 .
In Exercises 43–46, verify by differentiation.

1
43. (x + 13)6 dx = (x + 13)7 + C
7
 
d 1
solution (x + 13) + C = (x + 13)6 as required.
7
dx 7

1
44. (x + 13)−5 dx = − (x + 13)−4 + C
4
 
d 1
solution − (x + 13) + C = (x + 13)−5 as required.
−4
dx 4

1
45. (4x + 13)2 dx = (4x + 13)3 + C
12
 
d 1 1
solution (4x + 13) + C = (4x + 13)2 (4) = (4x + 13)2 as required.
3
dx 12 4

1
46. (ax + b)n dx = (ax + b)n+1 + C (for n  = −1)
a(n + 1)
 
d 1
solution (ax + b)n+1 + C = (ax + b)n as required.
dx a(n + 1)
In Exercises 47–62, solve the initial value problem.
dy
47. = x 3 , y(0) = 4
dx
dy
solution Since dx = x 3 , we have

1 4
y= x 3 dx = x + C.
4
Thus,
1 4
4 = y(0) = 0 + C = C,
4
so that C = 4. Therefore, y = 14 x 4 + 4.
dy
48. = 3 − 2t, y(0) = −5
dt
solution Since dydt = 3 − 2t, we have

y= (3 − 2t) dt = 3t − t 2 + C.

Thus,
−5 = y(0) = 3(0) − (0)2 + C = C,
so that C = −5. Therefore, y = 3t − t 2 − 5.
 S E C T I O N 5.3 The Indefinite Integral 629

dy
49. = 2t + 9t 2 , y(1) = 2
dt
dy
solution Since dt = 2t + 9t 2 , we have

y = (2t + 9t 2 ) dt = t 2 + 3t 3 + C.

Thus,

2 = y(1) = 12 + 3(1)3 + C,

so that C = −2. Therefore y = t 2 + 3t 3 − 2.

dy
50. = 8x 3 + 3x 2 , y(2) = 0
dx
dy
solution Since dx = 8x 3 + 3x 2 , we have

y = (8x 3 + 3x 2 ) dx = 2x 4 + x 3 + C.

Thus

0 = y(2) = 2(2)4 + 23 + C,

so that C = −40. Therefore, y = 2x 4 + x 3 − 40.

dy √
51. = t, y(1) = 1
dt
√
solution Since dy dt = t = t
1/2 , we have


2
y = t 1/2 dt = t 3/2 + C.
3
Thus
2
1 = y(1) = + C,
3
so that C = 13 . Therefore, y = 23 t 3/2 + 13 .
dz
52. = t −3/2 , z(4) = −1
dt
solution Since dz
dt = t −3/2 , we have

z= t −3/2 dt = −2t −1/2 + C.

Thus

−1 = z(4) = −2(4)−1/2 + C,

so that C = 0. Therefore, z = −2t −1/2 .

dy
53. = (3x + 2)3 , y(0) = 1
dx
dy
solution Since dx = (3x + 2)3 , we have

1 1 1
y = (3x + 2)3 dx = · (3x + 2)4 + C = (3x + 2)4 + C.
4 3 12
Thus,
1
1 = y(0) = (2)4 + C,
12
so that C = 1 − 4
3 = − 13 . Therefore, y = 1
12 (3x + 2)4 − 13 .
630 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

dy
54. = (4t + 3)−2 , y(1) = 0
dt
solution Since dy −2
dt = (4t + 3) , we have

1 1 1
y = (4t + 3)−2 dt = · (4t + 3)−1 + C = − (4t + 3)−1 + C.
−1 4 4
Thus,
1
0 = y(1) = − (7)−1 + C,
4
so that C = 28
1
. Therefore, y = − 14 (4t + 3)−1 + 28
1
.
dy  π 
55. = sin x, y =1
dx 2
dy
solution Since dx = sin x, we have

y = sin x dx = − cos x + C.

Thus
π 
1=y = 0 + C,
2
so that C = 1. Therefore, y = 1 − cos x.
dy π 
56. = sin 2z, y =4
dz 4
solution Since dy dz = sin 2z, we have

1
y= sin 2z dz = − cos 2z + C.
2
Thus
π 
4=y = 0 + C,
4
so that C = 4. Therefore, y = 4 − 12 cos 2z.
dy
57. = cos 5x, y(π ) = 3
dx
dy
solution Since dx = cos 5x, we have

1
y = cos 5x dx = sin 5x + C.
5
Thus 3 = y(π ) = 0 + C, so that C = 3. Therefore, y = 3 + 15 sin 5x.
dy π 
58. = sec2 3x, y =2
dx 4
d
solution In order to take the antiderivative of sec2 3x, we use the fact that dx tan x = sec2 x. From this,
& &
we know that sec x dx = tan x, and conjecture that sec (3x) dx = 3 tan(3x) + C. Let’s check this:
2 2 1

 
d 1 1
tan(3x) + C = (3) sec2 3x + 0 = sec2 3x.
dx 3 3
dy 
Since dx = sec2 3x, y = 13 tan(3x) + C, as we’ve just seen. Since y π4 = 2, we get:
1  π
2 = tan 3 +C
3 4
1
2 = (−1) + C
3
7
= C.
3
Therefore, y = 1
3 tan(3x) + 73 .
 S E C T I O N 5.3 The Indefinite Integral 631

dy
59. = ex , y(2) = 0
dx
dy
solution Since dx = ex , we have

y= ex dx = ex + C.

Thus,

0 = y(2) = e2 + C,

so that C = −e2 . Therefore, y = ex − e2 .

dy
60. = e−t , y(0) = 0
dt
solution Since dy
dt = e−t , we have

y= e−t dt = −e−t + C.

Thus,

0 = y(0) = −e0 + C,

so that C = 1. Therefore, y = −e−t + 1.

dy
61. = 9e12−3t , y(4) = 7
dt
dy
solution Since dt = 9e12−3t , we have

y = 9e12−3t dt = −3e12−3t + C.

Thus,

7 = y(4) = −3e0 + C,

so that C = 10. Therefore, y = −3e12−3t + 10.

dy
62. = t + 2et−9 , y(9) = 4
dt
dy
solution Since dt = t + 2et−9 , we have

1
y = (t + 2et−9 ) dt = t 2 + 2et−9 + C.
2
Thus,
1 2
4 = y(9) = (9) + 2e0 + C,
2

2 . Therefore, y = 2 t + 2e
so that C = − 77 1 2 t−9 − 77
2 .

In Exercises 63–69, first find f

and then find f .

63. f

(x) = 12x, f
(0) = 1, f (0) = 2
solution Let f

(x)
= 12x. Then f
(x) = 6x 2 + C. Given f
(0) = 1, it follows that 1 = 6(0)2 + C
and C = 1. Thus, f
(x) = 6x 2 + 1. Next, f (x) = 2x 3 + x + C. Given f (0) = 2, it follows that 2 =
2(0)3 + 0 + C and C = 2. Finally, f (x) = 2x 3 + x + 2.
64. f

(x) = x 3 − 2x, f
(1) = 0, f (1) = 2
solution Let f

(x) = x3− 2x. Then f

(x) = 14 x 4 − x 2 + C. Given f
(1) = 0, it follows that 0 =

4 (1) − (1) + C and C = 4 . Thus, f (x) = 4 x − x + 4 . Next, f (x) = 20 x − 3 x + 4 x + C. Given

1 4 2 3 1 4 2 3 1 5 1 3 3

f (1) = 2, it follows that 2 = 20 (1) − 3 (1) + 4 + C and C = 15 . Finally, f (x) = 20 x − 3 x + 34 x + 23

1 5 1 3 3 23 1 5 1 3
15 .
632 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

65. f

(x) = x 3 − 2x + 1, f
(0) = 1, f (0) = 0
solution Let g(x) = f
(x). The statement gives us g
(x) = x 3 − 2x + 1, g(0) = 1. From this, we
get g(x) = 14 x 4 − x 2 + x + C. g(0) = 1 gives us 1 = C, so f
(x) = g(x) = 14 x 4 − x 2 + x + 1.
f
(x) = 14 x 4 − x 2 + x + 1, so f (x) = 20 x − 13 x 3 + 12 x 2 + x + C. f (0) = 0 gives C = 0, so
1 5

1 5 1 3 1 2
f (x) = x − x + x + x.
20 3 2

66. f

(x) = x 3 − 2x + 1, f
(1) = 0, f (1) = 4
solution Let g(x) = f
(x). The problem statement gives us g
(x) = x 3 − 2x + 1, g(1) = 0. From g
(x),
we get g(x) = 14 x 4 − x 2 + x + C, and from g(1) = 0, we get 0 = 14 − 1 + 1 + C, so that C = − 14 . This
gives f
(x) = g(x) = 14 x 4 − x 2 + x − 14 . From f
(x), we get f (x) = 14 ( 15 x 5 ) − 13 x 3 + 12 x 2 − 14 x + C =
20 x − 3 x + 2 x − 4 x + C. From f (1) = 4, we get
1 5 1 3 1 2 1

1 1 1 1
− + − + C = 4,
20 3 2 4
so that C = 121
30 . Hence,

1 5 1 3 1 2 1 121
f (x) = x − x + x − x+ .
20 3 2 4 30

67. f

(t) = t −3/2 , f
(4) = 1, f (4) = 4
solution Let g(t) = f
(t).
The problem statement is g
(t) = t −3/2 , g(4) = 1. From g
(t) we get
g(t) = −1/2 t −1/2 + C = −2t −1/2 + C. From g(4) = 1 we get −1 + C = 1 so that C = 2. Hence
1

f
(t) = g(t) = −2t −1/2 + 2. From f
(t) we get f (t) = −2 1/2
1 1/2
t + 2t + C = −4t 1/2 + 2t + C. From
f (4) = 4 we get −8 + 8 + C = 4, so that C = 4. Hence, f (t) = −4t 1/2 + 2t + 4.
π  π 
68. f

(θ ) = cos θ , f
= 1, f =6
2 2
solution Let g(θ ) = f
(θ ). The problem statement gives
π 
g
(θ ) = cos θ, g = 1.
2
From g
(θ ) we get g(θ ) = sin θ + C. From g( π2 ) = 1 we get 1 + C = 1, so C = 0. Hence f
(θ ) = g(θ ) =
sin θ . From f
(θ ) we get f (θ ) = − cos θ + C. From f ( π2 ) = 6 we get C = 6, so

f (θ ) = − cos θ + 6.

69. f

(t) = t − cos t, f
(0) = 2, f (0) = −2
solution Let g(t) = f
(t). The problem statement gives

g
(t) = t − cos t, g(0) = 2.

From g
(t), we get g(t) = 12 t 2 − sin t + C. From g(0) = 2, we get C = 2. Hence f
(t) = g(t) =

2 t − sin t + 2. From f (t), we get f (t) = 2 ( 3 t ) + cos t + 2t + C. From f (0) = −2, we get 1 + C = −2,
1 2 1 1 3

hence C = −3, and

1 3
f (t) = t + cos t + 2t − 3.
6

70. Show that F (x) = tan2 x and G(x) = sec2 x have the same derivative. What can you conclude about the
relation between F and G? Verify this conclusion directly.
solution Let F (x) = tan2 x and G(x) = sec2 x. Then F
(x) = 2 tan x sec2 x and G
(x) = 2 sec x ·
sec x tan x = 2 tan x sec2 x; hence F
(x) = G
(x). Accordingly, F and G must differ by a constant; i.e.,
F (x) − G(x) = tan2 x − sec2 x = C for some constant C. To see that this is true directly, divide the identity
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 by cos2 x. This yields tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x, so that tan2 x − sec2 x = −1.
 S E C T I O N 5.3 The Indefinite Integral 633

71. A particle located at the origin at t = 1 s moves along the x-axis with velocity v(t) = (6t 2 − t) m/s. State
the differential equation with its initial condition satisfied by the position s(t) of the particle, and find s(t).
solution The differential equation satisfied by s(t) is
ds
= v(t) = 6t 2 − t,
dt
and the associated initial condition is s(1) = 0. From the differential equation, we find

1
s(t) = (6t 2 − t) dt = 2t 3 − t 2 + C.
2
Using the initial condition, it follows that
1 3
0 = s(1) = 2 − +C so C=− .
2 2
Finally,
1 3
s(t) = 2t 3 − t 2 − .
2 2

72. A particle moves along the x-axis with velocity v(t) = (6t 2 − t) m/s. Find the particle’s position s(t),
assuming that s(2) = 4 m.
solution The differential equation satisfied by s(t) is
ds
= v(t) = 6t 2 − t,
dt
and the associated initial condition is s(2) = 4. From the differential equation, we find

1
s(t) = (6t 2 − t) dt = 2t 3 − t 2 + C.
2
Using the initial condition, it follows that

4 = s(2) = 16 − 2 + C so C = −10.
Finally,
1
s(t) = 2t 3 − t 2 − 10.
2

73. A water balloon is dropped from a high building. It falls for 5 s before hitting the ground. Determine the
velocity it is traveling when it is about to hit the ground, assuming an acceleration due to gravity of −9.8 m/s2
and no wind resistance.
solution Let v(t) denote the velocity of the water balloon t seconds after its release. Assuming the balloon
was released from rest and experiences an acceleration due to gravity of −9.8 m/s2 and no wind resistance,
the differential equation satisfied by v(t) is
dv
= a(t) = −9.8,
dt
and the associated initial condition is v(0) = 0. From the differential equation, we find

v(t) = (−9.8) dt = −9.8t + C.

Using the initial condition, it follows that

0 = v(0) = 0 + C so C = 0.

Thus,

v(t) = −9.8t, and v(5) = −9.8(5) = −49 m/s.

When it is about to hit the ground, the balloon is traveling with a velocity of −49 m/s.
634 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

74. A hammer is dropped and it falls for 2 s before hitting the ground. Determine how far it falls, assuming
an acceleration due to gravity of −9.8 m/s2 and no wind resistance.

solution Let s(t) denote the position and v(t) the velocity of the hammer t seconds after its release.
Moreover, let s = 0 denote the location of the hammer at t = 0. Assuming the hammer was released with zero
velocity and experiences an acceleration due to gravity of −9.8 m/s2 and no wind resistance, the differential
equation satisfied by v(t) is

dv
= a(t) = −9.8,
dt
and the associated initial condition is v(0) = 0. From the differential equation, we find

v(t) = (−9.8) dt = −9.8t + C.

Using the initial condition, it follows that

0 = v(0) = 0 + C so C = 0.

Thus, v(t) = −9.8t. Next, the differential equation satisfied by s(t) is

ds
= v(t) = −9.8t,
dt
and the associated initial condition is s(0) = 0. From the differential equation, we find

s(t) = (−9.8t) dt = −4.9t 2 + C.

Using the initial condition, it follows that

0 = s(0) = 0 + C so C = 0.

Thus,

s(t) = −4.9t 2 , and s(2) = −4.9(2)2 = −19.6 m.

In other words, the hammer falls 19.6 m in 2 seconds.

75. A mass oscillates at the end of a spring. Let s(t) be the displacement of the mass from the equilibrium po-
sition at time t. Assuming that the mass is located at the origin at t = 0 and has velocity v(t) = sin(π t/2) m/s,
state the differential equation with initial condition satisfied by s(t), and find s(t).

solution The differential equation satisfied by s(t) is

ds
= v(t) = sin(π t/2),
dt
and the associated initial condition is s(0) = 0. From the differential equation, we find

2
s(t) = sin(π t/2) dt = − cos(π t/2) + C.
π

Using the initial condition, it follows that

2 2
0 = s(0) = − +C so C = .
π π
Finally,

2
s(t) = (1 − cos(π t/2)).
π
 S E C T I O N 5.3 The Indefinite Integral 635

76. Beginning at t = 0 s with initial velocity 4 m/s, a particle moves in a straight line with acceleration
a(t) = 3t 1/2 m/s2 . Find the distance traveled after 25 s.
solution Given a(t) = 3t 1/2 and an initial velocity of 4 m/s, it follows that v(t) satisfies
dv
= 3t 1/2 , v(0) = 4.
dt
Thus,

v(t) = 3t 1/2 dt = 2t 3/2 + C.

Using the initial condition, we find

4 = v(0) = 2(0)3/2 + C so C = 4

and v(t) = 2t 3/2 + 4. Next,

 
4 5/2
s= v(t) dt = (2t 3/2 + 4) dt = t + 4t + C.
5
Finally, the distance traveled after 25 seconds is
4
s(25) − s(0) = (25)5/2 + 4(25) = 2600 meters.
5

77. A car traveling 25 m/s begins to decelerate at a constant rate of 4 m/s2 . After how many seconds does the
car come to a stop and how far will the car have traveled during its deceleration before stopping?
solution Since the acceleration of the car is a constant −4m/s2 , v is given by the differential equation:
dv
= −4, v(0) = 25.
dt
&
dt , we get v(t) = −4 dt = −4t + C. Since v(0) = 25, C = 25. From this, v(t) = −4t + 25
m
From dv s. To
find the time until the car stops, we must solve v(t) = 0:

−4t + 25 = 0
4t = 25
t = 25/4 = 6.25 s.

Now we have a differential equation for s(t). Since we want to know how far the car has traveled from the
beginning of its deceleration at time t = 0, we have s(0) = 0 by definition, so:
ds
= v(t) = −4t + 25, s(0) = 0.
dt
&
From this, s(t) = (−4t + 25) dt = −2t 2 + 25t + C. Since s(0) = 0, we have C = 0, and

s(t) = −2t 2 + 25t.

At stopping time t = 6.25 s, the car has traveled

s(6.25) = −2(6.25)2 + 25(6.25) = 78.125 m.

78. At time t = 1 s, a particle is traveling at 72 m/s and begins to decelerate at the rate a(t) = −t −1/2 until
it stops. How far does the particle travel during its deceleration before stopping?
solution With a(t) = −t −1/2 and a velocity of 72 m/s at t = 1 s, it follows that v(t) satisfies
dv
= −t −1/2 , v(1) = 72.
dt
Thus,

v(t) = −t −1/2 dt = −2t 1/2 + C.
636 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Using the initial condition, we find

72 = v(1) = −2 + C so C = 74,
and v(t) = 74 − 2t 1/2 . The particle comes to rest when
74 − 2t 1/2 = 0 or when t = 372 = 1369
seconds. Now,
 
4
s(t) = v(t) dt = (74 − 2t 1/2 ) dt = 74t − t 3/2 + C.
3
The distance traveled by the particle before it comes to rest is then
202612 4
s(1369) − s(1) = 74(1369) − − 74 + = 33696 meters.
3 3
79. A 900-kg rocket is released from a space station. As it burns fuel, the rocket’s mass decreases and its
velocity increases. Let v(m) be the velocity (in meters per second) as a function of mass m. Find the velocity
when m = 729 kg if dv/dm = −50m−1/2 . Assume that v(900) = 0 m/s.
&
solution Since dm dv
= −50m−1/2 , we have v(m) = −50m−1/2 dm = −100m1/2 + C. Thus 0 =
√ √
v(900) = −100 900 + C = −3000 + C, and C = 3000. Therefore, v(m) = 3000 − 100 m. Accordingly,
√
v(729) = 3000 − 100 729 = 3000 − 100(27) = 300 meters/sec.

80. As water flows through a tube of radius R = 10 cm, the velocity v of an individual water particle depends
only on its distance r from the center of the tube. The particles at the walls of the tube have zero velocity and
dv/dr = −0.06r. Determine v(r).
solution The statement amounts to the differential equation and initial condition:
dv
= −0.06r, v(R) = 0.
dr
From dv
dr = −0.06r, we get

r2
v(r) = −0.06r dr = −0.06 + C = −0.03r 2 + C.
2
Plugging in v(R) = 0, we get −0.03R 2 + C = 0, so that C = 0.03R 2 . Therefore,
v(r) = −0.03r 2 + 0.03R 2 = 0.03(R 2 − r 2 ) cm/s.
If R = 10 centimeters, we get:
v(r) = 0.03(102 − r 2 ).

81. Verify the linearity properties of the indefinite integral stated in Theorem 4.
solution To verify the Sum Rule, let F (x) and G(x) be any antiderivatives of f (x) and g(x), respectively.
Because
d d d
(F (x) + G(x)) = F (x) + G(x) = f (x) + g(x),
dx dx dx
it follows that F (x) + G(x) is an antiderivative of f (x) + g(x); i.e.,
  
(f (x) + g(x)) dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx.

To verify the Multiples Rule, again let F (x) be any antiderivative of f (x) and let c be a constant. Because
d d
(cF (x)) = c F (x) = cf (x),
dx dx
it follows that cF (x) is and antiderivative of cf (x); i.e.,
 
(cf (x)) dx = c f (x) dx.
 S E C T I O N 5.3 The Indefinite Integral 637

Further Insights and Challenges

82. Find constants c1 and c2 such that F (x) = c1 x sin x + c2 cos x is an antiderivative of f (x) = x cos x.
solution Let F (x) = c1 x sin x + c2 cos x. If F (x) is to be an antiderivative of f (x) = x cos x, we must
have F
(x) = f (x) for all x. Hence c1 (x cos x + sin x) − c2 sin x = x cos x for all x. Equating coefficients
on the left- and right-hand sides, we have c1 = 1 (i.e., the coefficients of x cos x are equal) and c1 − c2 = 0
(i.e., the coefficients of sin x are equal). Thus c1 = c2 = 1 and hence F (x) = x sin x + cos x. As a check, we
have F
(x) = x cos x + sin x − sin x = x cos x = f (x), as required.
83. Find constants c1 and c2 such that F (x) = c1 xex + c2 ex is an antiderivative of f (x) = xex .
solution Let F (x) = c1 xex + c2 ex . If F (x) is to be an antiderivative of f (x) = xex , we must have
F
(x) = f (x) for all x. Hence,

c1 xex + (c1 + c2 )ex = xex = 1 · xex + 0 · ex .

Equating coefficients of like terms we have c1 = 1 and c1 + c2 = 0. Thus, c1 = 1 and c2 = −1.

84. Suppose that F
(x) = f (x) and G
(x) = g(x). Is it true that y = F (x)G(x) is an antiderivative of
y = f (x)g(x)? Confirm or provide a counterexample.
solution Let f (x) = x 2 and g(x) = x 3 . Then F (x) = 13 x 3 and G(x) = 14 x 4 are antiderivatives for f (x)
and g(x), respectively. Let h(x) = f (x)g(x) = x 5 , the general antiderivative of which is H (x) = 16 x 6 + C.
There is no value of the constant C for which F (x)G(x) = 12 1 7
x equals H (x). Accordingly, F (x)G(x) is not
an antiderivative of h(x) = f (x)g(x).
85. Suppose that F
(x) = f (x).
(a) Show that y = 12 F (2x) is an antiderivative of y = f (2x).
(b) Find the general antiderivative of y = f (kx) for k = 0.
solution Let F
(x) = f (x).
(a) By the Chain Rule, we have
 
d 1 1
F (2x) = F
(2x) · 2 = F
(2x) = f (2x).
dx 2 2

Thus 12 F (2x) is an antiderivative of f (2x).

(b) For nonzero constant k, the Chain Rules gives
 
d 1 1
F (kx) = F
(kx) · k = F
(kx) = f (kx).
dx k k

Thus k1 F (kx) is an antiderivative of f (kx). Hence the general antiderivative of f (kx) is k1 F (kx) + C, where
C is a constant.
86. Find an antiderivative for f (x) = |x|.
'
x for x ≥ 0
solution Let f (x) = |x| = . Then the general antiderivative of f (x) is
−x for x < 0
 '& '
x dx for x ≥ 0 x +C
1 2
for x ≥ 0
F (x) = f (x) dx = & = 2 1 2 .
−x dx for x < 0 − 2 x + C for x < 0

87. Using Theorem 1, prove that if F

(x) = f (x), where f is a polynomial of degree n − 1, then F is a
polynomial of degree n. Then prove that if g is any function such that g (n) (x) = 0, then g is a polynomial of
degree at most n.
solution Suppose F
(x) = f (x) where f (x) is a polynomial of degree n − 1. Now, we know that the
derivative of a polynomial of degree n is a polynomial of degree n − 1, and hence an antiderivative of
a polynomial of degree n − 1 is a polynomial of degree n. Thus, by Theorem 1, F (x) can differ from a
polynomial of degree n by at most a constant term, which is still a polynomial of degree n. Now, suppose
that g(x) is any function such that g (n+1) (x) = 0. We know that the n + 1-st derivative of any polynomial
of degree at most n is zero, so by repeated application of Theorem 1, g(x) can differ from a polynomial of
degree at most n by at most a constant term. Hence, g(x) is a polynomial of degree at most n.
638 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

x n+1 − 1
88. Show that F (x) = is an antiderivative of y = x n for n  = −1. Then use L’Hôpital’s Rule to
n+1
prove that

lim F (x) = ln x
n→−1

In this limit, x is fixed and n is the variable. This result shows that, although the Power Rule breaks down for
n = −1, the antiderivative of y = x −1 is a limit of antiderivatives of y = x n as n → −1.
solution If n  = −1, then
 
d d x n+1 − 1
F (x) = = xn.
dx dx n+1
Therefore, F is an antiderivative of y = x n . Using L’Hôpital’s Rule,

x n+1 − 1 x n+1 ln x
lim F (x) = lim = lim = ln x.
n→−1 n→−1 n + 1 n→−1 1

5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I

Preliminary Questions
1. Suppose that F
(x) = f (x) and F (0) = 3, F (2) = 7.
(a) What is the area under y = f (x) over [0, 2] if f (x) ≥ 0?
(b) What is the graphical interpretation of F (2) − F (0) if f (x) takes on both positive and negative values?
solution
(a) If f (x) ≥ 0 over [0, 2], then the area under y = f (x) is F (2) − F (0) = 7 − 3 = 4.
(b) If f (x) takes on both positive and negative values, then F (2) − F (0) gives the signed area between
y = f (x) and the x-axis.
2. Suppose that f is a negative function with antiderivative F such that F (1) = 7 and F (3) = 4. What is
the area (a positive number) between the x-axis and the graph of f over [1, 3]?
 3
solution f (x) dx represents the signed area bounded by the curve and the interval [1, 3]. Since f is
1  3
negative on [1, 3], f (x) dx is the negative of the area. Therefore, if A is the area between the x-axis and
1
the graph of f , we have:
 3
A=− f (x) dx = − (F (3) − F (1)) = −(4 − 7) = −(−3) = 3.
1

3. Are the following statements true or false? Explain.

(a) FTC I is valid only for positive functions.
(b) To use FTC I, you have to choose the right antiderivative.
(c) If you cannot find an antiderivative of f , then the definite integral does not exist.
solution
(a) False. The FTC I is valid for continuous functions.
(b) False. The FTC I works for any antiderivative of the integrand.
(c) False. If you cannot find an antiderivative of the integrand, you cannot use the FTC I to evaluate the
definite integral, but the definite integral may still exist.
 9
4. Evaluate f
(x) dx, where f is differentiable and f (2) = f (9) = 4.
2
 9
solution Because f is differentiable, f
(x) dx = f (9) − f (2) = 4 − 4 = 0.
2
 S E C T I O N 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I 639

Exercises
In Exercises 1–4, sketch the region under the graph of the function and find its area using FTC I.

1. f (x) = x 2 , [0, 1]
solution
y

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

We have the area

 
1 1 3 1 1
A= x dx = x  = .
2
0 3 0 3

2. f (x) = 2x − x 2 , [0, 2]
solution
y

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Let A be the area indicated. Then:

 2  2  2   
2  1 2 8 4
A= (2x − x 2 ) dx = 2x dx − x 2 dx = x 2  − x 3  = (4 − 0) − −0 = .
0 0 0 0 3 0 3 3

3. f (x) = x −2 , [1, 2]
solution
y
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2 x
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

We have the area

 2
2 x −1  1 1
A= x −2 dx = =− +1= .
1 −1 1 2 2
 π
4. f (x) = cos x, 0, 2
solution
y

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
640 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Let A be the shaded area. Then

 π/2
π/2 
A= cos x dx = sin x  = 1 − 0 = 1.
0 0

In Exercises 5–42, evaluate the integral using FTC I.

 6
5. x dx
3
 
6 1 2 6 1 1 27
solution x dx = x  = (6)2 − (3)2 = .
3 2 3 2 2 2
 9
6. 2 dx
0
 9
9 
solution 2 dx = 2x  = 2(9) − 2(0) = 18.
0 0
 1
7. (4x − 9x 2 ) dx
0
 1
1 
solution (4x − 9x ) dx = (2x − 3x ) = (2 − 3) − (0 − 0) = −1.
2 2 3
0 0
 2
8. u2 du
−3
 
2 1 3 2 1 1 35
solution u du = u  = (2)3 − (−3)3 =
2
.
−3 3 −3 3 3 3
 2
9. (12x 5 + 3x 2 − 4x) dx
0
 2
2 
solution (12x + 3x − 4x) dx = (2x + x − 2x ) = (128 + 8 − 8) − (0 + 0 − 0) = 128.
5 2 6 3 2
0 0
 2
10. (10x 9 + 3x 5 ) dx
−2
   2    
2 1  1 1
solution (10x 9 + 3x 5 ) dx = x 10 + x 6  = 210 + 26 − 210 + 26 = 0.
−2 2 −2 2 2
 0
11. (2t 3 − 6t 2 ) dt
3
  0  
0 1 4  81 27
solution (2t 3 − 6t 2 ) dt = t − 2t 3  = (0 − 0) − − 54 = .
3 2 3 2 2
 1
12. (5u4 + u2 − u) du
−1
  1    
1 1 1  1 1 1 1 8
solution (5u4 + u2 − u) du = u5 + u3 − u2  = 1 + − − −1 − − = .
−1 3 2 −1 3 2 3 2 3
 4
√
13. y dy
0
  
4
√ 4 2 3/2 4 2 2 16
solution y dy = y 1/2
dy = y  = (4)3/2 − (0)3/2 = .
0 0 3 0 3 3 3
 8
14. x 4/3 dx
1
 
8 3 7/3 8 3 381
solution x 4/3
dx = x  = (128 − 1) = .
1 7 1 7 7
 S E C T I O N 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I 641

 1
15. t 1/4 dt
1/16
 
1 4 5/4 1 4 1 31
solution t 1/4 dt = t  = − = .
1/16 5 1/16 5 40 40
 1
16. t 5/2 dt
4
 
1 2 7/2 1 2 254
solution t 5/2
dt = t  = (1 − 128) = − .
4 7 4 7 7
 3 dt
17.
1 t2
  3
3 dt 3  1 2
solution = t −2 dt = −t −1  = − + 1 = .
1 t2 1 1 3 3
 4
18. x −4 dx
1
 
4
−4 1 −3 4 1 1 21
solution x dx = − x  = − (4)−3 + = .
1 3 1 3 3 64
 1
8
19. 3
dx
1/2 x
 1  1 1
8 −3

−2 
solution 3
dx = 8x dx = −4x  = −4 + 16 = 12.
1/2 x 1/2 1/2
 −1
1
20. 3
dx
−2 x
 −1 
1 1 −2 −1 1 −2 1 −2 3
solution 3
dx = − x  = − 2 (−1) + 2 (−2) = − 8 .
−2 x 2 −2
 2
21. (x 2 − x −2 ) dx
1
   2    
2 1 3  8 1 1 11
solution (x 2 − x −2 ) dx = x + x −1  = + − +1 = .
1 3 1 3 2 3 6
 9
22. t −1/2 dt
1
 9
9
−1/2

1/2 
solution t dt = 2t  = 2(9) − 2(1) = 4.
1/2 1/2
1 1

t +1 27
23. √ dt
1 t
solution
   27
27 t +1 27
−1/22 3/2 1/2 

√ dt = (t + t1/2
) dt = t + 2t 
1 t 1 3 1
   
2 √ √ 2 √ 8
= (81 3) + 6 3 − + 2 = 60 3 − .
3 3 3
 1 10t 4/3 − 8t 1/3
24. dt
8/27 t2
solution
 
1 10t 4/3 − 8t 1/3 1
dt = (10t −2/3 − 8t −5/3 ) dt
8/27 t2 8/27
1

= (30t 1/3 + 12t −2/3 ) = (30 + 12) − (20 + 27) = −5.
8/27
642 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 3π/4
25. sin θ dθ
π/4
 3π/4 √ √
3π/4 
 2 2 √
solution sin θ dθ = − cos θ  = + = 2.
π/4 π/4 2 2
 4π
26. sin x dx
2π
 4π
4π 
solution sin x dx = − cos x  = −1 − (−1) = 0.
2π 2π
  
π/2
1
27. cos θ dθ
0 3
 π/2    π/2
1 1  3
solution cos θ dθ = 3 sin θ  = .
0 3 3 0 2
 5π/8
28. cos 2x dx
π/4
 5π/8 √
5π/8 1  1 5π 1 π 2 1
solution 
cos 2x dx = sin 2x  = sin − sin = − − .
π/4 2 π/4 2 4 2 2 4 2
 
π/6 π
29. sec2 3t − dt
0 6
 π/6    
π 1  π π/6 1 √ 1 4
solution sec 3t −
2
dt = tan 3t −  = 3 + √ = √ .
0 6 3 6 0 3 3 3 3
 π/6
30. sec θ tan θ dθ
0
 π/6 √
π/6  π 2 3
solution 
sec θ tan θ dθ = sec θ  = sec − sec 0 = − 1.
0 0 6 3
 π/10
31. csc 5x cot 5x dx
π/20
 π/10
π/10 1  1 √  1 √
solution csc 5x cot 5x dx = − csc 5x  = − 1 − 2 = ( 2 − 1).
π/20 5 π/20 5 5
 π/14
32. csc2 7y dy
π/28
 π/14
π/14 1  1 π 1 π 1
solution csc 7y dy = − cot 7y 
2
= − cot + cot = .
π/28 7 π/28 7 2 7 4 7
 1
33. ex dx
0
 1
1 
x
solution e dx = e  = e − 1.
x
0 0
 5
34. e−4x dx
3
 
5
−4x 1 −4x 5 1 1
solution e dx = − e  = − e−20 + e−12 .
3 4 3 4 4
 3
35. e1−6t dt
0
 
3 1 1−6t 3 1 −17 1 1
solution e 1−6t
dt = − e  = −6e + e = (e − e−17 ).
0 6 0 6 6
 S E C T I O N 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I 643

 3
36. e4t−3 dt
2
 
3 1 4t−3 3 1 1
solution e 4t−3
dt = e  = e9 − e5 .
2 4 2 4 4
 10 dx
37.
2 x
 10
10 dx 
solution = ln |x| = ln 10 − ln 2 = ln 5.
2 x 2
 −4 dx
38.
−12 x
 −4
−4 dx  1
solution = ln |x| = ln |−4| − ln |−12| = ln = − ln 3.
−12 x −12 3
 1
dt
39.
0 t +1
 1
1 dt 
solution = ln |t + 1| = ln 2 − ln 1 = ln 2.
0 t +1 0
 4
dt
40.
1 5t +4
 4 4
dt 1  1 1 1 24
solution = ln |5t + 4| = ln 24 − ln 9 = ln .
1 5t + 4 5 1 5 5 5 9
 0
41. (3x − 9e3x ) dx
−2
  0
0 3 2 
3x  −6 −6
solution (3x − 9e ) dx = 3x
x − 3e  = (0 − 3) − (6 − 3e ) = 3e − 9.
−2 2 −2
 6 1

42. x+ dx
2 x
 6 1
 
1 2
6

solution x+ dx = x + ln |x|  = (18 + ln 6) − (2 + ln 2) = 16 + ln 3.
2 x 2 2

In Exercises 43–48, write the integral as a sum of integrals without absolute values and evaluate.
 1
43. |x| dx
−2

solution
      
1 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 1 1 1 5
|x| dx = (−x) dx + x dx = − x  + x  = 0 − − (4) + = .
−2 −2 0 2 −2 2 0 2 2 2

 5
44. |3 − x| dx
0

solution
       5
5 3 5 1 2 3 1 2 
|3 − x| dx = (3 − x) dx + (x − 3) dx = 3x − x  + x − 3x 
0 0 3 2 0 2 3
     
9 25 9 13
= 9− −0+ − 15 − −9 = .
2 2 2 2
644 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 3
45. |x 3 | dx
−2
solution
    
3 0 3 1 4 0 1 4 3
|x | dx =
3
(−x ) dx +
3
x dx = − x  + x 
3
−2 −2 0 4 −2 4 0
1 1 97
= 0 + (−2)4 + 34 − 0 = .
4 4 4
 3
46. |x 2 − 1| dx
0
solution
       3
3 1 1 3 1
3 1 3 
|x − 1| dx =
2
(1 − x ) dx + (x − 1) dx = x − x  +
2
x − x 
2
0 0 1 3 0 3 1
   
1 1 22
= 1− − 0 + (9 − 3) − −1 = .
3 3 3
 π
47. |cos x| dx
0
solution
 π   π/2 π
π/2 π  
|cos x| dx = cos x dx + (− cos x) dx = sin x  − sin x  = 1 − 0 − (−1 − 0) = 2.
0 0 π/2 0 π/2
 5
48. |x 2 − 4x + 3| dx
0
solution
 5  5
|x 2 − 4x + 3| dx = |(x − 3)(x − 1)| dx
0 0
 1  3  5
= (x 2 − 4x + 3) dx + −(x 2 − 4x + 3) dx + (x 2 − 4x + 3) dx
0 1 3
  1   3   5
1 3  1 3  1 3 
= x − 2x 2 + 3x  − x − 2x 2 + 3x  + x − 2x 2 + 3x 
3 0 3 1 3 3
     
1 1 125
= − 2 + 3 − 0 − (9 − 18 + 9) + −2+3 + − 50 + 15 − (9 − 18 + 9)
3 3 3
28
= .
3

In Exercises 49–54, evaluate the integral in terms of the constants.

 b
49. x 3 dx
1
 b 
1 b 1 1 1 4 
solution x 3 dx = x 4  = b4 − (1)4 = b − 1 for any number b.
1 4 1 4 4 4
 a
50. x 4 dx
b
 a 
1 5 a 1 1
solution x dx = x  = a 5 − b5 for any numbers a, b.
4
b 5 b 5 5
 b
51. x 5 dx
1
 b 
1 6 b 1 1 1
solution x dx = x  = b6 − (1)6 = (b6 − 1) for any number b.
5
1 6 1 6 6 6
 S E C T I O N 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I 645
 x
52. (t 3 + t) dt
−x
solution
      
x 1 4 1 2 x 1 4 1 2 1 4 1 2
(t + t) dt =
3
t + t  = x + x − x + x = 0.
−x 4 2 −x 4 2 4 2
 5a dx
53.
a x
 5a
5a dx 
solution = ln |x| = ln |5a| − ln |a| = ln 5.
a x a
 b2 dx
54.
b x
 b2
b2 dx 
solution = ln |x| = ln |b2 | − ln |b| = ln |b|.
b x b
 3
55. Calculate f (x) dx, where
−2
'
12 − x 2 for x ≤ 2
f (x) =
x3 for x > 2

solution
 3  2  3  2  3
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx = (12 − x ) dx +
2
x 3 dx
−2 −2 2 −2 2
  
1 3 2 1 4 3
= 12x − x  + x 
3 −2 4 2
   
1 1 1 1
= 12(2) − 23 − 12(−2) − (−2)3 + 34 − 24
3 3 4 4
128 65 707
= + = .
3 4 12
 2π
56. Calculate f (x) dx, where
0
'
cos x for x ≤ π
f (x) =
cos x − sin 2x for x > π

solution
 2π  π  2π  π  2π
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx = cos x dx + (cos x − sin 2x) dx
0 0 π 0 π
π  2π
 1 
= sin x  + sin x + cos 2x 
0 2 π
   
1 1
= (0 − 0) + 0+ − 0+ = 0.
2 2
 1
57. Use FTC I to show that x n dx = 0 if n is an odd whole number. Explain graphically.
−1
solution We have
 
1 x n+1 1 (1)n+1 (−1)n+1
x dx =
n
= − .
−1 n + 1 −1 n+1 n+1
646 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Because n is odd, n + 1 is even, which means that (−1)n+1 = (1)n+1 = 1. Hence

(1)n+1 (−1)n+1 1 1
− = − = 0.
n+1 n+1 n+1 n+1
Graphically speaking, for an odd function such as x 3 shown here, the positively signed area from x = 0 to
x = 1 cancels the negatively signed area from x = −1 to x = 0.
y

0.5
−0.5
x
−1 0.5 1
−0.5

−1

58. Plot the function f (x) = sin 3x − x. Find the positive root of f to three decimal places and use
it to find the area under the graph of f in the first quadrant.
solution The graph of f (x) = sin 3x − x is shown below at the left. In the figure below at the right,
we zoom in on the positive root of f (x) and find that, to three decimal places, this root is approximately
x = 0.760. The area under the graph of f (x) in the first quadrant is then
 0.760  
1 1 2 0.760
(sin 3x − x) dx = − cos 3x − x 
0 3 2 0
1 1 1
= − cos(2.28) − (0.760)2 + ≈ 0.262
3 2 3
y

0.5

x x
− 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.756 0.758 0.76 0.762 0.764

− 0.5

59. Calculate F (4) given that F (1) = 3 and F

(x) = x 2 . Hint: Express F (4) − F (1) as a definite integral.
solution By FTC I,
 4 43 − 1 3
F (4) − F (1) = x 2 dx = = 21
1 3
Therefore F (4) = F (1) + 21 = 3 + 21 = 24.
60. Calculate G(16), where dG/dt = t −1/2 and G(9) = −5.
solution By FTC I,
 16
G(16) − G(9) = t −1/2 dt = 2(161/2 ) − 2(91/2 ) = 2
9

Therefore G(16) = −5 + 2 = −3.

 1
61. Does x n dx get larger or smaller as n increases? Explain graphically.
0
&1
solution Let n ≥ 0 and consider 0 x n dx. (Note: for n < 0 the integrand x n → ∞ as x → 0+, so we
exclude this possibility.) Now
 1  1    
1 
n+1  1 1 1
x dx =
n
x  = (1) n+1
− (0) n+1
= ,
0 n+1 0 n+1 n+1 n+1
&1
which decreases as n increases. Recall that 0 x n dx represents the area between the positive curve f (x) = x n
and the x-axis over the interval [0, 1]. Accordingly, this area gets smaller as n gets larger. This is readily evident
in the following graph, which shows curves for several values of n.
 S E C T I O N 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I 647

1
1/4
1/2
1
2
4
8
x
0 1

62. Show that the area of the shaded parabolic arch in Figure 8 is equal to four-thirds the area of the triangle
shown.
y

x
a a+b b
2

FIGURE 8 Graph of y = (x − a)(b − x).

solution We first calculate the area of the parabolic arch:

 b  b  b
(x − a)(b − x) dx = − (x − a)(x − b) dx = − (x 2 − ax − bx + ab) dx
a a a
 b
1 3 a 2 b 2 
=− x − x − x + abx 
3 2 2 a
1  3 b

=− 2x − 3ax 2 − 3bx 2 + 6abx 
6 a
1  
= − (2b3 − 3ab2 − 3b3 + 6ab2 ) − (2a 3 − 3a 3 − 3ba 2 + 6a 2 b)
6
1 
= − (−b3 + 3ab2 ) − (−a 3 + 3a 2 b)
6
1  1
= − a 3 + 3ab2 − 3a 2 b − b3 = (b − a)3 .
6 6

The indicated triangle has a base of length b − a and a height of

    
a+b a+b b−a 2
−a b− = .
2 2 2
Thus, the area of the triangle is
 
1 b−a 2 1
(b − a) = (b − a)3 .
2 2 8
Finally, we note that
1 4 1
(b − a)3 = · (b − a)3 ,
6 3 8
as required.

Further Insights and Challenges

63. Prove a famous result of Archimedes (generalizing Exercise 62): For r < s, the area of the shaded region
in Figure 9 is equal to four-thirds the area of triangle ACE, where C is the point on the parabola at which
the tangent line is parallel to secant line AE.
(a) Show that C has x-coordinate (r + s)/2.
(b) Show that ABDE has area (s − r)3 /4 by viewing it as a parallelogram of height s − r and base of length
CF .
648 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

(c) Show that ACE has area (s − r)3 /8 by observing that it has the same base and height as the parallelo-
gram.
(d) Compute the shaded area as the area under the graph minus the area of a trapezoid, and prove Archimedes’s
result.
y

B
C
D

A
F
E
x
r r+r s
2

FIGURE 9 Graph of f (x) = (x − a)(b − x).

solution
(a) The slope of the secant line AE is
f (s) − f (r) (s − a)(b − s) − (r − a)(b − r)
= = a + b − (r + s)
s−r s−r
and the slope of the tangent line along the parabola is
f
(x) = a + b − 2x.
If C is the point on the parabola at which the tangent line is parallel to the secant line AE, then its x-coordinate
must satisfy
r +s
a + b − 2x = a + b − (r + s) or x= .
2
(b) Parallelogram ABDE has height s − r and base of length CF . Since the equation of the secant line AE
is
y = [a + b − (r + s)] (x − r) + (r − a)(b − r),
the length of the segment CF is
    
r +s r +s r +s (s − r)2
−a b− − [a + b − (r + s)] − r − (r − a)(b − r) = .
2 2 2 4
3
Thus, the area of ABDE is (s−r)
4 .
s−r
(c) Triangle ACE is comprised of ACF and CEF . Each of these smaller triangles has height 2 and
(s−r)2
base of length 4 . Thus, the area of ACE is

1 s − r (s − r)2 1 s − r (s − r)2 (s − r)3

· + · = .
2 2 4 2 2 4 8
(d) The area under the graph of the parabola between x = r and x = s is
 s  
1 1 3 s
(x − a)(b − x) dx = −abx + (a + b)x − x  2
r 2 3 r
1 1 1 1
= −abs + (a + b)s 2 − s 3 + abr − (a + b)r 2 + r 3
2 3 2 3
1 1
= ab(r − s) + (a + b)(s − r)(s + r) + (r − s)(r 2 + rs + s 2 ),
2 3
while the area of the trapezoid under the shaded region is
1
(s − r) [(s − a)(b − s) + (r − a)(b − r)]
2
1 ( )
= (s − r) −2ab + (a + b)(r + s) − r 2 − s 2
2
1 1
= ab(r − s) + (a + b)(s − r)(r + s) + (r − s)(r 2 + s 2 ).
2 2
 S E C T I O N 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I 649

Thus, the area of the shaded region is

   
1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1
(r − s) r + rs + s − r − s = (s − r) r − rs + s = (s − r)3 ,
3 3 3 2 2 6 3 6 6
which is four-thirds the area of the triangle ACE.
64. (a) Apply the Comparison Theorem (Theorem 5 in Section 5.2) to the inequality sin x ≤ x (valid for
x ≥ 0) to prove that
x2
1− ≤ cos x ≤ 1
2
(b) Apply it again to prove that
x3
x− ≤ sin x ≤ x (for x ≥ 0)
6
(c) Verify these inequalities for x = 0.3.
solution
 x  
x  x 1 2 x 1
(a) We have sin t dt = − cos t  = − cos x + 1 and t dt = t  = x 2 . Hence
0 0 0 2 0 2

x2
− cos x + 1 ≤ .
2
x2
Solving, this gives cos x ≥ 1 − 2 . cos x ≤ 1 follows automatically.
t2
(b) The previous part gives us 1 − 2 ≤ cos t ≤ 1, for t > 0. Theorem 5 gives us, after integrating over the
interval [0, x],
x3
x− ≤ sin x ≤ x.
6
(c) Substituting x = 0.3 into the inequalities obtained in (a) and (b) yields
0.955 ≤ 0.955336489 ≤ 1 and 0.2955 ≤ 0.2955202069 ≤ 0.3,
respectively.
65. Use the method of Exercise 64 to prove that
x2 x2 x4
1− ≤ cos x ≤ 1 − +
2 2 24
x3 x3 x5
x− ≤ sin x ≤ x − + (for x ≥ 0)
6 6 120
Verify these inequalities for x = 0.1. Why have we specified x ≥ 0 for sin x but not for cos x?
solution By Exercise 64, t − 16 t 3 ≤ sin t ≤ t for t > 0. Integrating this inequality over the interval [0, x],
and then solving for cos x, yields:
1 2 1 1 2
x − x 4 ≤ 1 − cos x ≤ x
2 24 2
1 1 2 1
1 − x 2 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 − x + x4.
2 2 24
x2 x2 x4
These inequalities apply for x ≥ 0. Since cos x, 1 − 2 , and 1 − 2 + 24 are all even functions, they also
apply for x ≤ 0.
Having established that
t2 t2 t4
1− ≤ cos t ≤ 1 − + ,
2 2 24
for all t ≥ 0, we integrate over the interval [0, x], to obtain:
x3 x3 x5
x− ≤ sin x ≤ x − + .
6 6 120
650 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

The functions sin x, x − 16 x 3 and x − 16 x 3 + 120

1 5
x are all odd functions, so the inequalities are reversed for
x < 0.
Evaluating these inequalities at x = .1 yields

0.995000000 ≤ 0.995004165 ≤ 0.995004167

0.0998333333 ≤ 0.0998334166 ≤ 0.0998334167,

both of which are true.

66. Calculate the next pair of inequalities for sin x and cos x by integrating the results of Exercise 65. Can
you guess the general pattern?
solution Integrating

t3 t3 t5
t− ≤ sin t ≤ t − + (for t ≥ 0)
6 6 120
over the interval [0, x] yields

x2 x4 x2 x4 x6
− ≤ 1 − cos x ≤ − + .
2 24 2 24 720
Solving for cos x and yields

x2 x4 x6 x2 x4
1− + − ≤ cos x ≤ 1 − + .
2 24 720 2 24
Replacing each x by t and integrating over the interval [0, x] produces

x3 x5 x7 x3 x5
x− + − ≤ sin x ≤ x − + .
6 120 5040 6 120
To see the pattern, it is best to compare consecutive inequalities for sin x and those for cos x:

0 ≤ sin x ≤ x
x3
x− ≤ sin x ≤ x
6
x3 x3 x5
x− ≤ sin x ≤ x − + .
6 6 120
Each iteration adds an additional term. Looking at the highest order terms, we get the following pattern:

0
x
x3 x3
− =−
6 3!
x5
5!
We guess that the leading term of the polynomials are of the form

x 2n+1
(−1)n .
(2n + 1)!
Similarly, for cos x, the leading terms of the polynomials in the inequality are of the form

x 2n
(−1)n .
(2n)!

67. Use FTC I to prove that if |f

(x)| ≤ K for x ∈ [a, b], then |f (x) − f (a)| ≤ K|x − a| for x ∈ [a, b].
solution Let a > b be real numbers, and let f be such that |f
(x)| ≤ K for x ∈ [a, b]. By FTC I,
 x
f
(t) dt = f (x) − f (a).
a
 S E C T I O N 5.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II 651

Since f
(x) ≥ −K for all x ∈ [a, b], we get:
 x
f (x) − f (a) = f
(t) dt ≥ −K(x − a).
a

Since f
(x) ≤ K for all x ∈ [a, b], we get:
 x
f (x) − f (a) = f
(t) dt ≤ K(x − a).
a

Combining these two inequalities yields

−K(x − a) ≤ f (x) − f (a) ≤ K(x − a),
so that, by definition,
|f (x) − f (a)| ≤ K|x − a|.

68. (a) Use Exercise 67 to prove that | sin a − sin b| ≤ |a − b| for all a, b.
(b) Let f (x) = sin(x + a) − sin x. Use part (a) to show that the graph of f lies between the horizontal lines
y = ±a.
(c) Plot y = f (x) and the lines y = ±a to verify (b) for a = 0.5 and a = 0.2.
solution
(a) Let f (x) = sin x, so that f
(x) = cos x, and
|f
(x)| ≤ 1
for all x. From Exercise 67, we get:
|sin a − sin b| ≤ |a − b|.
(b) Let f (x) = sin(x + a) − sin(x). Applying (a), we get the inequality:
|f (x)| = |sin(x + a) − sin(x)| ≤ |(x + a − x)| = |a|.
This is equivalent, by definition, to the two inequalities:
−a ≤ sin(x + a) − sin(x) ≤ a.
(c) The plots of y = sin(x + 0.5) − sin(x) and of y = sin(x + 0.2) − sin(x) are shown below. The inequality
is satisfied in both plots.
y y

0.5 0.2

0.25 0.1

x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4
− 0.25 − 0.1

−0.5 −0.2

5.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II

Preliminary Questions
 x 
1. Let G(x) = t 3 + 1 dt.
4
(a) Is the FTC II needed to calculate G(4)?
(b) Is the FTC II needed to calculate G
(4)?
solution
&4√
(a) No. G(4) = t 3 + 1 dt = 0.
4 √ √
(b) Yes. By the FTC II, G
(x) = x 3 + 1, so G
(4) = 65.
652 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

2. Which of the following is an antiderivative F of f (x) = x 2 satisfying F (2) = 0?

 x  2  x
(a) 2t dt (b) t 2 dt (c) t 2 dt
2
 x0 2
2
solution The correct answer is (c): t dt.
2
3. Does every continuous function have an antiderivative? Explain.
 x
solution Yes. All continuous functions have an antiderivative, namely f (t) dt.
a
 x3
4. Let G(x) = sin t dt. Which of the following statements are correct?
4
(a) G is the composite function sin(x 3 ).
(b) G is the composite function A(x 3 ), where
 x
A(x) = sin t dt
4
(c) G(x) is too complicated to differentiate.
(d) The Product Rule is used to differentiate G.
(e) The Chain Rule is used to differentiate G.
(f) G
(x) = 3x 2 sin(x 3 ).
solution Statements (b), (e), and (f) are correct.

Exercises
1. Write the area function of f (x) = 2x + 4 with lower limit a = −2 as an integral and find a formula for
it.
solution Let f (x) = 2x + 4. The area function with lower limit a = −2 is
 x  x
A(x) = f (t) dt = (2t + 4) dt.
a −2

Carrying out the integration, we find

 x x

(2t + 4) dt = (t 2 + 4t) = (x 2 + 4x) − ((−2)2 + 4(−2)) = x 2 + 4x + 4
−2 −2

or (x + 2)2 . Therefore, A(x) = (x + 2)2 .

2. Find a formula for the area function of f (x) = 2x + 4 with lower limit a = 0.
solution The area function for f (x) = 2x + 4 with lower limit a = 0 is given by
 x x

A(x) = (2t + 4) dt = (t 2 + 4t) = x 2 + 4x.
0 0
&x
3. Let G(x) = (t 2 − 2) dt. Calculate G(1), G
(1), and G
(2). Then find a formula for G(x).
1
&x &1
solution Let G(x) = 1 (t 2 − 2) dt. Then G(1) = 1 (t 2 − 2) dt = 0. Moreover, G
(x) = x 2 − 2, so
that G
(1) = −1 and G
(2) = 2. Finally,
 x  x    
1 3  1 3 1 3 1 5
G(x) = (t 2 − 2) dt = t − 2t  = x − 2x − (1) − 2(1) = x 3 − 2x + .
1 3 1 3 3 3 3
 x
4. Find F (0), F
(0), and F
(3), where F (x) = t 2 + t dt.
0
&0√ √
solution By definition, F (0) = 0 t 2 + t dt = 0. By FTC, F
(x) = x 2 + x, so that F
(0) =
√ √ √ √
02 + 0 = 0 and F
(3) = 32 + 3 = 12 = 2 3.
 x
5. Find G(1), G
(0), and G
(π/4), where G(x) = tan t dt.
1
&1
solution By definition, G(1) = 1 tan t dt = 0. By FTC, G
(x) = tan x, so that G
(0) = tan 0 = 0 and
G
( π4 ) = tan π4 = 1.
 S E C T I O N 5.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II 653
 x du
6. Find H (−2) and H
(−2), where H (x) = .
−2 u2 + 1
 −2 du 1 1
solution By definition, H (−2) = = 0. By FTC, H
(x) = 2 , so H
(−2) = .
−2 u +1
2 x +1 5
In Exercises 7–16, find formulas for the functions represented by the integrals.
 x
7. u4 du
2
 
x 1 5 x 1 32
solution F (x) = u4 du = u  = x5 − .
2 5 2 5 5
 x
8. (12t 2 − 8t) dt
2
 x
x 
solution F (x) = (12t 2 − 8t) dt = (4t 3 − 4t 2 ) = 4x 3 − 4x 2 − 16.
2 2
 x
9. sin u du
0
 x
x 
solution F (x) = sin u du = (− cos u) = 1 − cos x.
0 0
 x
10. sec2 θ dθ
−π/4
 x
x 
solution F (x) = sec θ dθ = tan θ 
2
= tan x − tan(−π/4) = tan x + 1.
−π/4 −π/4
 x
11. e3u du
4
 
x 1 3u x 1 1
solution F (x) = e3u du = e  = e3x − e12 .
4 3 4 3 3
 0
12. e−t dt
x
 0
0
−t

−t 
solution F (x) = e dt = −e  = −1 + e−x .
x x
 x2
13. t dt
1
  2
x2 1 2 x 1 1
solution F (x) = t dt = t  = x 4 − .
1 2 1 2 2
 x/4
14. sec2 u du
x/2
 x/4
x/4  x x
solution F (x) = sec u du = tan u = tan − tan .
2
x/2 x/2 4 2
 9x+2
15. e−u du
3x
 9x+2
9x+2 
solution F (x) = e−u du = −e−u  = −e−9x−2 + e−3x .
3x 3x
 √
x dt
16.
2 t
 √  √x
x dt  √ 1
solution = ln |t| = ln x − ln 2 = ln x − ln 2.
2 t 2 2
654 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

In Exercises 17–20, express the antiderivative F of f satisfying the given initial condition as an integral.
√
17. f (x) = x 3 + 1, F (5) = 0
√  x
solution The antiderivative F of x + 1 satisfying F (5) = 0 is F (x) =
3 t 3 + 1 dt.
5
x+1
18. f (x) = 2 , F (7) = 0
x +9
 x
x+1 t +1
solution The antiderivative F of f (x) = 2 satisfying F (7) = 0 is F (x) = dt.
x +9 7 t 2+9

19. f (x) = sec x, F (0) = 0

 x
solution The antiderivative F of f (x) = sec x satisfying F (0) = 0 is F (x) = sec t dt.
0

e−x ,
2
20. f (x) = F (−4) = 0
solution The antiderivative F of f (x) = e−x satisfying F (−4) = 0 is
2

 x
e−t dt.
2
F (x) =
−4

In Exercises 21–24, calculate the derivative.

 x
d
21. (t 5 − 9t 3 ) dt
dx 0
 x
d
solution By FTC II, (t 5 − 9t 3 ) dt = x 5 − 9x 3 .
dx 0
 θ
d
22. cot u du
dθ 1
 θ
d
solution By FTC II, cot u du = cot θ.
dθ 1
 t
d
23. sec(5x − 9) dx
dt 100
 t
d
solution By FTC II, sec(5x − 9) dx = sec(5t − 9).
dt 100
 s  
d 1
24. tan du
ds −2 1 + u2
 s  1   1 
d
solution By FTC II, tan du = tan .
ds −2 1 + u2 1 + s2
 x
25. Let A(x) = f (t) dt for f (x) in Figure 8.
0
(a) Calculate A(2), A(3), A
(2), and A
(3).
(b) Find formulas for A(x) on [0, 2] and [2, 4], and sketch the graph of A.

y
4
y = f(x)
3
2
1
x
1 2 3 4
FIGURE 8

solution
(a) A(2) = 2 · 2 = 4, the area under the graph of y = f (x) from x = 0 to x = 2, while A(3) =
2 · 3 + 12 = 6.5, the area under the graph of y = f (x) from x = 0 to x = 3. By the FTC, A
(x) = f (x) so
A
(2) = f (2) = 2 and A
(3) = f (3) = 3.
 S E C T I O N 5.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II 655

(b) For each x ∈ [0, 2], the region under the graph of y = f (x) is a rectangle of length x and height 2; for
each x ∈ [2, 4], the region is comprised of a square of side length 2 and a trapezoid of height x − 2 and bases
2 and x. Hence,

2x, 0≤x<2
A(x) = 1 2
2 x + 2, 2≤x≤4
A graph of the area function A(x) is shown below.
y

10 Area Function
8 A(x)
6
4
2
x
1 2 3 4

 x
26. Make a rough sketch of the graph of A(x) = g(t) dt for y = g(x) in Figure 9.
0

y
y = g(x)

x
1 2 3 4

FIGURE 9

solution The graph of y = g(x) lies above the x-axis over the interval [0, 1], below the x-axis over [1, 3],
and above the x-axis over [3, 4]. The corresponding area function should therefore be increasing on (0, 1),
decreasing on (1, 3) and increasing on (3, 4). Further, it appears from Figure 9 that the local minimum of the
area function at x = 3 should be negative. One possible graph of the area function is the following.
y

4
3
2
1
x
1 2 3 4
−1
−2
−3

 x 1
27. Verify |t| dt =
x|x|. Hint: Consider x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 0 separately.
0 2
'
t for t ≥ 0
solution Let f (t) = |t| = . Then
−t for t < 0
⎧ x ⎧ 
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 1 2 x 1 2
 x ⎪
⎨ t dt ⎨ 2  = 2x
for x ≥ 0 ⎪ t for x ≥ 0
0 0
F (x) = f (t) dt =  x =  x
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 1  1
0 ⎩ −t dt for x < 0 ⎪ ⎩ − t 2  = − x 2 for x < 0
0 2 2 0

For x ≥ 0, we have F (x) = 12 x 2 = 12 x |x| since |x| = x, while for x < 0, we have F (x) = − 12 x 2 = 12 x |x|
since |x| = −x. Therefore, for all real x we have F (x) = 12 x |x|.
 x2 
28. Find G
(1), where G(x) = t 3 + 3 dt.
0
√ √
solution By combining the Chain Rule and FTC, G
(x) = x 6 + 3 · 2x, so G
(1) = 1 + 3 · 2 = 4.
656 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

In Exercises 29–34, calculate the derivative.

 x2
d t dt
29.
dx 0 t + 1
 x2
d t dt x2 2x 3
solution By the Chain Rule and the FTC, = 2 · 2x = 2 .
dx 0 t + 1 x +1 x +1
 1/x
d
30. cos3 t dt
dx 1
 1/x      
d 1 1 1 1
solution By the Chain Rule and the FTC, cos3 t dt = cos3 · − 2 = − 2 cos3 .
dx 1 x x x x
 cos s
d
31. u4 du
ds −6
 cos s
d
solution By the Chain Rule and the FTC, u4 du = cos4 s(− sin s) = − cos4 s sin s.
ds −6
 x4
d √
32. t dt
dx x 2
solution Let
 x4  x4  x2
√ √ √
F (x) = t dt = t dt − t dt.
x2 0 0
Applying the Chain Rule combined with FTC, we have
 
F
(x) = x 4 · 4x 3 − x 2 · 2x = 4x 5 − 2x |x| .

Hint for Exercise 32: F (x) = A(x 4 ) − A(x 2 ).

 x2
d
33. tan t dt
dx √x
solution Let
   √
x2 x2 x
G(x) = √ tan t dt = tan t dt − tan t dt.
x 0 0

Applying the Chain Rule combined with FTC twice, we have

√
√ 1 tan( x)
G
(x) = tan(x 2 ) · 2x − tan( x) · x −1/2 = 2x tan(x 2 ) − √ .
2 2 x
 3u 
d
34. x 2 + 1 dx
du −u
solution Let
 3u   3u   −u 
G(x) = x 2 + 1 dx = x 2 + 1 dx − x 2 + 1 dx.
−u 0 0
Applying the Chain Rule combined with FTC twice, we have
 
G
(x) = 3 9u2 + 1 + u2 + 1.

In Exercises 35–38, with y = f (x) as in Figure 10, let

 x  x
A(x) = f (t) dt and B(x) = f (t) dt
0 2
35. Find the min and max of A on [0, 6].
solution The minimum values of A(x) on [0, 6] occur where A
(x) = f (x) goes from negative to positive.
This occurs at one place, where x = 1.5. The minimum value of A(x) is therefore A(1.5) = −1.25. The
maximum values of A(x) on [0, 6] occur where A
(x) = f (x) goes from positive to negative. This occurs at
one place, where x = 4.5. The maximum value of A(x) is therefore A(4.5) = 1.25.
 S E C T I O N 5.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II 657

36. Find the min and max of B on [0, 6].

solution The minimum values of B(x) on [0, 6] occur where B
(x) = f (x) goes from negative to positive.
This occurs at one place, where x = 1.5. The minimum value of A(x) is therefore B(1.5) = −0.25. The
maximum values of B(x) on [0, 6] occur where B
(x) = f (x) goes from positive to negative. This occurs at
one place, where x = 4.5. The maximum value of B(x) is therefore B(4.5) = 2.25.
37. Find formulas for A(x) and B(x) valid on [2, 4].
 2
solution On the interval [2, 4], = A
(x) B
(x)
= f (x) = 1. A(2) = f (t) dt = −1 and B(2) =
 2 0

f (t) dt = 0. Hence A(x) = (x − 2) − 1 and B(x) = (x − 2).

2
38. Find formulas for A(x) and B(x) valid on [4, 5].
y
2
y = f(x)
1
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6
−1
−2

FIGURE 10
 4
solution On the interval [4, 5], A
(x) = B
(x) = f (x) = −2(x − 4.5) = 9 − 2x. A(4) = f (t) dt =
 4 0

1 and B(4) = f (t) dt = 2. Hence A(x) = 9x − x 2 − 19 and B(x) = 9x − x 2 − 18.

2
 x
39. Let A(x) = f (t) dt, with y = f (x) as in Figure 11.
0
(a) Does A have a local maximum at P ?
(b) Where does A have a local minimum?
(c) Where does A have a local maximum?
(d) True or false? A(x) < 0 for all x in the interval shown.

R S
x

y = f(x)
P

FIGURE 11 Graph of y = f (x).

solution
(a) In order for A to have a local maximum, A
(x) = f (x) must transition from positive to negative. As this
does not happen at P , A does not have a local maximum at P .
(b) A will have a local minimum when A
(x) = f (x) transitions from negative to positive. This happens at
R, so A has a local minimum at R.
(c) A will have a local maximum when A
(x) = f (x) transitions from positive to negative. This happens at
S, so A has a local maximum at S.
(d) It is true that A(x) < 0 on I since the signed area from 0 to x is clearly always negative from the figure.
 x
40. Determine f (x), given that f (t) dt = x 2 + x.
0
 x
solution Let F (x) = f (t) dt = x 2 + x. Then F
(x) = f (x) = 2x + 1.
0
41. Determine g(x) and all values of c such that
 x
g(t) dt = x 2 + x − 6
c
658 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

solution By the FTC II we have

d 2
g(x) = (x + x − 6) = 2x + 1
dx
and therefore,
 x
g(t) dt = x 2 + x − (c2 + c)
c

We must choose c so that c2 + c = 6. We can take c = 2 or c = −3.

 b
42. Find a ≤ b such that (x 2 − 9) dx has minimal value.
a
&x
solution Let a be given, and let Fa (x) = a (t 2 − 9) dt. Then Fa
(x) = x 2 − 9, and the critical points are
x = ±3. Because Fa

(−3) = −6 and Fa

(3) = 6, we see that Fa (x) has a minimum at x = 3. Now, we find

&3 &3
a minimizing a (x 2 − 9) dx. Let G(x) = x (x 2 − 9) dx. Then G
(x) = −(x 2 − 9), yielding critical points
x = 3 or x = −3. With x = −3,
 3  3
1 3 
G(−3) = (x 2 − 9) dx = x − 9x  = −36.
−3 3 −3

With x = 3,
 3
G(3) = (x 2 − 9) dx = 0.
3
 b
Hence a = −3 and b = 3 are the values minimizing (x 2 − 9) dx.
a
 x
In Exercises 43–44, let A(x) = f (t) dt.
a

43. Area Functions and Concavity Explain why the following statements are true. Assume f is
differentiable.
(a) If c is an inflection point of A, then f
(c) = 0.
(b) A is concave up if f is increasing.
(c) A is concave down if f is decreasing.
solution
(a) If x = c is an inflection point of A, then A

(c) = f
(c) = 0.
(b) If A is concave up, then A

(x) > 0. Since A(x) is the area function associated with f (x), A
(x) = f (x)
by FTC II, so A

(x) = f
(x). Therefore f
(x) > 0, so f is increasing.
(c) If A is concave down, then A

(x) < 0. Since A(x) is the area function associated with f (x), A
(x) = f (x)
by FTC II, so A

(x) = f
(x). Therefore, f
(x) < 0 and so f is decreasing.
44. Match the property of A with the corresponding property of the graph of f. Assume f is differentiable.
Area function A
(a) A is decreasing.
(b) A has a local maximum.
(c) A is concave up.
(d) A goes from concave up to concave down.
Graph of f
(i) Lies below the x-axis.
(ii) Crosses the x-axis from positive to negative.
(iii) Has a local maximum.
(iv) f is increasing.
&x
solution Let A(x) = a f (t) dt be an area function of f . Then A
(x) = f (x) and A

(x) = f
(x).
(a) A is decreasing when A
(x) = f (x) < 0, i.e., when f lies below the x-axis. This is choice (i).
 S E C T I O N 5.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II 659

(b) A has a local maximum (at x0 ) when A

(x) = f (x) changes sign from + to 0 to − as x increases through
x0 , i.e., when f crosses the x-axis from positive to negative. This is choice (ii).
(c) A is concave up when A

(x) = f
(x) > 0, i.e., when f is increasing. This corresponds to choice (iv).
(d) A goes from concave up to concave down (at x0 ) when A

(x) = f
(x) changes sign from + to 0 to − as
x increases through x0 , i.e., when f has a local maximum at x0 . This is choice (iii).
 x
45. Let A(x) = f (t) dt, with y = f (x) as in Figure 12. Determine:
0
(a) The intervals on which A is increasing and decreasing
(b) The values x where A has a local min or max
(c) The inflection points of A
(d) The intervals where A is concave up or concave down
y

y = f(x)

x
2 4 6 8 10 12

FIGURE 12

solution
(a) A is increasing when A
(x) = f (x) > 0, which corresponds to the intervals (0, 4) and (8, 12). A is
decreasing when A
(x) = f (x) < 0, which corresponds to the intervals (4, 8) and (12, ∞).
(b) A has a local minimum when A
(x) = f (x) changes from − to +, corresponding to x = 8. A has a local
maximum when A
(x) = f (x) changes from + to −, corresponding to x = 4 and x = 12.
(c) Inflection points of A occur where A

(x) = f
(x) changes sign, or where f changes from increasing to
decreasing or vice versa. Consequently, A has inflection points at x = 2, x = 6, and x = 10.
(d) A is concave up when A

(x) = f
(x) is positive or f is increasing, which corresponds to the intervals
(0, 2) and (6, 10). Similarly, A is concave down when f is decreasing, which corresponds to the intervals
(2, 6) and (10, ∞).
 x
46. Let f (x) = x 2 − 5x − 6 and F (x) = f (t) dt.
0
(a) Find the critical points of F and determine whether they are local minima or local maxima.
(b) Find the points of inflection of F and determine whether the concavity changes from up to down or from
down to up.
(c) Plot y = f (x) and y = F (x) on the same set of axes and confirm your answers to (a) and (b).
solution
&x
(a) If F (x) = 0 (t 2 − 5t − 6) dt, then F
(x) = x 2 − 5x − 6 and F

(x) = 2x − 5. Solving F
(x) =
x 2 − 5x − 6 = 0 yields critical points x = −1 and x = 6. Since F

(−1) = −7 < 0, there is a local

maximum value of F at x = −1. Moreover, since F

(6) = 7 > 0, there is a local minimum value of F at

x = 6.
(b) As noted in part (a),
F
(x) = x 2 − 5x − 6 and F

(x) = 2x − 5.
A candidate point of inflection occurs where F

(x) = 2x − 5 = 0. Thus x = 52 . F

(x) changes from negative

to positive at this point, so there is a point of inflection at x = 52 and concavity changes from down to up.
(c) From the graph below, we clearly note that F has a local maximum at x = −1, a local minimum at x = 6
and a point of inflection at x = 52 .
y

f(x)
x
−2 2 4 6

F(x)
660 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL
 x
47. Sketch the graph of an increasing function f such that both f
(x) and A(x) = f (t) dt are decreasing.
0
 x
solution If f
(x) is decreasing, then f

(x) must be negative. Furthermore, if A(x) = f (t) dt is

0
decreasing, then A
(x) = f (x) must also be negative. Thus, we need a function which is negative but
increasing and concave down. The graph of one such function is shown below.
y

 x
48. Figure 13 shows the graph of f (x) = x sin x. Let F (x) = t sin t dt.
0
(a) Locate the local max and absolute max of F on [0, 3π ].
(b) Justify graphically: F has precisely one zero in [π, 2π ].
(c) How many zeros does F have in [0, 3π ]?
(d) Find the inflection points of F on [0, 3π ]. For each one, state whether the concavity changes from up to
down or from down to up.
y
8

0 x
π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2
−4

FIGURE 13 Graph of f (x) = x sin x.

&x
solution Let F (x) = 0 t sin t dt. A graph of f (x) = x sin x is depicted in Figure 13. Note that F
(x) =
f (x) and F

(x) = f
(x).
(a) For F to have a local maximum at x0 ∈ (0, 3π ) we must have F
(x0 ) = f (x0 ) = 0 and F
= f must
change sign from + to 0 to − as x increases through x0 . This occurs at x = π . The absolute maximum of F
on [0, 3π ] occurs at x = 3π since (from the figure) the signed area between x = 0 and x = c is greatest for
x = c = 3π .
(b) At x = π , the value of F is positive since f (x) > 0 on (0, π ). As x increases along the interval [π, 2π ],
we see that F decreases as the negatively signed area accumulates. Eventually the additional negatively signed
area “outweighs” the prior positively signed area and F attains the value 0, say at b ∈ (π, 2π ). Thereafter, on
(b, 2π ), we see that f is negative and thus F becomes and continues to be negative as the negatively signed
area accumulates. Therefore, F takes the value 0 exactly once in the interval [π, 2π ].
(c) F has two zeroes in [0, 3π ]. One is described in part (b) and the other must occur in the interval [2π, 3π ]
because F (x) < 0 at x = 2π but clearly the positively signed area over [2π, 3π ] is greater than the previous
negatively signed area.
(d) Since f is differentiable, we have that F is twice differentiable on I . Thus F has an inflection point at
x0 provided F

(x0 ) = f
(x0 ) = 0 and F

(x) = f
(x) changes sign at x0 . If F

= f
changes sign from +
to 0 to − at x0 , then f has a local maximum at x0 . There is clearly such a value x0 in the figure in the interval
[π/2, π ] and another around 5π/2. Accordingly, F has two inflection points where F changes from concave
up to concave down. If F

= f
changes sign from − to 0 to + at x0 , then f has a local minimum at x0 . From
the figure, there is such an x0 around 3π/2; so F has one inflection point where F (x) changes from concave
down to concave up.
49. Find the smallest positive critical point of
 x
F (x) = cos(t 3/2 ) dt
0
and determine whether it is a local min or max. Then find the smallest positive inflection point of F (x) and
use a graph of y = cos(x 3/2 ) to determine whether the concavity changes from up to down or from down to
up.
 S E C T I O N 5.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II 661

solution A critical point of F occurs where F

(x) = cos(x 3/2 ) = 0. The smallest positive critical points
occurs where x 3/2 = π/2, so that x = (π/2)2/3 . F
(x) goes from positive to negative at this point, so
x = (π/2)2/3 corresponds to a local maximum..
Candidate inflection points of F occur where F

(x) = 0. By FTC, F
(x) = cos(x 3/2 ), so F

(x) =
−(3/2)x 1/2 sin(x 3/2 ). Finding the smallest positive solution of F

(x) = 0, we get:

−(3/2)x 1/2 sin(x 3/2 ) = 0

sin(x 3/2 ) = 0 (since x > 0)
x 3/2 = π
x = π 2/3 ≈ 2.14503.

From the plot below, we see that F

(x) = cos(x 3/2 ) changes from decreasing to increasing at π 2/3 , so F
changes from concave down to concave up at that point.
y

1
0.5
x
1 2 3
− 0.5
−1

Further Insights and Challenges

50. Proof of FTC II The proof in the text assumes that f is increasing. To prove it for all continuous
functions, let m(h) and M(h) denote the minimum and maximum of f on [x, x + h] (Figure 14). The continuity
of f implies that lim m(h) = lim M(h) = f (x). Show that for h > 0,
h→0 h→0

hm(h) ≤ A(x + h) − A(x) ≤ hM(h)

For h < 0, the inequalities are reversed. Prove that A

(x) = f (x).

y y = f(t)

M(h) m(h)

t
a x x+h
FIGURE 14 Graphical interpretation of A(x + h) − A(x).

solution Let f be continuous on [a, b]. For h > 0, let m(h) and M(h) denote the minimum and maximum
values of f on [x, x + h]. Since f is continuous, we have lim m(h) = lim M(h) = f (x). If h > 0, then
h→0+ h→0+
since m(h) ≤ f (x) ≤ M(h) on [x, x + h], we have
 x+h  x+h  x+h  x+h
hm(h) = m(h) dt ≤ f (t) dt = A(x + h) − A(x) = f (t) dt ≤ M(h) dt = hM(h).
x x x x

A(x + h) − A(x)
In other words, hm(h) ≤ A(x + h) − A(x) ≤ hM(h). Since h > 0, it follows that m(h) ≤ ≤
h
M(h). Letting h → 0+ yields
A(x + h) − A(x)
f (x) ≤ lim ≤ f (x),
h→0+ h
whence
A(x + h) − A(x)
lim = f (x)
h→0+ h
662 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

by the Squeeze Theorem. If h < 0, then

 x  x  x  x
−hm(h) = m(h) dt ≤ f (t) dt = A(x) − A(x + h) = f (t) dt ≤ M(h) dt = −hM(h).
x+h x+h x+h x+h

Since h < 0, we have −h > 0 and thus

A(x) − A(x + h)
m(h) ≤ ≤ M(h)
−h
or
A(x + h) − A(x)
m(h) ≤ ≤ M(h).
h
Letting h → 0− gives
A(x + h) − A(x)
f (x) ≤ lim ≤ f (x),
h→0− h
so that
A(x + h) − A(x)
lim = f (x)
h→0− h
by the Squeeze Theorem. Since the one-sided limits agree, we therefore have
A(x + h) − A(x)
A
(x) = lim = f (x).
h→0 h
 b
51. Proof of FTC I FTC I asserts that f (t) dt = F (b) − F (a) if F
(x) = f (x). Use FTC II to give a
a
x
new proof of FTC I as follows. Set A(x) = f (t) dt.
a
(a) Show that F (x) = A(x) + C for some constant.
 b
(b) Show that F (b) − F (a) = A(b) − A(a) = f (t) dt.
a
&x
solution Let F
(x)
= f (x) and A(x) = a f (t) dt.
(a) Then by the FTC, Part II, A
(x) = f (x) and thus A and F are both antiderivatives of f . Hence F (x) =
A(x) + C for some constant C.
(b)

F (b) − F (a) = (A(b) + C) − (A(a) + C) = A(b) − A(a)

 b  a  b  b
= f (t) dt − f (t) dt = f (t) dt − 0 = f (t) dt
a a a a

which proves the FTC, Part I.

 x
52. Can Every Antiderivative Be Expressed as an Integral? The area function A(x) = f (t) dt is an
a
antiderivative of f for every value of a. However, not all antiderivatives are obtained in this way. The general
antiderivative of f (x) = x is F (x) = 12 x 2 + C. Show that F is an area function if C ≤ 0 but not if C > 0.
&x
solution Let f (x) = x. The general antiderivative of f (x) is F (x) = 12 x 2 + C. Let A(x) = a f (t) dt =
&x 
1 2
x
a t dt = 2 t a = 2 x − 2 a be an area function of f (x) = x. To express F as an area function, we must
1 2 1 2
√
find a value for a such that 12 x 2 − 12 a 2 = 12 x 2 + C, whence a = ± −2C. If C ≤ 0, then −2C ≥ 0 and we
√ √
may choose either a = −2C or a = − −2C. However, if C > 0, then there is no real solution for a and
F cannot be expressed as an area function.
53. Prove the formula
 v(x)
d
f (t) dt = f (v(x))v
(x) − f (u(x))u
(x)
dx u(x)
 S E C T I O N 5.6 Net Change as the Integral of a Rate of Change 663

solution Write
 v(x)  0  v(x)  v(x)  u(x)
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx − f (x) dx.
u(x) u(x) 0 0 0

Then, by the Chain Rule and the FTC,

 v(x)  v(x)  u(x)
d d d
f (x) dx = f (x) dx − f (x) dx
dx u(x) dx 0 dx 0
= f (v(x))v
(x) − f (u(x))u
(x).

54. Use the result of Exercise 53 to calculate

 ex
d
sin t dt
dx ln x

solution By Exercise 53,

 ex
d 1
sin t dt = ex sin ex − sin ln x.
dx ln x x

5.6 Net Change as the Integral of a Rate of Change

Preliminary Questions
1. A hot metal object is submerged in cold water. The rate at which the object cools (in degrees per minute)
 T
is a function f (t) of time. Which quantity is represented by the integral f (t) dt?
0
&T
solution The definite integral 0 f (t) dt represents the total drop in temperature of the metal object in
the first T minutes after being submerged in the cold water.
2. A plane travels 560 km from Los Angeles to San Francisco in 1 hour (h). If the plane’s velocity at time t
 1
is v(t) km/h, what is the value of v(t) dt?
0
&1
solution The definite integral 0 v(t) dt represents the total distance traveled by the airplane during the
&1
one hour flight from Los Angeles to San Francisco. Therefore the value of 0 v(t) dt is 560 km.
3. Which of the following quantities would be naturally represented as derivatives and which as integrals?
(a) Velocity of a train
(b) Rainfall during a 6-month period
(c) Mileage per gallon of an automobile
(d) Increase in the U.S. population from 1990 to 2010
solution Quantities (a) and (c) involve rates of change, so these would naturally be represented as deriva-
tives. Quantities (b) and (d) involve an accumulation, so these would naturally be represented as integrals.

Exercises
1. Water flows into an empty reservoir at a rate of 3000 + 20t liters per hour (L/h; t is in hours). What is
the quantity of water in the reservoir after 5 h?
solution The quantity of water in the reservoir after five hours is
 5   5
(3000 + 20t) dt = 3000t + 10t 2  = 15,250 gallons.
0 0

2. A population of insects increases at a rate of 200 + 10t + 0.25t 2 insects per day (t in days). Find the
insect population after 3 days, assuming that there are 35 insects at t = 0.
solution The increase in the insect population over three days is
 3   
1 2 1 3 3 2589
200 + 10t + t dt = 200t + 5t + t  =
2
= 647.25.
0 4 12 0 4
Accordingly, the population after 3 days is 35 + 647.25 = 682.25 or 682 insects.
664 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

3. A survey shows that a mayoral candidate is gaining votes at a rate of 2000t + 1000 votes per day, where
t is the number of days since she announced her candidacy. How many supporters will the candidate have
after 60 days, assuming that she had no supporters at t = 0?
solution The number of supporters the candidate has after 60 days is
 60 60

(2000t + 1000) dt = (1000t + 1000t) = 3,660,000.
2
0 0

4. A factory produces bicycles at a rate of 95 + 3t 2 − t bicycles per week (t in weeks). How many bicycles
were produced from the beginning of week 2 to the end of week 3?
solution The rate of production is r(t) = 95 + 3t 2 − t bicycles per week and the period from the beginning
of week 2 to the end of week 3 corresponds to the second and third weeks of production. Accordingly, the
number of bikes produced from the beginning of week 2 to the end of week 3 is
 3  3   
1 2 3
r(t) dt = 95 + 3t − t dt = 95t + t − t  = 212 bicycles.
2 3
1 1 2 1

5. Find the displacement of a particle moving in a straight line with velocity v(t) = 4t − 3 m/s over the
time interval [2, 5].
solution The displacement is given by
 5 5

(4t − 3) dt = (2t − 3t) = (50 − 15) − (8 − 6) = 33 m.
2
2 2

6. Find the displacement over the time interval [1, 6] of a helicopter whose (vertical) velocity at time t is
v(t) = 0.02t 2 + t m/s.
solution Given v(t) = 50 t + t m/s, the change in height over [1, 6] is
1 2

 6  6   
1 2 1 3 1 2 6 284
v(t) dt = t + t dt = t + t  = ≈ 18.93 m.
1 1 50 150 2 1 15

7. A cat falls from a tree (with zero initial velocity) at time t = 0. How far does the cat fall between t = 0.5
and t = 1 s? Use Galileo’s formula v(t) = −9.8t m/s.
solution Given v(t) = −9.8t m/s, the total distance the cat falls during the interval [ 12 , 1] is
 1  1 1

|v(t)| dt = 9.8t dt = 4.9t 2  = 4.9 − 1.225 = 3.675 m.
1/2 1/2 1/2

8. A projectile is released with an initial (vertical) velocity of 100 m/s. Use the formula v(t) = 100 − 9.8t
for velocity to determine the distance traveled during the first 15 s.
solution The distance traveled is given by
 15  100/9.8  15
|100 − 9.8t| dt = (100 − 9.8t) dt + (9.8t − 100) dt
0 0 100/9.8
  100/9.8   15
= 100t − 4.9t   + 4.9t − 100t 
22
≈ 622.9 m.
0 100/9.8

In Exercises 9–12, a particle moves in a straight line with the given velocity (in meters per second). Find the
displacement and distance traveled over the time interval, and draw a motion diagram like Figure 3 (with
distance and time labels).
9. v(t) = 12 − 4t, [0, 5]
 5
5 
solution Displacement is given by (12 − 4t) dt = (12t − 2t ) = 10 ft, while total distance is given
2
0 0
by
   3 5
5 3 5  
|12 − 4t| dt = (12 − 4t) dt + (4t − 12) dt = (12t − 2t ) + (2t − 12t) = 26 ft.
 2 2
0 0 3 0 3
 S E C T I O N 5.6 Net Change as the Integral of a Rate of Change 665

The displacement diagram is given here.

t =5
t =3
t =0
Distance
0 10 18

10. v(t) = 36 − 24t + 3t 2 , [0, 10]

solution Let v(t) = 36 − 24t + 3t 2 = 3(t − 2)(t − 6). Displacement is given by
 10
10 
(36 − 24t + 3t ) dt = (36t − 12t + t ) = 160 m.
2 2 3
0 0

Total distance traveled is given by

 10  2  6  10
|36 − 24t + 3t | dt =
2
(36 − 24t + 3t ) dt +
2
(24t − 36 − 3t ) dt +
2
(36 − 24t + 3t 2 ) dt
0 0 2 6
2 10 10
  
 2 2 3 3  2 3 
= (36t − 12t + t ) + (12t − 36t − t ) + (36t − 12t + t )
0 0 6
= 224 m.

The displacement diagram is given here.

t = 10

t=6

t=2

Distance
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

11. v(t) = t −2 − 1, [0.5, 2]

 2
2 
solution Displacement is given by (t −2
− 1) dt = (−t −1
− t) = 0 m, while total distance is given
.5 .5
by
 2   1  2 1 2
 −2   
− = −2
− + − −2
= −1
−  + + −1 
t 1  dt (t 1) dt (1 t ) dt (−t t)  (t t )  = 1 m.
.5 .5 1 .5 1

The displacement diagram is given here.

t =2
t =1
t =0
Distance
0 0.5

12. v(t) = cos t, [0, 3π ]

 3π
3π 
solution Displacement is given by cos t dt = sin t  = 0 m, while the total distance traveled is
0 0
given by
 3π  π/2  3π/2  5π/2  3π
| cos t| dt = cos t dt − cos t dt + cos t dt − cos t , dt
0 0 π/2 3π/2 5π/2
π/2 3π/2 5π/2 3π
   
= sin t  − sin t  + sin t  − sin t 
0 π/2 3π/2 5π/2

= 6 m.
666 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

The displacement diagram is given here.

t = 3π
5π
t=
2
3π
t=
2
π
t=
2
Distance
−1.0 −0.5 0.5 1.0

13. Find the net change in velocity over [1, 4] of an object with a(t) = 8t − t 2 m/s2 .

solution The net change in velocity is

   
4 4 1 3 4
a(t) dt = (8t − t ) dt = 4t − t  = 39 m/s.
2 2
1 1 3 1

14. Show that if acceleration is constant, then the change in velocity is proportional to the length of the time
interval.

solution Let a(t) = a be the constant acceleration. Let v(t) be the velocity. Let [t1 , t2 ] be the time interval
concerned. We know that v
(t) = a, and, by FTC,
 t2
v(t2 ) − v(t1 ) = a dt = a(t2 − t1 ),
t1

So the net change in velocity is proportional to the length of the time interval with constant of proportionality
a.

15. The traffic flow rate past a certain point on a highway is q(t) = 3000 + 2000t − 300t 2 (t in hours), where
t = 0 is 8 am. How many cars pass by in the time interval from 8 to 10 am?

solution The number of cars is given by

 2  2  2 
q(t) dt = (3000 + 2000t − 300t ) dt = 3000t + 1000t − 100t 
2 2 3
0 0 0
= 3000(2) + 1000(4) − 100(8) = 9200 cars.

16. The marginal cost of producing x tablet computers is C

(x) = 120 − 0.06x + 0.00001x 2 What is the
cost of producing 3000 units if the set-up cost is $90,000? If production is set at 3000 units, what is the cost
of producing 200 additional units?

solution The production coot for producing 3000 units is

  3000
3000 1 
3 
(120 − 0.06x + 0.00001x ) dx = 2
120x − 0.03x + 0.00001x 
2
0 3 0
= 360,000 − 270,000 + 90,000 = 180,000

dollars. Adding in the setup cost, we find the total cost of producing 3000 units is $270,000. If production is
set at 3000 units, the cost of producing an additional 200 units is
  3200
3200 1 
3 
(120 − 0.06x + 0.00001x ) dx = 120x − 0.03x + 0.00001x 
2 2
3000 3 3000
= 384,000 − 307,200 + 109,226.67 − 180,000

or $6026.67.
 S E C T I O N 5.6 Net Change as the Integral of a Rate of Change 667

17. A small boutique produces wool sweaters at a marginal cost of 40 − 5 x/5 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 20, where x
is the greatest integer function. Find the cost of producing 20 sweaters. Then compute the average cost of the
first 10 sweaters and the last 10 sweaters.
solution The total cost of producing 20 sweaters is
 20  5  10  15  20
(40 − 5[[x/5]]) dx = 40 dx + 35 dx + 30 dx + 25 dx
0 0 5 10 15
= 40(5) + 35(5) + 30(5) + 25(5) = 650 dollars.

From this calculation, we see that the cost of the first 10 sweaters is $375 and the cost of the last ten sweaters
is $275; thus, the average cost of the first ten sweaters is $37.50 and the average cost of the last ten sweaters
is $27.50.
18. The rate (in liters per minute) at which water drains from a tank is recorded at half-minute intervals.
Compute the average of the left- and right-endpoint approximations to estimate the total amount of water
drained during the first 3 min.

t (min) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

r (liters/min) 50 48 46 44 42 40 38

solution Let t = 0.5. Then

RN = 0.5(48 + 46 + 44 + 42 + 40 + 38) = 129.0 liters

LN = 0.5(50 + 48 + 46 + 44 + 42 + 40) = 135.0 liters

The average of RN and LN is 12 (129 + 135) = 132 liters.

19. The velocity of a car is recorded at half-second intervals (in feet per second). Use the average of the left-
and right-endpoint approximations to estimate the total distance traveled during the first 4 s.

t 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

v(t) 0 12 20 29 38 44 32 35 30

solution Let t = 0.5. Then

RN = 0.5 · (12 + 20 + 29 + 38 + 44 + 32 + 35 + 30) = 120 ft.

LN = 0.5 · (0 + 12 + 20 + 29 + 38 + 44 + 32 + 35) = 105 ft.

The average of RN and LN is 112.5 ft.

20. To model the effects of a carbon tax on CO2 emissions, policymakers study the marginal cost of abatement
B(x), defined as the cost of increasing CO2 reduction from x to x + 1 tons (in units of ten thousand tons—
Figure 4). Which quantity is represented by the area under the curve over [0, 3] in Figure 4?

B(x) ($/ton)

100

75

50

25

x
1 2 3
Tons reduced (in ten thousands)
FIGURE 4 Marginal cost of abatement B(x).

solution The area under the curve over [0, 3] represents the total cost of reducing the amount of CO2
released into the atmosphere by 3 tons.
668 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

21. A megawatt of power is 106 W, or 3.6 × 109 joules/hour (J/h). Which quantity is represented by the area
under the graph in Figure 5? Estimate the energy (in joules) consumed during the period 4 pm to 8 pm.
Megawatts (in thousands)
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Hour of the day
FIGURE 5 Power consumption over 1-day period in California (February 2010).

solution The area under the graph in Figure 5 represents the total power consumption over one day in
California. Assuming t = 0 corresponds to midnight, the period 4 pm to 8 pm corresponds to t = 16 to t = 20.
The left and right endpoint approximations are
L = 1(22.8 + 23.5 + 26.1 + 26.7) = 99.1 megawatt · hours
R = 1(23.5 + 26.1 + 26.7 + 26.1) = 102.4 megawatt · hours
The average of these values is
100.75 megawatt · hours = 3.627 × 1011 joules.

22. Figure 6 shows the migration rate M(t) of Ireland in the period 1988–1998. This is the rate at
which people (in thousands per year) move into or out of the country.
(a) Is the following integral positive or negative? What does this quantity represent?
 1998
M(t) dt
1988

(b) Did migration in the period 1988–1998 result in a net influx of people into Ireland or a net outflow of
people from Ireland?
(c) During which two years could the Irish prime minister announce, “We’ve hit an inflection point. We are
still losing population, but the trend is now improving.”

M(t)
30
20
10
1994
0
1988 1990 1992 1996 1998 2000
−10
−20
−30
−40
−50

FIGURE 6 Irish migration rate (in thousands per year).

solution
(a) Because there appears to be more area below the t-axis than above in Figure 6,
 1998
M(t) dt
1988

is negative. This quantity represents the net migration from Ireland during the period 1988–1998.
(b) As noted in part (a), there appears to be more area below the t-axis than above in Figure 6, so migration
in the period 1988–1998 resulted in a net outflow of people from Ireland.
 S E C T I O N 5.6 Net Change as the Integral of a Rate of Change 669

(c) The prime minister can make this statement when the graph of M is at a local minimum, which appears
to be in the years 1989 and 1993.

23. Let N (d) be the number of asteroids of diameter ≤ d kilometers. Data suggest that the diameters are
distributed according to a piecewise power law:
'
1.9 × 109 d −2.3 for d < 70
N
(d) =
2.6 × 1012 d −4 for d ≥ 70

(a) Compute the number of asteroids with a diameter between 0.1 km and 100 km.
(b) Using the approximation N (d + 1) − N (d) ≈ N
(d), estimate the number of asteroids of diameter 50
km.
solution
(a) The number of asteroids with diameter between 0.1 and 100 km is
 100  70  100
N
(d) dd = 1.9 × 109 d −2.3 dd + 2.6 × 1012 d −4 dd
0.1 0.1 70
70 100
1.9 × 109 −1.3  2.6 × 1012 −3 
=− d  − d 
1.3 0.1 3 70

= 2.916 × 1010 + 1.66 × 106 ≈ 2.916 × 1010 .

(b) Taking d = 49.5,

N (50.5) − N (49.5) ≈ N
(49.5) = 1.9 × 109 49.5−2.3 = 240,525.79.

Thus, there are approximately 240,526 asteroids of diameter 50 km.

24. Heat Capacity The heat capacity C(T ) of a substance is the amount of energy (in joules) required to
raise the temperature of 1 g by 1◦ C at temperature T .
(a) Explain why the energy required to raise the temperature from T1 to T2 is the area under the graph of
C(T ) over [T1 , T2 ].
√
(b) How much energy is required to raise the temperature from 50◦ C to 100◦ C if C(T ) = 6 + 0.2 T ?
solution
(a) Since C(T ) is the energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree when
its temperature is T , the total energy required to raise the temperature from T1 to T2 is given by the definite
 T2
integral C(T ) dT . As C(T ) > 0, the definite integral also represents the area under the graph of C(T ).
T1
√
(b) If C(T ) = 6 + .2 T = 6 + 15 T 1/2 , then the energy required to raise the temperature from 50◦ C to
& 100
100◦ C is 50 C(T ) dT or
 100  1
  
2 3/2 100

2
 
2

6 + T 1/2 dT = 6T + T  = 6(100) + 15 (100)
3/2
− 6(50) + (50) 3/2
50 5 15 50 15
√
1300 − 100 2
= ≈ 386.19 joules
3

25. Figure 7 shows the rate R(t) of natural gas consumption (in billions of cubic feet per day) in the mid-
Atlantic states (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania). Express the total quantity of natural gas consumed in
2009 as an integral (with respect to time t in days). Then estimate this quantity, given the following monthly
values of R(t):

3.18, 2.86, 2.39, 1.49, 1.08, 0.80,

1.01, 0.89, 0.89, 1.20, 1.64, 2.52

Keep in mind that the number of days in a month varies with the month.
670 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Natural gas consumption (109ft3/day)

J F M A M J J A S O N D
FIGURE 7 Natural gas consumption in 2009 in the mid-Atlantic states.

solution The total quantity of natural gas consumed is given by

 365
R(t) dt.
0
With the given data, we find
 365
R(t) dt ≈ 31(3.18) + 28(2.86) + 31(2.39) + 30(1.49) + 31(1.08) + 30(0.80)
0
+31(1.01) + 31(0.89) + 30(0.89) + 31(1.20) + 30(1.64) + 31(2.52)
= 605.05 billion cubic feet.

26. Cardiac output is the rate R of volume of blood pumped by the heart per unit time (in liters per
minute). Doctors measure R by injecting A mg of dye into a vein leading into the heart at t = 0 and recording
the concentration c(t) of dye (in milligrams per liter) pumped out at short regular time intervals (Figure 8).
(a) Explain: The quantity of dye pumped out in a small time interval [t, t + t] is approximately Rc(t)t.
 T
(b) Show that A = R c(t) dt, where T is large enough that all of the dye is pumped through the heart
0
but not so large that the dye returns by recirculation.
(c) Assume A = 5 mg. Estimate R using the following values of c(t) recorded at 1-second intervals from
t = 0 to t = 10:
0, 0.4, 2.8, 6.5, 9.8, 8.9,
6.1, 4, 2.3, 1.1, 0

Measure
concentration
Inject dye here c(t) (mg/liter)
here

Blood flow
y = c(t)

t (s)

FIGURE 8

solution
(a) Over a short time interval, c(t) is nearly constant. Rc(t) is the rate of volume of dye (amount of fluid
× concentration of dye in fluid) flowing out of the heart (in mg per minute). Over the short time interval
[t, t + t], the rate of flow of dye is approximately constant at Rc(t) mg/minute. Therefore, the flow of dye
over the interval is approximately Rc(t)t mg.
(b) The rate of flow of dye is Rc(t). Therefore the net flow between time t = 0 and time t = T is
 T  T
Rc(t) dt = R c(t) dt.
0 0
If T is great enough that all of the dye is pumped through the heart, the net flow is equal to all of the dye, so
 T
A=R c(t) dt.
0
 S E C T I O N 5.6 Net Change as the Integral of a Rate of Change 671

 T
(c) In the table, t = 1
60 minute, and N = 10. The right and left hand approximations of c(t) dt are:
0

1 mg · minute
R10 = (0.4 + 2.8 + 6.5 + 9.8 + 8.9 + 6.1 + 4 + 2.3 + 1.1 + 0) = 0.6983
60 liter
1 mg · minute
L10 = (0 + 0.4 + 2.8 + 6.5 + 9.8 + 8.9 + 6.1 + 4 + 2.3 + 1.1) = 0.6983
60 liter
Both LN and RN are the same, so the average of LN and RN is 0.6983. Hence,
 T
A=R c(t)dt
0
 
mg · minute
5 mg = R 0.6983
liter
5 liters liters
R= = 7.16 .
0.6983 minute minute

Exercises 27 and 28: A study suggests that the extinction rate r(t) of marine animal families during the
Phanerozoic Eon can be modeled by the function r(t) = 3130/(t + 262) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 544, where t is time
elapsed (in millions of years) since the beginning of the eon 544 million years ago. Thus, t = 544 refers to
the present time, t = 540 is 4 million years ago, and so on.
27. Compute the average of RN and LN with N = 5 to estimate the total number of families that became
extinct in the periods 100 ≤ t ≤ 150 and 350 ≤ t ≤ 400.
solution
• (100 ≤ t ≤ 150) For N = 5,
150 − 100
t = = 10.
5
The table of values {r(ti )}i=0...5 is given below:

ti 100 110 120 130 140 150

r(ti ) 8.64641 8.41398 8.19372 7.98469 7.78607 7.59709

The endpoint approximations are:

RN = 10(8.41398 + 8.19372 + 7.98469 + 7.78607 + 7.59709) ≈ 399.756 families
LN = 10(8.64641 + 8.41398 + 8.19372 + 7.98469 + 7.78607) ≈ 410.249 families
The right endpoint approximation estimates 399.756 families became extinct in the period 100 ≤ t ≤
150, the left endpoint approximation estimates 410.249 families became extinct during this time. The
average of the two is 405.362 families.
• (350 ≤ t ≤ 400) For N = 5,
400 − 350
t = = 10.
5
The table of values {r(ti )}i=0...5 is given below:

ti 350 360 370 380 390 400

r(ti ) 5.11438 5.03215 4.95253 4.87539 4.80061 4.72810

The endpoint approximations are:

RN = 10(5.03215 + 4.95253 + 4.87539 + 4.80061 + 4.72810) ≈ 243.888 families
LN = 10(5.11438 + 5.03215 + 4.95253 + 4.87539 + 4.80061) ≈ 247.751 families
The right endpoint approximation estimates 243.888 families became extinct in the period 350 ≤ t ≤
400, the left endpoint approximation estimates 247.751 families became extinct during this time. The
average of the two is 245.820 families.
672 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

28. Estimate the total number of extinct families from t = 0 to the present, using MN with N = 544.
solution We are estimating
 544 3130
dt
0 (t + 262)
544 − 0
using MN with N = 544. If N = 544, t = = 1 and {ti∗ }i=1,...N = it − (t/2) = i − 12 .
544

N 
544
3130
MN = t r(ti∗ ) = 1 · = 3517.3021.
261.5 + i
i=1 i=1

Thus, we estimate that 3517 families have become extinct over the past 544 million years.

Further Insights and Challenges

29. Show that a particle, located at the origin at t = 1 and moving along the x-axis with velocity v(t) = t −2 ,
will never pass the point x = 2.
solution The particle’s velocity is v(t) = s
(t) = t −2 , an antiderivative for which is F (t) = −t −1 .
Hence, the particle’s position at time t is
 t t
 1
s(t) = s (u) du = F (u) = F (t) − F (1) = 1 − < 1

1 1 t
for all t ≥ 1. Thus, the particle will never pass x = 1, which implies it will never pass x = 2 either.
30. Show that a particle, located at the origin at t = 1 and moving along the x-axis with velocity v(t) = t −1/2 ,
moves arbitrarily far from the origin after sufficient time has elapsed.
solution The particle’s velocity is v(t) = s
(t) = t −1/2 , an antiderivative for which is F (t) = 2t 1/2 .
Hence, the particle’s position at time t is
 t t
 √
s(t) = s (u) du = F (u) = F (t) − F (1) = 2 t − 1

1 1

for all t ≥ 1. Let S > 0 denote an arbitrarily large distance from the origin. We see that for
 
S+1 2
t> ,
2
the particle will be more than S units from the origin. In other words, the particle moves arbitrarily far from
the origin after sufficient time has elapsed.
31. In a free market economy, the demand curve is the graph of the function D that represents the demand for
a specific product by the consumers in the economy at price q. It is not surprising that the curve is decreasing,
as the demand drops as the price goes up. The supply curve is the graph of the function S that represents the
supply of the product that the producers are willing to produce as a function of the price q. As the price goes
up, the producers are willing to produce more of the item, and therefore, this curve is increasing. The point
(p∗ , q ∗ ) at which the two curves cross is called the equilibrium point, where the supply and demand balance.
Tradition in economics is to make the horizontal axis the quantity q of the item and the vertical axis the price
p. We define p = S(q) to correspond to the supply curve and p = D(q) to correspond to the demand curve.
In other words, we have inverted the formula for these two functions from giving quantity in terms of price
to giving price in terms of quantity. The areas depicted in Figure 9 represent the excess supply and excess
demand.
(a) The consumer surplus represents the savings on the part of consumers if they pay price p ∗ rather than
the price greater than p∗ that many were willing to pay. Write down a formula for this consumer surplus. The
formula will include a definite integral and it will depend on p ∗ and q ∗ .
(b) The producer surplus represents the savings on the part of producers if they sell at price p ∗ rather than
the price less than p∗ that some producers were willing to accept. Write down a formula for this producer
surplus.
(c) A variety of coffee shops in a town sell mocha latte supreme coffees. If the supply curve is given by
p = 100 q
+ 1 and demand curve is given by p = q/100+1 10
, determine the equilibrium point (p ∗ , q ∗ ) and the
consumer surplus and producer surplus when the mocha latte supreme coffees are sold at price p ∗ .
 S E C T I O N 5.7 Substitution Method 673

Price p

p = S(q)

Consumer surplus

p*

p = D(q)
Producer surplus
Quantity q
q*
FIGURE 9 The supply and demand curves.

solution
(a) The consumer surplus is the area under the graph of the demand function from q = 0 to q = q ∗ minus
the area of the rectangle formed by the vertical and horizontal line segments through the equilibrium point
(p∗ , q ∗ ). Thus, a formula for consumer surplus is
 q∗
D(q) dq − p ∗ q ∗ .
0
(b) The producer surplus is the area of the rectangle formed by the vertical and horizontal line segments
through the equilibrium point (p ∗ , q ∗ ) minus the area under the graph of the supply function from q = 0 to
q = q ∗ . Thus, a formula for producer surplus is
 q∗
∗ ∗
p q − S(q) dq.
0
q
(c) Given S(q) = 100 + 1 and D(q) = 10
q/100+1 , equilibrium occurs when
q 10  q 2
+1= or + 1 = 10.
100 q/100 + 1 100
√ √
Thus, q ∗ = 100( 10 − 1) and p ∗ = 10. By part (a), the consumer surplus is
 q∗  100(√10−1) √ √
∗ ∗ 10
D(q) dq − p q = dq − 100 10( 10 − 1)
0 0 q/100 + 1
 q  100(√10−1) √
 
= 1000 ln  + 1  − 1000 + 100 10
100 0
√ √ √
= 1000 ln 10 − 1000 + 100 10 = 500 ln 10 − 1000 + 100 10.
Finally, by part (b), the producer surplus is
 q∗  √
√ √ 100( 10−1)  q 
p∗ q ∗ − S(q) dq = 100 10( 10 − 1) − + 1 dq
0 0 100
√

100( 10−1)
√ q2 
= 1000 − 100 10 − + q 
200 0
√ √ √
= 1000 − 100 10 − 50( 10 − 1) + 100( 10 − 1)
2
√ √
= 1000 − 100 10 − 450 = 550 − 100 10.

5.7 Substitution Method

Preliminary Questions
1. Which of the following integrals is a candidate for the Substitution Method?
 
4 5
(a) 5x sin(x ) dx (b) sin5 x cos x dx

(c) x 5 sin x dx
674 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

solution The function in (c): x 5 sin x is not of the form g(u(x))u

(x). The function in (a) meets the
prescribed pattern with g(u) = sin u and u(x) = x 5 . Similarly, the function in (b) meets the prescribed
pattern with g(u) = u5 and u(x) = sin x.
2. Find an appropriate choice of u for evaluating the following integrals by substitution:
 
(a) x(x 2 + 9)4 dx (b) x 2 sin(x 3 ) dx

(c) sin x cos2 x dx

solution
(a) x(x 2 + 9)4 = 12 (2x)(x 2 + 9)4 ; hence, c = 12 , f (u) = u4 , and u(x) = x 2 + 9.
(b) x 2 sin(x 3 ) = 13 (3x 2 ) sin(x 3 ); hence, c = 13 , f (u) = sin u, and u(x) = x 3 .
(c) sin x cos2 x = −(− sin x) cos2 x; hence, c = −1, f (u) = u2 , and u(x) = cos x.
 2
3. Which of the following is equal to x 2 (x 3 + 1) dx for a suitable substitution?
0
 2  9 
1 1 9
(a) u du (b) u du (c) u du
3 0 0 3 1
& 2 &
1 9
solution With the substitution u = x 3 + 1, the definite integral 0 x 2 (x 3 + 1) dx becomes 3 1 u du.
The correct answer is (c).

Exercises
In Exercises 1–6, calculate du.
1. u = x 3 − x 2
solution Let u = x 3 − x 2 . Then du = (3x 2 − 2x) dx.
2. u = 2x 4 + 8x −1
solution Let u = 2x 4 + 8x −1 . Then du = (8x 3 − 8x −2 ) dx.
3. u = cos(x 2 )
solution Let u = cos(x 2 ). Then du = − sin(x 2 ) · 2x dx = −2x sin(x 2 ) dx.
4. u = tan x
solution Let u = tan x. Then du = sec2 x dx.
5. u = e4x+1
solution Let u = e4x+1 . Then du = 4e4x+1 dx.
6. u = ln(x 4 + 1)
4x 3
solution Let u = ln(x 4 + 1). Then du = dx.
x4 + 1
In Exercises 7–24, write the integral in terms of u and du. Then evaluate.

7. (x − 7)3 dx, u = x − 7

solution Let u = x − 7. Then du = dx. Hence

 
1 1
(x − 7)3 dx = u3 du = u4 + C = (x − 7)4 + C.
4 4

8. (x + 25)−2 dx, u = x + 25

solution Let u = x + 25. Then du = dx and

 
1
(x + 25)−2 dx = u−2 du = −u−1 + C = − + C.
x + 25
 S E C T I O N 5.7 Substitution Method 675

9. (3t − 4)5 dt, u = 3t − 4

solution Let u = 3t − 4. Then du = 3 dt and

 
1 1 6 1
(3t − 4)5 dt = u5 du = u +C = (3t − 4)6 + C.
3 18 18


10. (2x + 7)3/2 dx, u = 2x + 7

solution Let u = 2x + 7. Then du = 2 dx and

 
1 1 5/2 1
(2x + 7) 3/2
dx = u3/2 du = u + C = (2x + 7)5/2 + C.
2 5 5

 
11. t t 2 + 1 dt, u = t 2 + 1

solution Let u = t 2 + 1. Then du = 2t dt. Hence,

  
1 1 1
t t + 1 dt =
2 u1/2 du = u3/2 + C = (t 2 + 1)3/2 + C.
2 3 3


12. (x 3 + 1) cos(x 4 + 4x) dx, u = x 4 + 4x

solution Let u = x 4 + 4x. Then du = (4x 3 + 4) dx = 4(x 3 + 1) dx and

 
1 1 1
(x 3 + 1) cos(x 4 + 4x) dx = cos u du = sin u + C = sin(x 4 + 4x) + C.
4 4 4


t3
13. dt, u = 4 − 2t 4
(4 − 2t 4 )11
solution Let u = 4 − 2t 4 . Then du = −8t 3 dt. Hence,
 
t3 1 1 −10 1
dt = − u−11 du = u +C = (4 − 2t 4 )−10 + C.
(4 − 2t )
4 11 8 80 80


√
14. 4x − 1 dx, u = 4x − 1

solution Let u = 4x − 1. Then du = 4 dx or 14 du = dx. Hence

   
√ 1 1 2 3/2 1
4u − 1 dx = u1/2 du = u + C = (4x − 1)3/2 + C.
4 4 3 6


15. x(x + 1)9 dx, u=x+1

solution Let u = x + 1. Then x = u − 1 and du = dx. Hence

  
x(x + 1)9 dx = (u − 1)u9 du = (u10 − u9 ) du

1 11 1 1 1
= u − u10 + C = (x + 1)11 − (x + 1)10 + C.
11 10 11 10
676 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

√
16. x 4x − 1 dx, u = 4x − 1

solution Let u = 4x − 1. Then x = 14 (u + 1) and du = 4 dx or 14 du = dx. Hence,

  
√ 1 1
x 4x − 1 dx = (u + 1)u1/2 du = (u3/2 + u1/2 ) du
16 16
   
1 2 5/2 1 2 3/2
= u + u +C
16 5 16 3
1 1
= (4x − 1)5/2 + (4x − 1)3/2 + C.
40 24

√
17. x 2 x + 1 dx, u=x+1

solution Let u = x + 1. Then x = u − 1 and du = dx. Hence

  
√
x 2 x + 1 dx = (u − 1)2 u1/2 du = (u5/2 − 2u3/2 + u1/2 ) du

2 7/2 4 5/2 2 3/2

= u − u + u +C
7 5 3
2 4 2
= (x + 1)7/2 − (x + 1)5/2 + (x + 1)3/2 + C.
7 5 3

18. sin(4θ − 7) dθ , u = 4θ − 7

solution Let u = 4θ − 7. Then du = 4 dθ and

 
1 1 1
sin(4θ − 7) dθ = sin u du = − cos u + C = − cos(4θ − 7) + C.
4 4 4

19. sin2 θ cos θ dθ , u = sin θ

solution Let u = sin θ . Then du = cos θ dθ . Hence,

 
1 1
sin2 θ cos θ dθ = u2 du = u3 + C = sin3 θ + C.
3 3

20. sec2 x tan x dx, u = tan x

solution Let u = tan x. Then du = sec2 x dx. Hence

 
1 1
sec2 x tan x dx = u du = u2 + C = tan2 x + C.
2 2

xe−x dx,
2
21. u = −x 2

solution Let u = −x 2 . Then du = −2x dx or − 21 du = x dx. Hence,

 
1 1 1
xe−x dx = − eu du = − eu + C = − e−x + C.
2 2

2 2 2

22. (sec2 t)etan t dt, u = tan t

solution Let u = tan t. Then du = sec2 t dt and

 
(sec2 t)etan t dt = eu du = eu + C = etan t + C.
 S E C T I O N 5.7 Substitution Method 677


(ln x)2 dx
23. , u = ln x
x
solution Let u = ln x. Then du = x1 dx, and
 
(ln x)2 1 1
dx = u2 du = u3 + C = (ln x)3 + C.
x 3 3

(tan−1 x)2 dx
24. , u = tan−1 x
x2 + 1
solution Let u = tan−1 x. Then du = 1
1+x 2
dx, and
 
(tan−1 x)2 1 3 1
dx = u2 du = u + C = (tan−1 x)3 + C.
x2 + 1 3 3

In Exercises 25–28, evaluate the integral in the form a sin(u(x)) + C for an appropriate choice of u(x) and
constant a.

25. x 3 cos(x 4 ) dx

solution Let u = x 4 . Then du = 4x 3 dx or 14 du = x 3 dx. Hence

 
1 1 1
x cos(x ) dx =
3 4
cos u du = sin u + C = sin(x 4 ) + C.
4 4 4

26. x 2 cos(x 3 + 1) dx

solution Let u = x 3 + 1. Then du = 3x 2 dx or 13 du = x 2 dx. Hence

 
1 1 1
x 2 cos(x 3 + 1) dx = cos u du = sin u + C = sin(x 3 + 1) + C.
3 3 3

27. x 1/2 cos(x 3/2 ) dx

solution Let u = x 3/2 . Then du = 32 x 1/2 dx or 23 du = x 1/2 dx. Hence

 
2 2 2
x cos(x ) dx =
1/2 3/2
cos u du = sin u + C = sin(x 3/2 ) + C.
3 3 3

28. cos x cos(sin x) dx

solution Let u = sin x. Then du = cos x dx. Hence

 
cos x cos(sin x) dx = cos u du = sin u + C = sin(sin x) + C.

In Exercises 29–74, evaluate the indefinite integral.


29. (4x + 5)9 dx

solution Let u = 4x + 5. Then du = 4 dx and

 
1 1 10 1
(4x + 5)9 dx = u9 du = u +C = (4x + 5)10 + C.
4 40 40

dx
30.
(x − 9)5
solution Let u = x − 9. Then du = dx and
 
dx 1 1
= u−5 du = − u−4 + C = − + C.
(x − 9)5 4 4(x − 9)4
678 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

dt
31. √
t + 12
solution Let u = t + 12. Then du = dt and
 
dt √
√ = u−1/2 du = 2u1/2 + C = 2 t + 12 + C.
t + 12

32. (9t + 2)2/3 dt

solution Let u = 9t + 2. Then du = 9 dt and

 
1 1 3 1
(9t + 2)2/3 dt = u2/3 du = · u5/3 + C = (9t + 2)5/3 + C.
9 9 5 15

x+1
33. dx
(x 2 + 2x)3
solution Let u = x 2 + 2x. Then du = (2x + 2) dx or 12 du = (x + 1) dx. Hence
   
x+1 1 1 1 1 −2 1 −1
dx = du = − u + C = − (x 2 + 2x)−2 + C = + C.
(x 2 + 2x)3 2 u3 2 2 4 4(x 2 + 2x)2

34. (x + 1)(x 2 + 2x)3/4 dx

solution Let u = x 2 + 2x. Then du = (2x + 2) dx = 2(x + 1) dx and

 
1 1 4
(x + 1)(x + 2x) dx =
2 3/4
u3/4 du = · u7/4 + C
2 2 7
2 2
= (x + 2x)7/4 + C.
7

x
35. √ dx
x2 + 9
solution Let u = x 2 + 9. Then du = 2x dx or 12 du = x dx. Hence
  √ 
x 1 1 1 u
√ dx = √ du = + C = x 2 + 9 + C.
x2 + 9 2 u 2 12

2x 2 + x
36. dx
(4x 3 + 3x 2 )2
solution Let u = 4x 3 + 3x 2 . Then du = (12x 2 + 6x) dx or 16 du = (2x 2 + x) dx. Hence
 
1 1 1
(4x 3 + 3x 2 )−2 (2x 2 + x) dx = u−2 du = − u−1 + C = − (4x 3 + 3x 2 )−1 + C.
6 6 6

37. (3x 2 + 1)(x 3 + x)2 dx

solution Let u = x 3 + x. Then du = (3x 2 + 1) dx. Hence

 
1 1
(3x 2 + 1)(x 3 + x)2 dx = u2 du = u3 + C = (x 3 + x)3 + C.
3 3

5x 4 + 2x
38. dx
(x 5 + x 2 )3
solution Let u = x 5 + x 2 . Then du = (5x 4 + 2x) dx. Hence
 
5x 4 + 2x 1 1 1 1 1
dx = du = − 2 + C = − + C.
(x + x )
5 2 3 u 3 2u 2 (x + x 2 )2
5
 S E C T I O N 5.7 Substitution Method 679

39. (3x + 8)11 dx

solution Let u = 3x + 8. Then du = 3 dx and

 
1 1 12 1
(3x + 8) dx =
11
u11 du = u +C = (3x + 8)12 + C.
3 36 36

40. x(3x + 8)11 dx

u−8
solution Let u = 3x + 8. Then du = 3 dx, x = , and
3
  
1 1
x(3x + 8) dx =
11
(u − 8)u du =
11
(u12 − 8u11 ) du
9 9
 
1 1 13 2 12
= u − u +C
9 13 3
1 2
= (3x + 8)13 − (3x + 8)12 + C.
117 27
 
41. x 2 x 3 + 1 dx

solution Let u = x 3 + 1. Then du = 3x 2 dx and

  
1 2 2
x 2 x 3 + 1 dx = u1/2 du = u3/2 + C = (x 3 + 1)3/2 + C.
3 9 9
 
42. x5 x 3 + 1 dx

solution Let u = x 3 + 1. Then du = 3x 2 dx, x 3 = u − 1 and

   
1 √ 1
x 5 x 3 + 1 dx = (u − 1) u du = (u3/2 − u1/2 ) du
3 3
 
1 2 5/2 2 3/2
= u − u +C
3 5 3
2 3 2
= (x + 1)5/2 − (x 3 + 1)3/2 + C.
15 9

dx
43.
(x + 5)3
solution Let u = x + 5. Then du = dx and
 
dx 1 1
= u−3 du = − u−2 + C = − (x + 5)−2 + C.
(x + 5)3 2 2

x 2 dx
44.
(x + 5)3
solution Let u = x + 5. Then du = dx, x = u − 5 and
  
x 2 dx (u − 5)2
= du = (u−1 − 10u−2 + 25u−3 ) du
(x + 5)3 u3
25 −2
= ln |u| + 10u−1 − u +C
2
10 25
= ln |x + 5| + − + C.
x + 5 2(x + 5)2
680 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

45. z2 (z3 + 1)12 dz

solution Let u = z3 + 1. Then du = 3z2 dz and

 
1 1 13 1 3
z2 (z3 + 1)12 dz = u12 du = u +C = (z + 1)13 + C.
3 39 39

46. (z5 + 4z2 )(z3 + 1)12 dz

solution Let u = z3 + 1. Then du = 3z2 dz, z3 = u − 1 and

  
1 1
(z5 + 4z2 )(z3 + 1)12 dz = (u + 3)u12 du = (u13 + 3u12 ) du
3 3
 
1 1 14 3 13
= u + u +C
3 14 13
1 3 1
= (z + 1)14 + (z3 + 1)13 + C.
42 13

47. (x + 2)(x + 1)1/4 dx

solution Let u = x + 1. Then x = u − 1, du = dx and

  
(x + 2)(x + 1) dx = (u + 1)u du = (u5/4 + u1/4 ) du
1/4 1/4

4 9/4 4 5/4
= u + u +C
9 5
4 4
= (x + 1)9/4 + (x + 1)5/4 + C.
9 5

48. x 3 (x 2 − 1)3/2 dx

solution Let u = x 2 − 1. Then u + 1 = x 2 and du = 2x dx or 1

2 du = x dx. Hence
 
x 3 (x 2 − 1)3/2 dx = x 2 · x(x 2 − 1)3/2 dx
 
1 1
= (u + 1)u du =
3/2
(u5/2 + u3/2 ) du
2 2
   
1 2 7/2 1 2 5/2 1 1
= u + u + C = (x 2 − 1)7/2 + (x 2 − 1)5/2 + C.
2 7 2 5 7 5

49. sin(8 − 3θ ) dθ

solution Let u = 8 − 3θ . Then du = −3 dθ and

 
1 1 1
sin(8 − 3θ ) dθ = − sin u du = cos u + C = cos(8 − 3θ ) + C.
3 3 3

50. θ sin(θ 2 ) dθ

solution Let u = θ 2 . Then du = 2θ dθ and

 
1 1 1
θ sin(θ 2 ) dθ = sin u du = − cos u + C = − cos(θ 2 ) + C.
2 2 2
 S E C T I O N 5.7 Substitution Method 681

 √
cos t
51. √ dt
t
√
solution Let u = t = t 1/2 . Then du = 12 t −1/2 dt and
 √ 
cos t √
√ dt = 2 cos u du = 2 sin u + C = 2 sin t + C.
t

52. x 2 sin(x 3 + 1) dx

solution Let u = x 3 + 1. Then du = 3x 2 dx or 13 du = x 2 dx. Hence

 
1 1 1
x 2 sin(x 3 + 1) dx = sin u du = − cos u + C = − cos(x 3 + 1) + C.
3 3 3

53. tan(4θ + 9) dθ

solution Let u = 4θ + 9. Then du = 4 dθ and

 
1 1 1
tan(4θ + 9) dθ = tan u du = ln | sec u| + C = ln | sec(4θ + 9)| + C.
4 4 4

54. sin8 θ cos θ dθ

solution Let u = sin θ . Then du = cos θ dθ and

 
1 1
sin θ cos θ dθ = u8 du = u9 + C = sin9 θ + C.
8
9 9

55. cot x dx

solution Let u = sin x. Then du = cos x dx, and

  
cos x du
cot x dx = dx = = ln |u| + C = ln | sin x| + C.
sin x u


56. x −1/5 tan x 4/5 dx

4 −1/5
solution Let u = x 4/5 . Then du = x dx and
5
 
5 5 5  

x −1/5 tan(x 4/5 ) dx = tan u du = ln|sec u| + C = ln sec(x 4/5 ) + C.
4 4 4

57. sec2 (4x + 9) dx

solution Let u = 4x + 9. Then du = 4 dx or 14 du = dx. Hence

 
1 1 1
sec2 (4x + 9) dx = sec2 u du = tan u + C = tan(4x + 9) + C.
4 4 4

58. sec2 x tan4 x dx

solution Let u = tan x. Then du = sec2 x dx. Hence

 
1 1
sec x tan x dx = u4 du = u5 + C = tan5 x + C.
2 4
5 5
682 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 √
sec2 ( x) dx
59. √
x
√
solution Let u = x. Then du = 1
√
2 x
dx or 2 du = √1
x
dx. Hence,
 √ 
sec2 ( x) dx √
√ = 2 sec2 u dx = 2 tan u + C = 2 tan( x) + C.
x

cos 2x
60. dx
(1 + sin 2x)2
solution Let u = 1 + sin 2x. Then du = 2 cos 2x or 12 du = cos 2x dx. Hence
 
1 1 1
(1 + sin 2x)−2 cos 2x dx = u−2 du = − u−1 + C = − (1 + sin 2x)−1 + C.
2 2 2

√
61. sin 4x cos 4x + 1 dx

solution Let u = cos 4x + 1. Then du = −4 sin 4x or − 14 du = sin 4x. Hence

   
√ 1 1 2 3/2 1
sin 4x cos 4x + 1 dx = − u1/2 du = − u + C = − (cos 4x + 1)3/2 + C.
4 4 3 6

62. cos x(3 sin x − 1) dx

solution Let u = 3 sin x − 1. Then du = 3 cos x dx or 13 du = cos x dx. Hence

   
1 1 1 2 1
(3 sin x − 1) cos x dx = u du = u + C = (3 sin x − 1)2 + C.
3 3 2 6

63. sec θ tan θ (sec θ − 1) dθ

solution Let u = sec θ − 1. Then du = sec θ tan θ dθ and

 
1 1
sec θ tan θ (sec θ − 1) dθ = u du = u2 + C = (sec θ − 1)2 + C.
2 2

64. cos t cos(sin t) dt

solution Let u = sin t. Then du = cos t dt and

 
cos t cos(sin t) dt = cos u du = sin u + C = sin(sin t) + C.


65. e14x−7 dx

solution Let u = 14x − 7. Then du = 14 dx or 14

1
du = dx. Hence,
 
1 1 u 1 14x−7
e14x−7 dx = eu du = e +C = e + C.
14 14 14

2 +2x
66. (x + 1)ex dx

solution Let u = x 2 + 2x. Then du = (2x + 2) dx or 12 du = (x + 1) dx. Hence,

 
x 2 +2x 1 1 1 2
(x + 1)e dx = eu du = eu + C = ex +2x + C.
2 2 2
 S E C T I O N 5.7 Substitution Method 683

ex dx
67.
(ex + 1)4
solution Let u = ex + 1. Then du = ex dx, and
 
ex 1 1
dx = u−4 du = − 3 + C = − x + C.
(ex + 1)4 3u 3(e + 1)3

68. (sec2 θ ) etan θ dθ

solution Let u = tan θ . Then du = sec2 θ dθ , and

 
2
(sec θ ) e tan θ
dθ = eu du = eu + C = etan θ + C.


et dt
69.
e2t + 2et + 1
solution Let u = et . Then du = et dt, and
  
et dt du du 1 1
= = =− +C =− t + C.
e + 2e + 1
2t t u + 2u + 1
2 (u + 1) 2 u+1 e +1

dx
70.
x(ln x)2
solution Let u = ln x. Then du = x1 dx, and
 
dx 1 1
= u−2 du = − + C = − + C.
x(ln x)2 u ln x

(ln x)4 dx
71.
x
solution Let u = ln x. Then du = x1 dx, and
 
(ln x)4 1 1
dx = u4 du = u5 + C = (ln x)5 + C.
x 5 5

dx
72.
x ln x
solution Let u = ln x. Then du = x1 dx, and
 
dx du
= = ln |u| + C = ln | ln x| + C.
x ln x u

tan(ln x)
73. dx
x
solution Let u = cos(ln x). Then du = − x1 sin(ln x) dx or −du = x1 sin(ln x) dx. Hence,
  
tan(ln x) sin(ln x) du
dx = dx = − = − ln |u| + C = − ln | cos(ln x)| + C.
x x cos(ln x) u

74. (cot x) ln(sin x) dx

solution Let u = ln(sin x). Then

1
du = cos x = cot x,
sin x
and
 
1 2 1
(cot x) ln(sin x) dx = u du = u + C = (ln(sin x))2 + C.
2 2
684 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

dx √
75. Evaluate √ 3 using u = 1 + x. Hint: Show that dx = 2(u − 1)du.
(1 + x)
√
solution Let u = 1 + x. Then
1 √
du = √ dx or dx = 2 x du = 2(u − 1) du.
2 x
Hence,
  
dx u−1
√ =2 du = 2 (u−2 − u−3 ) du
(1 + x)3 u3
2 1
= −2u−1 + u−2 + C = − √ + √ + C.
1+ x (1 + x)2

76. Can They Both Be Right? Hannah uses the substitution u = tan x and Akiva uses u = sec x to
&
evaluate tan x sec2 x dx. Show that they obtain different answers and explain the apparent contradiction.
solution With the substitution u = tan x, Hannah finds du = sec2 x dx and
 
1 1
tan x sec2 x dx = u du = u2 + C1 = tan2 x + C1 .
2 2
On the other hand, with the substitution u = sec x, Akiva finds du = sec x tan x dx and
 
1
tan x sec x dx =
2
sec x(tan x sec x) dx = sec2 x + C2
2
Hannah and Akiva have each found a correct antiderivative. To resolve what appears to be a contradiction,
recall that any two antiderivatives of a specified function differ by a constant. To show that this is true in their
case, note that
   
1 1 1
sec2 x + C2 − tan2 x + C1 = (sec2 x − tan2 x) + C2 − C1
2 2 2
1 1
= (1) + C2 − C1 = + C2 − C1 , a constant
2 2
Here we used the trigonometric identity tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x.
&
77. Evaluate sin x cos x dx using substitution in two different ways: first using u = sin x and then using
u = cos x. Reconcile the two different answers.
solution First, let u = sin x. Then du = cos x dx and
 
1 1
sin x cos x dx = u du = u2 + C1 = sin2 x + C1 .
2 2
Next, let u = cos x. Then du = − sin x dx or −du = sin x dx. Hence,
 
1 1
sin x cos x dx = − u du = − u2 + C2 = − cos2 x + C2 .
2 2
To reconcile these two seemingly different answers, recall that any two antiderivatives of a specified function
differ by a constant. To show that this is true here, note that ( 21 sin2 x + C1 ) − (− 21 cos2 x + C2 ) = 12 + C1 −
C2 , a constant. Here we used the trigonometric identity sin2 x + cos2 x = 1.
78. Some Choices Are Better Than Others Evaluate

sin x cos2 x dx

in two ways. First use u = sin x to show that

  
sin x cos x dx = u 1 − u2 du
2

and evaluate the integral on the right by a further substitution. Then show that u = cos x is a better choice.
 S E C T I O N 5.7 Substitution Method 685

& √
solution Consider the integral sin x cos2 x dx. If we let u = sin x, then cos x = 1 − u2 and du =
cos x dx. Hence
  
sin x cos x dx =
2
u 1 − u2 du.

Now let w = 1 − u2 . Then dw = −2u du or − 12 dw = u du. Therefore,

    
1 1 2 3/2
u 1 − u du = −
2 w dw = −
1/2
w +C
2 2 3
1 1
= − w 3/2 + C = − (1 − u2 )3/2 + C
3 3
1 1
= − (1 − sin2 x)3/2 + C = − cos3 x + C.
3 3
A better substitution choice is u = cos x. Then du = − sin x dx or −du = sin x dx. Hence
 
1 1
sin x cos2 x dx = − u2 du = − u3 + C = − cos3 x + C.
3 3
&π
79. What are the new limits of integration if we apply the substitution u = 3x + π to the integral 0 sin(3x +
π ) dx?
solution The new limits of integration are u(0) = 3 · 0 + π = π and u(π ) = 3π + π = 4π .
&8
80. Which of the following is the result of applying the substitution u = 4x − 9 to the integral 2 (4x −
9)20 dx?
 8 
20 1 8 20
(a) u du (b) u du
2 4 2
 23  23
1
(c) 4 u20 du (d) u20 du
−1 4 −1
solution Let u = 4x − 9. Then du = 4 dx or 14 du = dx. Furthermore, when x = 2, u = −1, and when
x = 8, u = 23. Hence
 8 
1 23 20
(4x − 9) dx =
20
u du.
2 4 −1
The answer is therefore (d).
In Exercises 81–96, use the Change of Variables Formula to evaluate the definite integral.
 3
81. (x + 2)3 dx
1
solution Let u = x + 2. Then du = dx. Hence
 3  5 
1 4 5 54 34
(x + 2) dx =
3
u du = u  =
3
− = 136.
1 3 4 3 4 4
 1
82. (3t − 1)2 dt
0
solution Let u = 3t − 1. Then du = 3 dt or 31 du = dt. Hence
 1  
1 2 2 1 2 1
(3t − 1)2 dt = u du = u3  = (23 − (−1)3 ) = 1.
0 3 −1 9 −1 9
 2 dx
83. √
0 2x + 5
solution Let u = 2x + 5. Then du = 2 dx or 12 du = dx. Hence
 2  9 √
dx 1 9 −1/2 
√ = u du = u1/2  = 3 − 5.
0 2x + 5 2 5 5
686 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 6√
84. x + 3 dx
1

solution Let u = x + 3. Then du = dx. Hence

 6√  
9√ 2 3/2 9 2 38
x + 3 dx = u du = u  = (27 − 8) = .
1 4 3 4 3 3

 1 x
85. dx
0 (x 2 + 1)3
solution Let u = x 2 + 1. Then du = 2x dx or 1
2 du = x dx. Hence
   
1 x 1 2 1 1 1 −2 2 1 1 3
dx = du = − u  = − 16 + 4 = 16 = 0.1875.
0 (x 2 + 1)3 2 1 u3 2 2 1

 2 √
86. 5x + 6 dx
−1

solution Let u = 5x + 6. Then du = 5 dx or 1

5 du = dx. Hence
   
2 √ 1 16 √ 1 2 3/2 16 2 42
5x + 6 dx = u du = u  = 15 (64 − 1) = 5 .
−1 5 1 5 3 1

 4 
87. x x 2 + 9 dx
0

solution Let u = x 2 + 9. Then du = 2x dx or 1

2 du = x dx. Hence
 4   
1 25 √ 1 2 3/2 25 1 98
x 2 + 9 dx = u du = u  = 3 (125 − 27) = 3 .
0 2 9 2 3 9

 2 4x + 12
88. dx
1 (x 2 + 6x + 1)2
solution Let u = x 2 + 6x + 1. Then du = (2x + 6) dx and
  
2 4x + 12 17 2 17
dx = 2 u−2 du = − 
1 (x + 6x + 1)2
2
8 u 8
2 1 9
=− + = .
17 4 68
 1
89. (x + 1)(x 2 + 2x)5 dx
0

solution Let u = x 2 + 2x. Then du = (2x + 2) dx = 2(x + 1) dx, and

  
1 1 3 1 6 3 729 243
(x + 1)(x + 2x) dx =
2 5
u du =
5
u  = = .
0 2 0 12 0 12 4

 17
90. (x − 9)−2/3 dx
10

solution Let u = x − 9. Then du = dx. Hence

  8
17
−2/3
8
−2/3

1/3 
(x − 9) dx = u dx = 3u  = 3 (2 − 1) = 3.
10 1 1
 S E C T I O N 5.7 Substitution Method 687
 e ln x
91. dx
1 x
solution Let u = ln x. Then du = 1
x dx, and
  
e ln x 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
dx = u du = u  = (1)2 − (0)2 = .
1 x 0 2 0 2 2 2

 √
e−1 x3
92. dx
0 x2 +1
solution Let u = x 2 + 1. Then du = 2x dx and x 2 = u − 1. Hence,
 √    
e−1 x3 1 u−1 e 1 e 1
dx = du = 1− du
0 x +1
2 2 1 u 2 1 u
e
1  1 1
= (u − ln |u|) = (e − ln e) − (1 − ln 1)
2 1 2 2
1
= (e − 2).
2
 1
93. θ tan(θ 2 ) dθ
0

solution Let u = cos θ 2 . Then du = −2θ sin θ 2 dθ or − 12 du = θ sin θ 2 dθ . Hence,

   cos 1
1 1 θ sin(θ 2 ) 1 cos 1 du 1  1 1
θ tan(θ 2 ) dθ = 2
dθ = − = − ln |u| = − [ln(cos 1) + ln 1] = ln(sec 1).
0 0 cos(θ ) 2 1 u 2 1 2 2
  π
π/6
94. sec2 2x − dx
0 6
π
solution Let u = 2x − . Then du = 2 dx and
6
 π/6   π/6
π 1 π/6 1 
sec2 2x − dx = sec2 u du = tan u
0 6 2 −π/6 2 −π/6
√ √  √
1 3 3 3
= + = .
2 3 3 3

 π/2
95. cos3 x sin x dx
0
solution Let u = cos x. Then du = − sin x dx. Hence
   
π/2 0 1 1 4 1 1 1
cos x sin x dx = −
3
u du =
3
u du = u  = − 0 = .
3
0 1 0 4 0 4 4
 π/2 x x
96. cot 2 csc2 dx
π/3 2 2
x 1 x
solution Let u = cot . Then du = − csc2 and
2 2 2
 π/2  1
2 x 2 x
cot csc dx = −2 √ u2 du
π/3 2 2 3

2 1 2 √
= − u3 √ = (3 3 − 1).
3 3 3
688 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 2  
97. Evaluate r 5 − 4 − r 2 dr.
0
√
solution Let u = 5 − 4 − r 2 . Then
r dr r dr
du = √ =
4 − r2 5−u
so that

r dr = (5 − u) du.

Hence, the integral becomes:

 2     5   
5√ 10 3/2 2 5/2 5
r 5 − 4 − r dr =
2 u(5 − u) du = 5u 1/2
−u 3/2
du = u − u 
0 3 3 3 5 3
   
50 √ √ √ 18 √ 20 √ 32 √
= 5 − 10 5 − 10 3 − 3 = 5− 3.
3 5 3 5

98. Find numbers a and b such that

 b  π/4
(u + 1) du =
2
sec4 θ dθ
a −π/4

and evaluate. Hint: Use the identity sec2 θ = tan2 θ + 1.

solution Let u = tan θ . Then u2 + 1 = tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ and du = sec2 θ dθ . Moreover, because
 π π
tan − = −1 and tan = 1,
4 4
it follows that a = −1 and b = 1. Thus,
 π/4   1
1 1 3  8
sec4 θ dθ = (u2 + 1) du = u + u  = .
−π/4 −1 3 −1 3

99. Wind engineers have found that wind speed v (in meters per second) at a given location follows a
Rayleigh distribution of the type
1 −v 2 /64
W (v) = ve
32
This means that at a given moment in time, the probability that v lies between a and b is equal to the shaded
area in Figure 4.
(a) Show that the probability that v ∈ [0, b] is 1 − e−b
2 /64
.
(b) Calculate the probability that v ∈ [2, 5].

y
00.1
y = W(v)

0.05

v (m/s)
a b 20
FIGURE 4 The shaded area is the probability that v lies between a and b.

solution
(a) The probability that v ∈ [0, b] is
 b 1 −v 2 /64
ve dv.
0 32
 S E C T I O N 5.7 Substitution Method 689

Let u = −v 2 /64. Then du = −v/32 dv and

  −b2 /64
b 1 −v 2 /64 −b2 /64 
eu du = −eu  = −e−b /64 + 1.
2
ve dv = −
0 32 0 0

(b) The probability that v ∈ [2, 5] is the probability that v ∈ [0, 5] minus the probability that v ∈ [0, 2]. By
part (a), the probability that v ∈ [2, 5] is
   
1 − e−25/64 − 1 − e−1/16 = e−1/16 − e−25/64 .

 π/2
100. Evaluate sinn x cos x dx for n ≥ 0.
0
solution Let u = sin x. Then du = cos x dx. Hence
  1
π/2 1 un+1  1
sin x cos x dx =
n
u du =
n
 = .
0 0 n+1 0 n+1

In Exercises 101–104, use substitution to evaluate the integral in terms of f (x).


101. f (x)3 f
(x) dx

solution Let u = f (x). Then du = f

(x) dx. Hence
 
1 1
f (x)3 f
(x) dx = u3 du = u4 + C = f (x)4 + C.
4 4

f
(x)
102. dx
f (x)2
solution Let u = f (x). Then du = f
(x) dx. Hence
 
f
(x) −1
dx = u−2 du = −u−1 + C = + C.
f (x)2 f (x)

f
(x)
103. dx
f (x)
solution Let u = f (x). Then du = f
(x) dx, and


f (x) 1
dx = du = ln |u| + C = ln |f (x)| + C.
f (x) u

104. f
(−x + 7) dx

solution Let u = −x + 7. Then du = −dx, and

 

f (−x + 7) dx = − f
(u) du = −f (u) + C = −f (−x + 7) + C.

 π/6  1/2 1
105. Show that f (sin θ ) dθ = du. f (u) √
0 1 − u2 0
solution Let u = sin θ . Then u(π/6) = 1/2 and u(0) = 0, as required. Furthermore, du = cos θ dθ, so
that
du
dθ = .
cos θ
√ √
If sin θ = u, then u2 + cos2 θ = 1, so that cos θ = 1 − u2 . Therefore dθ = du/ 1 − u2 . This gives
 π/6  1/2
1
f (sin θ ) dθ = f (u) √ du.
0 0 1 − u2
690 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Further Insights and Challenges

106. Use the substitution u = 1 + x 1/n to show that
  
1 + x 1/n dx = n u1/2 (u − 1)n−1 du

Evaluate for n = 2, 3.
 
solution Let u = 1 + x 1/n . Then x = (u − 1)n and dx = n(u − 1)n−1 du.Accordingly, 1 + x 1/n dx =

n u1/2 (u − 1)n−1 du.
For n = 2, we have
   
1 + x 1/2 dx = 2 u1/2 (u − 1)1 du = 2 (u3/2 − u1/2 ) du
 
2 5/2 2 3/2 4 4
=2 u − u + C = (1 + x 1/2 )5/2 − (1 + x 1/2 )3/2 + C.
5 3 5 3
For n = 3, we have
   
1 + x 1/3 dx = 3 u1/2 (u − 1)2 du = 3 (u5/2 − 2u3/2 + u1/2 ) du
   
2 7/2 2 2 3/2
=3 u − (2) u + u
5/2
+C
7 5 3
6 12
= (1 + x 1/3 )7/2 − (1 + x 1/3 )5/2 + 2(1 + x 1/3 )3/2 + C.
7 5
 π/2  π/2
dθ dθ
107. Evaluate I = . Hint: Use substitution to show that I is equal to J =
0 1 +tan6000 θ 0 1 + cot 6000 θ
π/2
and then check that I + J = dθ .
0
solution To evaluate
 π/2 dx
I= ,
0 1 + tan6000 x
we substitute t = π/2 − x. Then dt = −dx, x = π/2 − t, t (0) = π/2, and t (π/2) = 0. Hence,
 π/2  0  π/2
dx dt dt
I= = − = .
0 1 + tan 6000 x
π/2 1 + tan 6000 (π/2 − t)
0 1 + cot 6000 t

& π/2 dt
Let J = . We know I = J , so I + J = 2I . On the other hand, by the definition of I and
0
1 + cot 6000 (t)
J and the linearity of the integral,
 π/2  π/2  
dx dx 1 1
I +J = + = + dx
0 1 + tan6000 x 1 + cot 6000 x 0 1 + tan6000 x 1 + cot 6000 x
 π/2  
1 1
= + dx
0 1 + tan6000 x 1 + (1/ tan6000 x)
 π/2  
1 1
= + dx
0 1 + tan6000 x (tan6000 x + 1)/ tan6000 x
 π/2  
1 tan6000 x
= + dx
0 1 + tan6000 x 1 + tan6000 x
 π/2    π/2
1 + tan6000 x
= dx = 1 dx = π/2.
0 1 + tan6000 x 0

Hence, I + J = 2I = π/2, so I = π/4.

 S E C T I O N 5.7 Substitution Method 691
 a
108. Use substitution to prove that f (x) dx = 0 if f is an odd function.
−a
solution We assume that f is continuous. If f (x) is an odd function, then f (−x) = −f (x). Let u = −x.
Then x = −u and du = −dx or −du = dx. Accordingly,
 a  0  a  0  a
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx = − f (−u) du + f (x) dx
−a −a 0 a 0
a  a
= f (x) dx − f (u) du = 0.
0 0
 b  b/a
1 1
109. Prove that dx = dx for a, b > 0. Then show that the regions under the hyperbola over
a x 1 x
the intervals [1, 2], [2, 4], [4, 8], . . . all have the same area (Figure 5).
y

y = 1x

1
Equal area

1
1 2
4
1
8
x
1 2 4 8
FIGURE 5 The area under y = x1 over [2n , 2n+1 ] is the same for all n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

solution
(a) Let u = xa . Then au = x and du = a1 dx or a du = dx. Hence
 b  b/a  b/a
1 a 1
dx = du = du.
a x 1 au 1 u
 b/a  b/a
1 1
Note that du = dx after the substitution x = u.
u x
1 1
&2
(b) The area under the hyperbola over the interval [1, 2] is given by the definite integral 1 x1 dx. Denote this
definite integral by A. Using the result from part (a), we find the area under the hyperbola over the interval
[2, 4] is
 4  4/2  2
1 1 1
dx = dx = dx = A.
2 x 1 x 1 x
Similarly, the area under the hyperbola over the interval [4, 8] is
 8  8/4  2
1 1 1
dx = dx = dx = A.
4 x 1 x 1 x

In general, the area under the hyperbola over the interval [2n , 2n+1 ] is
 2n+1  2n+1 /2n  2
1 1 1
dx = dx = dx = A.
2n x 1 x 1 x

110. Show that the two regions in Figure 6 have the same area. Then use the identity cos2 u = 12 (1 + cos 2u)
to compute the second area.
y y

1 y= 1−x 2 1
y = cos 2 u

x u
1 1
(A) (B)
FIGURE 6
692 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

&1√
solution The area of the region in Figure 6(A) is given by 0 1 − x 2 dx. Let x = sin u. Then dx =
√ 
cos u du and 1 − x 2 = 1 − sin2 u = cos u. Hence,
 1  π/2  π/2
1 − x dx =
2 cos u · cos u du = cos2 u du.
0 0 0

This last integral represents the area of the region in Figure 6(B). The two regions in Figure 6 therefore have
the same area. & π/2
Let’s now focus on the definite integral 0 cos2 u du. Using the trigonometric identity cos2 u = 12 (1 +
cos 2u), we have
 π/2   π/2
1 π/2 1 1  1 π π
cos u du =
2
1 + cos 2u du = u + sin 2u  = · −0= .
0 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 4

111. Area of an Ellipse Prove the formula A = π ab for the area of the ellipse with equation (Figure 7)

x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2
Hint: Use a change of variables to show that A is equal to ab times the area of the unit circle.
y
b

−a a x

−b
x2 y2
FIGURE 7 Graph of
2
+ 2 = 1.
a b
2 2
solution Consider the ellipse with equation xa 2 + yb2 = 1; here a, b > 0. The area between the part of the
  
2 &a
ellipse in the upper half-plane, y = f (x) = b2 1 − xa 2 , and the x-axis is −a f (x) dx. By symmetry, the
part of the elliptical region in the lower half-plane has the same area. Accordingly, the area enclosed by the
ellipse is
 a  a    a
x2
2 f (x) dx = 2 b2 1 − 2 dx = 2b 1 − (x/a)2 dx
−a −a a −a

Now, let u = x/a. Then x = au and a du = dx. Accordingly,

 a  x 2  1 π 
2b 1− dx = 2ab 1 − u2 du = 2ab = π ab
−a a −1 2
&1 √
Here we recognized that −1 1 − u2 du represents the area of the upper unit semicircular disk, which by
Exercise 110 is 2( π4 ) = π2 .

5.8 Further Transcendental Functions

Preliminary Questions
 b dx
1. Find b such that is equal to
1 x
(a) ln 3. (b) 3.
solution For b > 0,
 b
b dx 
= ln |x| = ln b − ln 1 = ln b.
1 x 1
 S E C T I O N 5.8 Further Transcendental Functions 693

(a) For the value of the definite integral to equal ln 3, we must have b = 3.
(b) For the value of the definite integral to equal 3, we must have b = e3 .
 b
dx π
2. Find b such that = .
0 1 + x 2 3
solution In general,
 b b
dx −1 

= tan x  = tan−1 b − tan−1 0 = tan−1 b.
0 1+x
2
0
π
For the value of the definite integral to equal 3, we must have
π π √
tan−1 b = or b = tan = 3.
3 3
3. Which integral should be evaluated using substitution?
 
9 dx dx
(a) (b)
1+x 2 1 + 9x 2
solution Use the substitution u = 3x on the integral in (b).
√ √
4. Which relation between x and u yields 16 + x 2 = 4 1 + u2 ?
√ √
solution To transform 16 + x 2 into 4 1 + u2 , make the substitution x = 4u.

Exercises
In Exercises 1–10, evaluate the definite integral.
 9 dx
1.
1 x
 9
9 1 
solution dx = ln |x| = ln 9 − ln 1 = ln 9.
1 x 1
 20 dx
2.
4 x
 20
20 1 
solution dx = ln |x| = ln 20 − ln 4 = ln 5.
4 x 4
 e3
1
3. dt
1 t
 e 3
e3 1 
solution dt = ln |t| = ln e3 − ln 1 = 3.
1 t 1
 −e
1
4. dt
−e2 t
 −e
−e 1  e
solution dt = ln |t|  = ln | − e| − ln | − e2 | = ln 2 = ln(1/e) = −1.
−e2 t −e 2 e
 12
dt
5.
2 3t + 4
solution Let u = 3t + 4. Then du = 3 dt and
 12  40
dt 1 40 du 1  1 1
= = ln |u| = (ln 40 − ln 10) = ln 4.
2 3t + 4 3 10 u 3 10 3 3
 e3
dt
6.
e t ln t
solution Let u = ln t. Then du = (1/t)dt and
 e3  3 3
1 du 
dt = = ln |u| = ln 3 − ln 1 = ln 3.
e t ln t 1 u 1
694 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 √
3 dx
7.
1 x2 +1
 √3 √3
dx  √ π π π
solution = tan−1 x  = tan−1 ( 3) − tan−1 (1) = − = .
1 1+x 2
1 3 4 12
 7
x dx
8.
2 x +1
2

solution Let u = x 2 + 1. Then du = 2x dx and

 7  50
1 50 du 1 
x dx
= = ln |u|  = 1 (ln 50 − ln 5) = 1 ln 10.
x 2 + 1 2 u 2  2 2
2 5 5
 1/2
dx
9. √
0 1 − x2
 1/2 1/2
dx −1 
 1 π
solution √ = sin x  = sin−1 − sin−1 0 = .
0 1−x 2
0 2 6
 −2/√3
dx
10. √
−2 |x| x 2 − 1
 −2/√3 −2/√3  
dx −1 
 −1 2 5π 2π π
solution √ = sec x  = sec −√ − sec−1 (−2) = − = .
−2 |x| x − 1
2
−2 3 6 3 6
11. Use the substitution u = x/3 to prove

dx 1 x
= tan−1 + C
9 + x2 3 3
solution Let u = x/3. Then, x = 3u, dx = 3 du, 9 + x 2 = 9(1 + u2 ), and
  
dx 3 du 1 du 1 1 x
= = = tan−1 u + C = tan−1 + C.
9+x 2 9(1 + u )
2 3 1+u 2 3 3 3

dx
12. Use the substitution u = 2x to evaluate .
4x 2 + 1
solution Let u = 2x. Then, x = u/2, dx = 12 du, 4x 2 + 1 = u2 + 1, and
 
dx 1 du 1 1
= = tan−1 u + C = tan−1 2x + C.
4x 2 + 1 2 u2 + 1 2 2

In Exercises 13–32, calculate the integral.

 3
dx
13.
0 x +3
2
√ √
solution Let x = 3u. Then dx = 3 du and
  √ √3
3 dx 1 3 du 1  1 √ π
=√ = √ tan−1 u = √ (tan−1 3 − tan−1 0) = √ .
0 x +3
2
3 0 u +1
2
3 0 3 3 3
 4
dt
14.
0 +9 4t 2
solution Let t = (3/2)u. Then dt = (3/2) du, 4t 2 + 9 = 9u2 + 9 = 9(u2 + 1), and
 4  8/3
dt 1 8/3 du 1 
−1  1 8
= = tan u = tan−1 .
0 4t + 9 u +1
2 6 0 2 6 6 3
0

dt
15. √
1 − 16t 2
solution Let u = 4t. Then du = 4 dt, and
 
dt du 1 1
√ = √ = sin−1 u + C = sin−1 (4t) + C.
1 − 16t 2 4 1−u 2 4 4
 S E C T I O N 5.8 Further Transcendental Functions 695

 1/5 dx
16. √
4 − 25x 2
−1/5
solution Let x = 2u/5. Then
2
dx = du, 4 − 25x 2 = 4(1 − u2 ),
5
and
 1/5  1/2
dx 2 1
√ =  du
−1/5 4 − 25x 2 5 −1/2 4(1 − u2 )

1 −1 1/2
= sin u
5 −1/2
  
1 1 1 π
= sin−1 − sin−1 − = .
5 2 2 15

dt
17. √
5 − 3t 2
√ √
solution Let t = 5/3u. Then dt = 5/3 du and
  √  
dt 5/3 du 1 du 1 −1 1 −1 3
√ = √ √ =√ √ = √ sin u + C = √ sin t + C.
5 − 3t 2 5 1−t 2 3 1−u 2 3 3 5
 1/2 dx
18.  √ √
1/ 2 2 x 16x 2 − 1
solution Let x = u/4. Then dx = du/4, 16x 2 − 1 = u2 − 1 and
 1/2  2 2 √
dx du  π
√ √ = √ √ = sec−1 u√ = sec−1 2 − sec−1 2 = .
1/2 2 x 16x − 1
2 2 u u −1
2 2 12

dx
19. √
x 12x 2 − 3
solution Let u = 2x. Then du = 2 dx and
 
dx 1 du 1 1
√ =√ √ = √ sec−1 u + C = √ sec−1 (2x) + C.
x 12x − 3
2 3 u u2 − 1 3 3

x dx
20.
x4 + 1
solution Let u = x 2 . Then du = 2x dx and
 
x dx 1 du 1 1
= = tan−1 u + C = tan−1 x 2 + C.
x +1
4 2 u +1
2 2 2

dx
21. √
x x4 − 1
solution Let u = x 2 . Then du = 2x dx, and
 
dx du 1 1
√ = √ = sec−1 u + C = sec−1 x 2 + C.
x x −14 2u u2 − 1 2 2
 0
(x + 1) dx
22. √
−1/2 1 − x2
solution Observe that
  
(x + 1) dx x dx dx
√ = √ + √ .
1 − x2 1 − x2 1 − x2
696 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

In the first integral on the right, we let u = 1 − x 2 , du = −2x dx. Thus

   
(x + 1) dx 1 du 1 dx
√ =− 1/2
+ √ = − 1 − x 2 + sin−1 x + C.
1 − x2 2 u 1 − x2
Finally,
 0 √
0 (x + 1) dx   3 π
√ = (− 1 − x 2 + sin−1 x) = −1 + + .
−1/2 1−x 2
−1/2 2 6
 0 ex dx
23.
− ln 2 1 + e2x
solution Let u = ex . Then du = ex dx, and
  1
0 ex dx 1 du −1 
 π −1
= = tan u  = 4 − tan (1/2).
− ln 2 1 + e2x 1/2 1+u 2
1/2


ln(cos−1 x) dx
24. √
(cos−1 x) 1 − x 2
1 −1
solution Let u = ln cos−1 x. Then du = ·√ , and
cos−1 x 1 − x2
 
ln(cos−1 x) dx 1 1
√ =− u du = − u2 + C = − (ln cos−1 x)2 + C.
(cos−1 x) 1 − x 2 2 2

tan−1 x dx
25.
1 + x2
dx
solution Let u = tan−1 x. Then du = , and
1 + x2
 
tan−1 x dx 1 2 (tan−1 x)2
= u du = u + C = + C.
1 + x2 2 2
 √
3 dx
26.
1 (tan−1 x)(1 + x 2 )
dx
solution Let u = tan−1 x. Then du = , and
1 + x2
 
dx 1
−1
= du = ln |u| + C = ln | tan−1 x| + C.
(tan x)(1 + x )
2 u
 1
27. 3x dx
0
 
1 3x 1 1 2
solution 3 dx =
x
 = (3 − 1) = .
0 ln 3 0 ln 3 ln 3
 1
28. 3−x dx
0
solution Let u = −x. Then du = −dx and
    
1 −1 3u −1 1 1 2
3−x dx = − 3u du = − = − + 1 = .
0 0 ln 3 0 ln 3 3 3 ln 3
 log4 (3)
29. 4x dx
0
 
log4 (3) 4x log4 3 1 2 1
solution 4 dx =
x
= (3 − 1) = = .
0 ln 4 0 ln 4 ln 4 ln 2
 S E C T I O N 5.8 Further Transcendental Functions 697

 1 2
30. t 5t dt
0
solution Let u = t 2 . Then du = 2t dt and
 1  
2 1 1 u 5u 1 5 1 2
t5t dt = 5 du =  = 2 ln 5 − 2 ln 5 = ln 5 .
0 2 0 2 ln 5 0

31. 9x sin(9x ) dx

solution Let u = 9x . Then du = 9x ln 9 dx and

 
1 1 1
9x sin(9x ) dx = sin u du = − cos u + C = − cos(9x ) + C.
ln 9 ln 9 ln 9

dx
32. √
52x −1
solution First, rewrite
  
dx dx 5−x dx
√ = √ = √ .
52x − 1 5x 1 − 5−2x 1 − 5−2x
Now, let u = 5−x . Then du = −5−x ln 5 dx and
 
dx 1 du 1 1
√ =− √ =− sin−1 u + C = − sin−1 (5−x ) + C.
5 −1
2x ln 5 1−u 2 ln 5 ln 5

In Exercises 33–70, evaluate the integral using the methods covered in the text so far.

2
33. yey dy

solution Use the substitution u = y 2 , du = 2y dy. Then

 
2 1 1 1 2
yey dy = eu du = eu + C = ey + C.
2 2 2

dx
34.
3x + 5
solution Let u = 3x + 5. Then du = 3 dx and
 
dx 1 du 1 1
= = ln |u| + C = ln |3x + 5| + C.
3x + 5 3 u 3 3

x dx
35. √
4x 2 + 9
solution Let u = 4x 2 + 9. Then du = 8x dx and
 
x 1 1 1 2
√ dx = u−1/2 du = u1/2 + C = 4x + 9 + C.
4x 2 + 9 8 4 4

36. (x − x −2 )2 dx
 
1 1
solution (x − x −2 )2 dx = (x 2 − 2x −1 + x −4 ) dx = x 3 − 2 ln |x| − x −3 + C.
3 3

37. 7−x dx

solution Let u = −x. Then du = −dx and

 
7u 7−x
7−x dx = − 7u du = − +C =− + C.
ln 7 ln 7
698 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

38. e9−12t dt

solution Let u = 9 − 12t. Then du = −12 dt and

 
1 1 1
e 9−12t
dt = − eu du = − eu + C = − e9−12t + C.
12 12 12

39. sec2 θ tan7 θ dθ

solution Let u = tan θ . Then du = sec2 θ dθ and

 
1 1
sec2 θ tan7 θ dθ = u7 du = u8 + C = tan8 θ + C.
8 8

cos(ln t) dt
40.
t
solution Let u = ln t. Then du = dt/t and
 
cos(ln t) dt
= cos u du = sin u + C = sin(ln t) + C.
t

t dt
41. √
7 − t2
solution Let u = 7 − t 2 . Then du = −2t dt and
  
t dt 1
√ =− u−1/2 du = −u1/2 + C = − 7 − t 2 + C.
7 − t2 2

42. 2x e4x dx

solution First, note that

2x = ex ln 2 so 2x e4x = e(4+ln 2)x .

Thus,
 
1
x 4x
2 e dx = e(4+ln 2)x dx = e(4+ln 2)x + C.
4 + ln 2

(3x + 2) dx
43.
x2 + 4
solution Write
  
(3x + 2) dx 3x dx 2 dx
= + .
x2 + 4 x2 + 4 x2 + 4
In the first integral, let u = x 2 + 4. Then du = 2x dx and
 
3x dx 3 du 3 3
= − ln |u| + C1 = ln(x 2 + 4) + C1 .
x +4
2 2 u 2 2
For the second integral, let x = 2u. Then dx = 2 du and
 
2 dx du
= = tan−1 u + C2 = tan−1 (x/2) + C2 .
x2 + 4 u2 + 1
Combining these two results yields

(3x + 2) dx 3
= ln(x 2 + 4) + tan−1 (x/2) + C.
x +4
2 2
 S E C T I O N 5.8 Further Transcendental Functions 699

44. tan(4x + 1) dx
& & sin(4x+1)
solution First we rewrite tan(4x + 1) dx as cos(4x+1) dx. Let u = cos(4x + 1). Then du =
−4 sin(4x + 1) dx, and
 
sin(4x + 1) 1 du 1
dx = − = − ln | cos(4x + 1)| + C.
cos(4x + 1) 4 u 4

dx
45. √
1 − 16x 2
solution Let u = 4x. Then du = 4 dx and
 
dx 1 du 1 1
√ = √ = sin−1 u + C = sin−1 (4x) + C.
1 − 16x 2 4 1 − u2 4 4
 
46. et et + 1 dt

solution Use the substitution u = et + 1, du = et dt. Then

  
√ 2 2
et et + 1 dt = u du = u3/2 + C = (et + 1)3/2 + C.
3 3

47. (e−x − 4x) dx

solution First, observe that

   
(e−x − 4x) dx = e−x dx − 4x dx = e−x dx − 2x 2 .

In the remaining integral, use the substitution u = −x, du = −dx. Then

 
e−x dx = − eu du = −eu + C = −e−x + C.

Finally,

(e−x − 4x) dx = −e−x − 2x 2 + C.


48. (7 − e10x ) dx

solution First, observe that

   
(7 − e ) dx = 7 dx − e dx = 7x − e10x dx.
10x 10x

In the remaining integral, use the substitution u = 10x, du = 10 dx. Then

 
1 1 u 1 10x
e10x dx = eu du = e +C = e + C.
10 10 10
Finally,

1 10x
(7 − e10x ) dx = 7x − e + C.
10

e2x − e4x
49. dx
ex
solution
   
e2x − e4x e3x
dx = (ex − e3x ) dx = ex − + C.
ex 3
700 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

dx
50. √
x 25x 2 − 1
solution Let u = 5x. Then du = 5 dx and
 
dx du
√ = √ = sec−1 u + C = sec−1 (5x) + C.
x 25x 2 − 1 u u2 − 1

(x + 5) dx
51. √
4 − x2
solution Write
  
(x + 5) dx x dx 5 dx
√ = √ + √ .
4−x 2 4−x 2 4 − x2
In the first integral, let u = 4 − x 2 . Then du = −2x dx and
  
x dx 1
√ =− u−1/2 du = −u1/2 + C1 = − 4 − x 2 + C1 .
4 − x2 2
In the second integral, let x = 2u. Then dx = 2 du and
 
5 dx du
√ =5 √ = 5 sin−1 u + C2 = 5 sin−1 (x/2) + C2 .
4−x 2 1 − u2
Combining these two results yields
 
(x + 5) dx
√ = − 4 − x 2 + 5 sin−1 (x/2) + C.
4 − x2

√
52. (t + 1) t + 1 dt

solution Let u = t + 1. Then du = dt and

 
√ 2 2
(t + 1) t + 1 dt = u3/2 du = u5/2 + C = (t + 1)5/2 + C.
5 5

53. ex cos(ex ) dx

solution Use the substitution u = ex , du = ex dx. Then

 
e cos(e ) dx = cos u du = sin u + C = sin(ex ) + C.
x x


ex
54. √ dx
ex + 1
solution Use the substitution u = ex + 1, du = ex dx. Then
 
ex du √ √
√ dx = √ = 2 u + C = 2 ex + 1 + C.
ex + 1 u

dx
55. √
9 − 16x 2
solution First rewrite
 
dx 1 dx
√ =   2 .
9 − 16x 2 3
1 − 43 x

Now, let u = 43 x. Then du = 43 dx and

   
dx 1 du 1 −1 1 −1 4x
√ = √ = sin u + C = sin + C.
9 − 16x 2 4 1 − u2 4 4 3
 S E C T I O N 5.8 Further Transcendental Functions 701

dx
56.
(4x − 1) ln(8x − 2)
8 4
solution Let u = ln(8x − 2). Then du = dx = dx, and
8x − 2 4x − 1
 
dx 1 du 1 1
= = ln |u| + C = ln | ln(8x − 2)| + C.
(4x − 1) ln(8x − 2) 4 u 4 4

57. ex (e2x + 1)3 dx

solution Use the substitution u = ex , du = ex dx. Then

   3   
ex (e2x + 1)3 dx = u2 + 1 du = u6 + 3u4 + 3u2 + 1 du

1 7 3 5 1 3
= u + u + u3 + u + C = (ex )7 + (ex )5 + (ex )3 + ex + C
7 5 7 5
e7x 3e5x
= + + e3x + ex + C.
7 5

dx
58.
x(ln x)5
solution Let u = ln x. Then du = dx/x and
 
dx 1 1
5
= u−5 du = − u−4 + C = − + C.
x(ln x) 4 4(ln x)4

x 2 dx
59.
x3 + 2
solution Let u = x 3 + 2. Then du = 3x 2 dx, and
 
x 2 dx 1 du 1
= = ln |x 3 + 2| + C.
x +2
3 3 u 3

(3x − 1) dx
60.
9 − 2x + 3x 2
solution Let u = 9 − 2x + 3x 2 . Then du = (−2 + 6x) dx = 2(3x − 1) dx, and
 
(3x − 1)dx 1 du 1
= = ln(9 − 2x + 3x 2 ) + C.
9 − 2x + 3x 2 2 u 2

61. cot x dx
& &
solution We rewrite cot x dx as cos sin x dx. Let u = sin x. Then du = cos x dx, and
x

 
cos x du
dx = = ln | sin x| + C.
sin x u

cos x
62. dx
2 sin x + 3
solution Let u = 2 sin x + 3. Then du = 2 cos x dx, and
 
cos x 1 du 1
dx = = ln(2 sin x + 3) + C,
2 sin x + 3 2 u 2
where we have used the fact that 2 sin x + 3 ≥ 1 to drop the absolute value.

4 ln x + 5
63. dx
x
solution Let u = 4 ln x + 5. Then du = (4/x)dx, and
 
4 ln x + 5 1 1 1
dx = u du = u2 + C = (4 ln x + 5)2 + C.
x 4 8 8
702 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

64. (sec θ tan θ )5sec θ dθ

solution Let u = sec θ . Then du = sec θ tan θ dθ and

 
5u 5sec θ
(sec θ tan θ )5sec θ dθ = 5u du = +C = + C.
ln 5 ln 5

2
65. x3x dx

solution Let u = x 2 . Then du = 2x dx, and

  2
x2 1 1 3u 3x
x3 dx = 3 du =
u
+C = + C.
2 2 ln 3 2 ln 3

ln(ln x)
66. dx
x ln x
1 1
solution Let u = ln(ln x). Then du = · dx and
ln x x
 
ln(ln x) u2 (ln(ln x))2
dx = u du = +C = + C.
x ln x 2 2

67. cot x ln(sin x) dx

solution Let u = ln(sin x). Then

1
du = · cos x dx = cot x dx,
sin x
and
 
u2 (ln(sin x))2
cot x ln(sin x) dx = u du = +C = + C.
2 2

t dt
68. √
1 − t4
solution Let u = t 2 . Then du = 2t dt and
 
t dt 1 du 1 1
√ = √ = sin−1 u + C = sin−1 t 2 + C.
1−t 4 2 1−u 2 2 2

√
69. t 2 t − 3 dt

solution Let u = t − 3. Then t = u + 3, du = dt and

 
√ √
t 2 t − 3 dt = (u + 3)2 u du
 
√
= (u2 + 6u + 9) u du = (u5/2 + 6u3/2 + 9u1/2 ) du

2 7/2 12 5/2
= u + u + 6u3/2 + C
7 5
2 12
= (t − 3)7/2 + (t − 3)5/2 + 6(t − 3)3/2 + C.
7 5

70. cos x5−2 sin x dx

solution Let u = −2 sin x. Then du = −2 cos x dx and

 
1 5u 5−2 sin x
cos x5−2 sin x dx = − 5u du = − +C =− + C.
2 2 ln 5 2 ln 5
 S E C T I O N 5.8 Further Transcendental Functions 703

71. Use Figure 4 to prove

 
x 1  1
1 − t 2 dt = x 1 − x 2 + sin−1 x
0 2 2

x
x 1

FIGURE 4
 x 
solution The definite integral 1 − t 2 dt represents the area of the region under the upper half of the
0
unit circle from 0 to x. The region consists of a sector of the circle and a right triangle. The sector has a central
angle of π2 − θ , where cos θ = x. Hence, the sector has an area of
1 2 π  1
(1) − cos−1 x = sin−1 x.
2 2 2
√ √
The right triangle has a base of length x, a height of 1 − x 2 , and hence an area of 12 x 1 − x 2 . Thus,
 x
1  1
1 − t 2 dt = x 1 − x 2 + sin−1 x.
0 2 2

72. Use the substitution u = tan x to evaluate


dx
1 + sin2 x
Hint: Show that
dx du
=
1 + sin x2 1 + 2u2

solution If u = tan x, then du = sec2 x dx and

du sec2 x dx dx dx dx
= = = = .
1 + 2u 2 1 + 2 tan x
2
cos x + 2 sin x
2 2
cos x + sin x + sin x
2 2 2
1 + sin2 x
Thus
   √ √
dx du du 1 1
= = √ = √ tan−1 ( 2u) + C = √ tan−1 ((tan x) 2) + C.
1 + sin x
2 1 + 2u2 1 + ( 2u)2 2 2

73. Prove
 
sin−1 t dt = 1 − t 2 + t sin−1 t
√
solution Let G(t) = 1 − t 2 + t sin−1 t. Then
 
d d   −t d
G
(t) =
1 − t2 + t sin−1 t = √ + t· sin−1 t + sin−1 t
dt dt 1 − t2 dt
 
−t t
=√ + √ + sin−1 t = sin−1 t.
1−t 2 1 − t2
 
This proves the formula sin−1 t dt = 1 − t 2 + t sin−1 t.
704 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

74. (a) Verify for r  = 0:

 T erT (rT − 1) + 1
tert dt = 6
0 r2
Hint: For fixed r, let F (T ) be the value of the integral on the left. By FTC II, F
(t) = tert and F (0) = 0.
Show that the same is true of the function on the right.
(b) Use L’Hôpital’s Rule to show that for fixed T , the limit as r → 0 of the right-hand side of Eq. (6) is equal
to the value of the integral for r = 0.
solution
(a) Let
ert 1
f (t) = 2
(rt − 1) + 2 .
r r
Then
1  rt
f
(t) = 2
e r + (rt − 1)(rert ) = tert
r
and
1 1
f (0) = − + 2 = 0,
r2 r
as required.
(b) Using L’Hôpital’s Rule,
erT (rT − 1) + 1 T erT + (rT − 1)(T erT ) rT 2 erT T 2 erT T2
lim = lim = lim = lim = .
r→0 r2 r→0 2r r→0 2r r→0 2 2
 T  T 
t 2 T T2
If r = 0 then, tert dt = t dt =  = .
0 0 2 0 2

Further Insights and Challenges

75. Recall that if f (t) ≥ g(t) for t ≥ 0, then for all x ≥ 0,
 x  x
f (t) dt ≥ g(t) dt 7
0 0

The inequality et ≥ 1 holds for t ≥ 0 because e > 1. Use (7) to prove that ex ≥ 1 + x for x ≥ 0. Then prove,
by successive integration, the following inequalities (for x ≥ 0):
1 1 1
ex ≥ 1 + x + x 2 , ex ≥ 1 + x + x 2 + x 3
2 2 6
solution Integrating both sides of the inequality et ≥ 1 yields
 x
et dt = ex − 1 ≥ x or ex ≥ 1 + x.
0

Integrating both sides of this new inequality then gives

 x
et dt = ex − 1 ≥ x + x 2 /2 or ex ≥ 1 + x + x 2 /2.
0

Finally, integrating both sides again gives

 x
et dt = ex − 1 ≥ x + x 2 /2 + x 3 /6 or ex ≥ 1 + x + x 2 /2 + x 3 /6
0

as requested.
76. Generalize Exercise 75; that is, use induction (if you are familiar with this method of proof) to prove that
for all n ≥ 0,
1 1 1
ex ≥ 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + x n (x ≥ 0)
2 6 n!
 S E C T I O N 5.8 Further Transcendental Functions 705

solution For n = 1, ex ≥ 1 + x by Exercise 75. Assume the statement is true for n = k. We need to
prove the statement is true for n = k + 1. By the Induction Hypothesis,
ex ≥ 1 + x + x 2 /2 + · · · + x k /k!.
Integrating both sides of this inequality yields
 x
et dt = ex − 1 ≥ x + x 2 /2 + · · · + x k+1 /(k + 1)!
0
or
ex ≥ 1 + x + x 2 /2 + · · · + x k+1 /(k + 1)!
as required.
77. Use Exercise 75 to show that ex /x 2 ≥ x/6 and conclude that lim ex /x 2 = ∞. Then use Exercise 76 to
x→∞
prove more generally that lim ex /x n = ∞ for all n.
x→∞
x2 x3
solution By Exercise 75, ex ≥ 1 + x + 2 + 6 . Thus
ex 1 1 1 x x
≥ 2+ + + ≥ .
x2 x x 2 6 6
Since lim x/6 = ∞, lim ex /x 2 = ∞. More generally, by Exercise 76,
x→∞ x→∞

x2 x n+1
ex ≥ 1 + + ··· + .
2 (n + 1)!
Thus
ex 1 x x
≥ n + ··· + ≥ .
x n x (n + 1)! (n + 1)!
ex
Since lim x
= ∞, lim n = ∞.
x→∞ (n+1)! x→∞ x

Exercises 78–80 develop an elegant approach to the exponential and logarithm functions. Define a function
G(x) for x > 0:
 x
1
G(x) = dt
1 t

78. Defining ln x as an Integral This exercise proceeds as if we didn’t know that G(x) = ln x and shows
directly that G has all the basic properties of the logarithm. Prove the following statements:
 ab  b
1 1
(a) dt = dt for all a, b > 0. Hint: Use the substitution u = t/a.
a t 1 t
(b) G(ab) = G(a) + G(b). Hint: Break up the integral from 1 to ab into two integrals and use (a).
(c) G(1) = 0 and G(a −1 ) = −G(a) for a > 0.
(d) G(a n ) = nG(a) for all a > 0 and integers n.
1
(e) G(a 1/n ) = G(a) for all a > 0 and integers n  = 0.
n
(f) G(a r ) = rG(a) for all a > 0 and rational numbers r.
(g) G is increasing. Hint: Use FTC II.
(h) There exists a number a such that G(a) > 1. Hint: Show that G(2) > 0 and take a = 2m for m > 1/G(2).
(i) lim G(x) = ∞ and lim G(x) = −∞.
x→∞ x→0+
(j) There exists a unique number E such that G(E) = 1.
(k) G(E r ) = r for every rational number r.
solution
(a) Let u = t/a. Then du = dt/a, u(a) = 1, u(ab) = b and
 ab  ab  b  b
1 a 1 1
dt = dt = du = dt.
a t a at 1 u 1 t
706 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

(b) Using part (a),

 ab  a  ab  a  b
1 1 1 1 1
G(ab) = dt = dt + dt = dt + dt = G(a) + G(b).
1 t 1 t a t 1 t 1 t
(c) First,
 1 1
G(1) = dt = 0.
1 t
Next,
   1/a  1
−1 1 1 1 1
G(a )=G = dt = dt by part (a) with b =
a 1 t a t a
 a
1
=− dt = −G(a).
1 t

(d) Using part (a),

 an  a  a2  an
1 1 1 1
G(a ) = n
dt = dt + dt + · · · + dt
1 t 1 t a t a n−1 t
 a  a  a
1 1 1
= dt + dt + · · · + dt = nG(a).
1 t 1 t 1 t

1
(e) G(a) = G((a 1/n )n = nG(a 1/n ). Thus, G(a 1/n ) = G(a).
n
(f) Let r = m/n where m and n are integers. Then

G(a r ) = G(a m/n ) = G((a m )1/n )

1
= G(a m ) by part (e)
n
m
= G(a) by part d
n
= rG(a).

(g) By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, G(x) is continuous on (0, ∞) and G

(x) = 1
x > 0 for x > 0.
Thus, G(x) is increasing and one-to-one for x > 0.
(h) First note that
 2
1 1
G(2) = dt > > 0
1 t 2
1 1
because > for t ∈ (1, 2). Now, let a = 2m for m an integer greater than 1/G(2). Then
t 2
1
G(a) = G(2m ) = mG(2) > · G(2) = 1.
G(2)
(i) First, let a be the value from part (h) for which G(a) > 1 (note that a itself is greater than 1). Now,

lim G(x) = lim G(a m ) = G(a) lim m = ∞.

x→∞ m→∞ m→∞

For the other limit, let t = 1/x and note

 
1
lim G(x) = lim G = − lim G(t) = −∞.
x→0+ t→∞ t t→∞

(j) By part (c), G(1) = 0 and by part (h) there exists an a such that G(a) > 1. the Intermediate Value
Theorem then guarantees there exists a number E such that 1 < E < a and G(E) = 1. We know that E is
unique because G is one-to-one.
(k) Using part (f) and then part (j),

G(E r ) = rG(E) = r · 1 = r.
 S E C T I O N 5.8 Further Transcendental Functions 707

79. Defining ex Use Exercise 78 to prove the following statements:

(a) G has an inverse with domain R and range {x : x > 0}. Denote the inverse by F .
(b) F (x + y) = F (x)F (y) for all x, y. Hint: It suffices to show that G(F (x)F (y)) = G(F (x + y)).
(c) F (r) = E r for all numbers. In particular, F (0) = 1.
(d) F
(x) = F (x). Hint: Use the formula for the derivative of an inverse function that appears in Exercise 28
of the Chapter 3 Review Exercises.
This shows that E = e and F (x) = ex as defined in the text.
solution
(a) The domain of G(x) is x > 0 and, by part (i) of the previous exercise, the range of G(x) is R. Now,
1
G
(x) = >0
x
for all x > 0. Thus, G(x) is increasing on its domain, which implies that G(x) has an inverse. The domain of
the inverse is R and the range is {x : x > 0}. Let F (x) denote the inverse of G(x).
(b) Let x and y be real numbers and suppose that x = G(w) and y = G(z) for some positive real numbers
w and z. Then, using part (b) of the previous exercise

F (x + y) = F (G(w) + G(z)) = F (G(wz)) = wz = F (x) + F (y).

(c) Let r be any real number. By part (k) of the previous exercise, G(E r ) = r. By definition of an inverse
function, it then follows that F (r) = E r .
(d) By the formula for the derivative of an inverse function
1 1
F
(x) = = = F (x).
G
(F (x)) 1/F (x)

80. Defining bx Let b > 0 and let f (x) = F (xG(b)) with F as in Exercise 79. Use Exercise 78 (f) to
prove that f (r) = br for every rational number r. This gives us a way of defining bx for irrational x, namely
bx = f (x). With this definition, y = bx is a differentiable function of x (because F is differentiable).
solution By Exercise 78 (f),

f (r) = F (rG(b)) = F (G(br )) = br ,

for every rational number r.


x n+1
81. The formula x n dx = + C is valid for n  = −1. Show that the exceptional case n = −1 is a
n+1
limit of the general case by applying L’Hôpital’s Rule to the limit on the left:
 x  x
lim t n dt = t −1 dt (for fixed x > 0)
n→−1 1 1

−1
x n+1
Note that the integral on the left is equal to .
n+1
solution
 x  n+1 
x t n+1  x 1n+1
lim t dt = lim
n
= lim −
n→−1 1 n→−1 n + 1 1 n→−1 n + 1 n+1

x n+1 − 1 x
= lim = lim (x n+1 ) ln x = ln x = t −1 dt
n→−1 n + 1 n→−1 1

Note that when using L’Hôpital’s Rule in the second line, we need to differentiate with respect to n.
x n+1 − 1
82. The integral inside the limit on the left in Exercise 81 is equal to fn (x) = for x  = −1.
n+1
Investigate the limit graphically by plotting y = fn (x) for n = 0, −0.3, −0.6, and −0.9 together with
y = ln x on a single plot.
708 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

solution
y
n = −0.3
n=0 n = −0.6
2 n = −0.9
y = ln x
1

x
1 2 3 4 5
−1

 ln a
83. (a) Explain why the shaded region in Figure 5 has area ey dy.
0
 a  ln a
(b) Prove the formula ln x dx = a ln a − ey dy.
 a 1 0

(c) Conclude that ln x dx = a ln a − a + 1.

1
(d) Use the result of (a) to find an antiderivative of y = ln x.
y
y = ln x

ln a

x
1 a

FIGURE 5

solution
(a) Interpreting the graph with y as the independent variable, we see that the function is x = ey . Integrating
& ln a
in y then gives the area of the shaded region as 0 ey dy
(b) We can obtain the area under the graph of y = ln x from x = 1 to x = a by computing the area of
the rectangle extending from x = 0 to x = a horizontally and from y = 0 to y = ln a vertically and then
subtracting the area of the shaded region. This yields
 a  ln a
ln x dx = a ln a − ey dy.
1 0

(c) By direct calculation

 ln a
ln a 
ey dy = ey  = a − 1.
0 0

Thus,
 a
ln x dx = a ln a − (a − 1) = a ln a − a + 1.
1

(d) Based on these results it appears that


ln x dx = x ln x − x + C.

5.9 Exponential Growth and Decay

Preliminary Questions
1. Two quantities increase exponentially with growth constants k = 1.2 and k = 3.4, respectively. Which
quantity doubles more rapidly?
 S E C T I O N 5.9 Exponential Growth and Decay 709

solution Doubling time is inversely proportional to the growth constant. Consequently, the quantity with
k = 3.4 doubles more rapidly.

2. A cell population grows exponentially beginning with one cell. Which takes longer: increasing from one
to two cells or increasing from 15 million to 20 million cells?

solution It takes longer for the population to increase from one cell to two cells, because this requires
doubling the population. Increasing from 15 million to 20 million is less than doubling the population.

3. Referring to his popular book A Brief History of Time, the renowned physicist Stephen Hawking said,
“Someone told me that each equation I included in the book would halve its sales.” Find a differential equation
satisfied by S(n), the number of copies sold if the book has n equations.

solution Let S(0) denote the sales with no equations in the book. Translating Hawking’s observation into
an equation yields

S(0)
S(n) = .
2n

Differentiating with respect to n then yields

dS d
= S(0) 2−n = − ln 2S(0)2−n = − ln 2S(n).
dn dn

4. The PV of N dollars received at time T is (choose the correct answer):

(a) The value at time T of N dollars invested today
(b) The amount you would have to invest today in order to receive N dollars at time T

solution The correct response is (b): the PV of N dollars received at time T is the amount you would
have to invest today in order to receive N dollars at time T .

5. In 1 year, you will be paid $1. Will the PV increase or decrease if the interest rate goes up?

solution If the interest rate goes up, the present value of $1 a year from now will decrease.

Exercises
1. A certain population P of bacteria obeys the exponential growth law P (t) = 2000e1.3t (t in hours).
(a) How many bacteria are present initially?
(b) At what time will there be 10,000 bacteria?

solution
(a) P (0) = 2000e0 = 2000 bacteria initially.
(b) We solve 2000e1.3t = 10, 000 for t. Thus, e1.3t = 5 or

1
t= ln 5 ≈ 1.24 hours.
1.3

2. A quantity P obeys the exponential growth law P (t) = e5t (t in years).

(a) At what time t is P = 10?
(b) What is the doubling time for P ?

solution
(a) e5t = 10 when t = 1
5 ln 10 ≈ 0.46 years.
(b) The doubling time is 1
5 ln 2 ≈ 0.14 years.
710 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

3. Write f (t) = 5(7)t in the form f (t) = P0 ekt for some P0 and k.
solution Because 7 = eln 7 , it follows that

f (t) = 5(7)t = 5(eln 7 )t = 5et ln 7 .

Thus, P0 = 5 and k = ln 7.
4. Write f (t) = 9e1.4t in the form f (t) = P0 bt for some P0 and b.
solution Observe that
 t
f (t) = 9e1.4t = 9 e1.4 ,

so P0 = 9 and b = e1.4 ≈ 4.0552.

5. A certain RNA molecule replicates every 3 minutes. Find the differential equation for the number N (t)
of molecules present at time t (in minutes). How many molecules will be present after 1 hour if there is one
molecule at t = 0?
ln 2 ln 2
solution The doubling time is so k = . Thus, the differential equation is N
(t) =
k doubling time
ln 2
kN (t) = N (t). With one molecule initially,
3
N (t) = e(ln 2/3)t = 2t/3 .

Thus, after one hour, there are

N (60) = 260/3 = 1,048,576

molecules present.
6. A quantity P obeys the exponential growth law P (t) = Cekt (t in years). Find the formula for P (t),
assuming that the doubling time is 7 years and P (0) = 100.
solution The doubling time is 7 years, so 7 = ln 2/k, or k = ln 2/7 = 0.099 years−1 . With P (0) = 100,
it follows that P (t) = 100e0.099t .
7. Find all solutions to the differential equation y
= −5y. Which solution satisfies the initial condition
y(0) = 3.4?
solution y
= −5y, so y(t) = Ce−5t for some constant C. The initial condition y(0) = 3.4 determines
C = 3.4. Therefore, y(t) = 3.4e−5t .
√
8. Find the solution to y
= 2y satisfying y(0) = 20.
√ √
solution y
= 2y, so y(t) = Ce 2t for some constant C. The initial condition y(0) = 20 determines
√
C = 20. Therefore, y(t) = 20e 2t .

9. Find the solution to y

= 3y satisfying y(2) = 1000.
solution y
= 3y, so y(t) = Ce3t for some constant C. The initial condition y(2) = 1000 determines
1000 1000
C = 6 . Therefore, y(t) = 6 e3t = 1000e3(t−2) .
e e
10. Find the function y = f (t) that satisfies the differential equation y
= −0.7y and the initial condition
y(0) = 10.
solution Given that y
= −0.7y and y(0) = 10, then f (t) = 10e−0.7t .
11. The decay constant of cobalt-60 is 0.13 year−1 . Find its half-life.
ln 2
solution Half-life = ≈ 5.33 years.
0.13
12. The half-life radium-226 is 1622 years. Find its decay constant.
ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
solution Half-life = so k = = = 4.27 × 10−4 years−1 .
k half-life 1622
 S E C T I O N 5.9 Exponential Growth and Decay 711

13. One of the world’s smallest flowering plants, Wolffia globosa (Figure 13), has a doubling time of approx-
imately 30 hours (h). Find the growth constant k and determine the initial population if the population grew
to 1000 after 48 h.

FIGURE 13 The tiny plants are Wolffia, with plant bodies smaller than the head of a pin. (Gerald D. Carr)

ln 2
solution By the formula for the doubling time, 30 = . Therefore,
k
ln 2
k= ≈ 0.023 hours−1 .
30
The plant population after t hours is P (t) = P0 e0.023t . If P (48) = 1000, then

P0 e(0.023)48 = 1000 ⇒ P0 = 1000e−(0.023)48 ≈ 332.

14. A 10-kg quantity of a radioactive isotope decays to 3 kg after 17 years. Find the decay constant of the
isotope.
ln(3/10)
solution P (t) = 10e−kt . Thus P (17) = 3 = 10e−17k , so k = ≈ 0.071 years−1 .
−17
15. The population of a city is P (t) = 2 · e0.06t (in millions), where t is measured in years. Calculate the
time it takes for the population to double, to triple, and to increase 7 fold.
solution Since k = 0.06, the doubling time is
ln 2
≈ 11.55 years.
k
The tripling time is calculated in the same way as the doubling time. Solve for  in the equation

P (t + ) = 3P (t)
2 · e0.06(t+) = 3(2e0.06t )
2 · e0.06t e0.06 = 3(2e0.06t )
e0.06 = 3
0.06 = ln 3,

or  = ln 3/0.06 ≈ 18.31 years. Working in a similar fashion, we find that the time required for the population
to increase seven-fold is
ln 7 ln 7
= ≈ 32.43 years.
k 0.06

16. What is the differential equation satisfied by P (t), the number of infected computer hosts in Example 4?
Over which time interval would P (t) increase 100 fold?
solution Because the rate constant is k = 0.0815 s−1 , the differential equation for P (t) is
dP
= 0.0815P .
dt
The time for the number of infected computers to increase one hundred-fold is
ln 100 ln 100
= ≈ 56.51 s.
k 0.0815
712 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

17. The decay constant for a certain drug is k = 0.35 day−1 . Calculate the time it takes for the quantity
present in the bloodstream to decrease by half, by one-third, and by one-tenth.
solution The time required for the quantity present in the bloodstream to decrease by half is
ln 2 ln 2
= ≈ 1.98 days.
k 0.35
To decay by one-third, the time is
ln 3 ln 3
= ≈ 3.14 days.
k 0.35
Finally, to decay by one-tenth, the time is
ln 10 ln 10
= ≈ 6.58 days.
k 0.35

18. Light Intensity The intensity of light passing through an absorbing medium decreases exponentially
with the distance traveled. Suppose the decay constant for a certain plastic block is k = 4 m−1 . How thick
must the block be to reduce the intensity by a factor of one-third?
solution Since intensity decreases exponentially, it can be modeled by an exponential decay equation
I (d) = I0 e−kd . Assuming I (0) = 1, I (d) = e−kd . Since the decay constant is k = 4, we have I (d) = e−4d .
ln(1/3)
Intensity will be reduced by a factor of one-third when e−4d = 13 or when d = ≈ 0.275 m.
−4
19. Assuming that population growth is approximately exponential, which of the following two sets of data
is most likely to represent the population (in millions) of a city over a 5-year period?

Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Set I 3.14 3.36 3.60 3.85 4.11
Set II 3.14 3.24 3.54 4.04 4.74

solution If the population growth is approximately exponential, then the ratio between successive years’
data needs to be approximately the same.

Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Data I 3.14 3.36 3.60 3.85 4.11
Ratios 1.07006 1.07143 1.06944 1.06753
Data II 3.14 3.24 3.54 4.04 4.74
Ratios 1.03185 1.09259 1.14124 1.17327

As you can see, the ratio of successive years in the data from “Data I” is very close to 1.07. Therefore, we
would expect exponential growth of about P (t) ≈ (3.14)(1.07t ).
20. The atmospheric pressure P (h) (in kilopascals) at a height h meters above sea level satisfies a differential
equation P
= −kP for some positive constant k.
(a) Barometric measurements show that P (0) = 101.3 and
P (30,900) = 1.013. What is the decay constant k?
(b) Determine the atmospheric pressure at h = 500.
solution
(a) Because P
= −kP for some positive constant k, P (h) = Ce−kh where C = P (0) = 101.3. Therefore,
P (h) = 101.3e−kh . We know that P (30,900) = 101.3e−30,900k = 1.013. Solving for k yields
 
1 1.013
k=− ln ≈ 0.000149 meters−1 .
30,900 101.3

(b) P (500) = 101.3e−0.000149(500) ≈ 94.03 kilopascals.

21. Degrees in Physics One study suggests that from 1955 to 1970, the number of bachelor’s degrees in
physics awarded per year by U.S. universities grew exponentially, with growth constant k = 0.1.
 S E C T I O N 5.9 Exponential Growth and Decay 713

(a) If exponential growth continues, how long will it take for the number of degrees awarded per year to
increase 14-fold?
(b) If 2500 degrees were awarded in 1955, in which year were 10,000 degrees awarded?
solution
(a) The time required for the number of degrees to increase 14-fold is
ln 14 ln 14
= ≈ 26.39 years.
k 0.1
(b) The doubling time is (ln 2)/0.1 ≈ 0.693/0.1 = 6.93 years. Since degrees are usually awarded once a
year, we round off the doubling time to 7 years. The number quadruples after 14 years, so 10, 000 degrees
would be awarded in 1969.
22. The Beer–Lambert Law is used in spectroscopy to determine the molar absorptivity α or the concentra-
tion c of a compound dissolved in a solution at low concentrations (Figure 14). The law states that the intensity
I of light as it passes through the solution satisfies ln(I /I0 ) = αcx, where I0 is the initial intensity and x is the
distance traveled by the light. Show that I satisfies a differential equation dI /dx = −kI for some constant k.
Intensity I

x
Distance

I0 Solution

0 x
FIGURE 14 Light of intensity I0 passing through a solution.
 
I I
solution ln = αcI so = eαcI or I = I0 eαcI . Therefore,
I0 I0
dI
= I0 eαcI (αc) = I (αc) = −kI,
dx
where k = −αc is a constant.
23. A sample of sheepskin parchment discovered by archaeologists had a C14 -to-C12 ratio equal to 40% of
that found in the atmosphere. Approximately how old is the parchment?
solution The ratio of C 14 to C 12 is Re−.000121t = 0.4R so −.000121t = ln(0.4) or t = 7572.65 ≈ 7600
years.
24. Chauvet Caves In 1994 three French speleologists (geologists specializing in caves) discovered a cave
in southern France containing prehistoric cave paintings. A C14 analysis carried out by archeologist Helene
Valladas showed the paintings to be between 29,700 and 32,400 years old, much older than any previously
known human art. Given that the C14 -to-C12 ratio of the atmosphere is R = 10−12 , what range of C14 -to-C12
ratios did Valladas find in the charcoal specimens?
solution The C14 -C12 ratio found in the specimens ranged from
10−12 e−0.000121(32400) ≈ 1.98 × 10−14
to
10−12 e−0.000121(29700) ≈ 2.75 × 10−14 .

25. A paleontologist discovers remains of animals that appear to have died at the onset of the Holocene ice
age, between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago. What range of C14 -to-C12 ratio would the scientist expect to find
in the animal remains?
solution The scientist would expect to find C14 -C12 ratios ranging from
10−12 e−0.000121(12000) ≈ 2.34 × 10−13
to
10−12 e−0.000121(10000) ≈ 2.98 × 10−13 .
714 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

26. Inversion of Sugar When cane sugar is dissolved in water, it converts to invert sugar over a period
of several hours. The percentage f (t) of unconverted cane sugar at time t (in hours) satisfies f
= −0.2f .
What percentage of cane sugar remains after 5 hours (h)? After 10 h?
solution f
= −0.2f , so f (t) = Ce−0.2t . Since f is a percentage, at t = 0, C = 100 percent. Therefore.
f (t) = 100e−0.2t . Thus f (5) = 100e−0.2(5) ≈ 36.79 percent and f (10) = 100e−0.2(10) ≈ 13.53 percent.
27. Continuing with Exercise 26, suppose that 50 g of sugar are dissolved in a container of water. After how
many hours will 20 g of invert sugar be present?
solution If there are 20 grams of invert sugar present, then there are 30 grams of unconverted sugar. This
means that f = 60. Solving

100e−0.2t = 60

for t yields
1
t =− ln 0.6 ≈ 2.55 hours.
0.2

28. Two bacteria colonies are cultivated in a laboratory. The first colony has a doubling time of 2 hours (h)
and the second a doubling time of 3 h. Initially, the first colony contains 1000 bacteria and the second colony
3000 bacteria. At what time t will the sizes of the colonies be equal?
ln 2
solution P1 (t) = 1000ek1 t and P2 (t) = 3000ek2 t . Knowing that k1 = hours−1 and k2 =
2
ln 2
hours−1 , we need to solve ek1 t = 3ek2 t for t. Thus
3
k1 t = ln(3ek2 t ) = ln 3 + ln(ek2 t ) = ln 3 + k2 t,

so
ln 3 6 ln 3
t= = ≈ 9.51 hours.
k1 − k 2 ln 2

29. Moore’s Law In 1965 Gordon Moore predicted that the number N of transistors on a microchip would
increase exponentially.
(a) Does the table of data below confirm Moore’s prediction for the period from 1971 to 2000? If so, estimate
the growth constant k.
(b) Plot the data in the table.
(c) Let N (t) be the number of transistors t years after 1971. Find an approximate formula N (t) ≈ Cekt ,
where t is the number of years after 1971.
(d) Estimate the doubling time in Moore’s Law for the period from 1971 to 2000.
(e) How many transistors will a chip contain in 2020 if Moore’s Law continues to hold?
(f) Can Moore have expected his prediction to hold indefinitely?

Processor Year No. Transistors

4004 1971 2250
8008 1972 2500
8080 1974 5000
8086 1978 29,000
286 1982 120,000
386 processor 1985 275,000
486 DX processor 1989 1,180,000
Pentium processor 1993 3,100,000
Pentium II processor 1997 7,500,000
Pentium III processor 1999 24,000,000
Pentium 4 processor 2000 42,000,000
Xeon processor 2008 1,900,000,000
 S E C T I O N 5.9 Exponential Growth and Decay 715

solution
(a) Yes, the graph looks like an exponential graph especially towards the latter years. We estimate the growth
constant by setting 1971 as our starting point, so P0 = 2250. Therefore, P (t) = 2250ekt . In 2008, t = 37.
Therefore, P (37) = 2250e37k = 1,900,000,000, so k = ln 844,444.444
37 ≈ 0.369. Note: A better estimate can
be found by calculating k for each time period and then averaging the k values.
(b)
y
4×107

3×107

2×107

1×107

x
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

(c) N (t) = 2250e0.369t

(d) The doubling time is ln 2/0.369 ≈ 1.88 years.
(e) In 2020, t = 49 years. Therefore, N (49) = 2250e0.369(49) ≈ 1.60 × 1011 .
(f) No, you can’t make a microchip smaller than an atom.

30. Assume that in a certain country, the rate at which jobs are created is proportional to the number of people
who already have jobs. If there are 15 million jobs at t = 0 and 15.1 million jobs 3 months later, how many
jobs will there be after 2 years?
solution Let J (t) denote the number of people, in millions, who have jobs at time t, in months. Because the
rate at which jobs are created is proportional to the number of people who already have jobs, J
(t) = kJ (t),
for some constant k. Given that J (0) = 15, it then follows that J (t) = 15ekt . To determine k, we use
J (3) = 15.1; therefore,
 
1 15.1
k = ln ≈ 2.215 × 10−3 months−1 .
3 15
Finally, after two years, there are

J (24) = 15e0.002215(24) ≈ 15.8 million

jobs.
31. The only functions with a constant doubling time are the exponential functions y = P0 ekt with k > 0.
Show that the doubling time of linear function f (t) = at + b at time t0 is t0 + b/a (which increases with t0 ).
Compute the doubling times of f (t) = 3t + 12 at t0 = 10 and t0 = 20.
solution Let f (t) = at + b and suppose f (t0 ) = P0 . The time it takes for the value of f to double is the
solution of the equation

2P0 = 2(at0 + b) = at + b or t = 2t0 + b/a.

For the function f (t) = 3t + 12, a = 3, b = 12 and b/a = 4. With t0 = 10, the doubling time is then 24;
with t0 = 20, the doubling time is 44.
32. Verify that the half-life of a quantity that decays exponentially with decay constant k is equal to (ln 2)/k.
solution Let y = Ce−kt be an exponential decay function. Let t be the half-life of the quantity y, that is,
C C
the time t when y = . Solving = Ce−kt for t we get − ln 2 = −kt, so t = ln 2/k.
2 2
33. Compute the balance after 10 years if $2000 is deposited in an account paying 9% interest and interest is
compounded (a) quarterly, (b) monthly, and (c) continuously.
solution
(a) P (10) = 2000(1 + 0.09/4)4(10) = $4870.38
(b) P (10) = 2000(1 + 0.09/12)12(10) = $4902.71
(c) P (10) = 2000e0.09(10) = $4919.21
716 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

34. Suppose $500 is deposited into an account paying interest at a rate of 7%, continuously compounded.
Find a formula for the value of the account at time t. What is the value of the account after 3 years?
solution Let P (t) denote the value of the account at time t. Because the initial deposit is $500 and the
account pays interest at a rate of 7%, compounded continuously, it follows that P (t) = 500e0.07t . After three
years, the value of the account is P (3) = 500e0.07(3) = $616.84.
35. A bank pays interest at a rate of 5%. What is the yearly multiplier if interest is compounded
(a) three times a year? (b) continuously?
solution
   
0.05 3t 0.05 3
(a) P (t) = P0 1 + , so the yearly multiplier is 1 + ≈ 1.0508.
3 3
(b) P (t) = P0 e0.05t , so the yearly multiplier is e0.05 ≈ 1.0513.
36. How long will it take for $4000 to double in value if it is deposited in an account bearing 7% interest,
continuously compounded?
ln 2
solution The doubling time is ≈ 9.9 years.
0.7
37. How much must one invest today in order to receive $20,000 after 5 years if interest is compounded
continuously at the rate r = 9%?
solution Solving 20,000 = P0 e0.09(5) for P0 yields
20000
P0 = ≈ $12,752.56.
e0.45
38. An investment increases in value at a continuously compounded rate of 9%. How large must the initial
investment be in order to build up a value of $50,000 over a 7-year period?
solution Solving 50,000 = P0 e0.09(7) for P0 yields
50000
P0 = ≈ $26,629.59.
e0.63
39. Compute the PV of $5000 received in 3 years if the interest rate is (a) 6% and (b) 11%. What is the PV
in these two cases if the sum is instead received in 5 years?
solution In 3 years:
(a) P V = 5000e−0.06(3) = $4176.35
(b) P V = 5000e−0.11(3) = $3594.62
In 5 years:
(a) P V = 5000e−0.06(5) = $3704.09
(b) P V = 5000e−0.11(5) = $2884.75
40. Is it better to receive $1000 today or $1300 in 4 years? Consider r = 0.08 and r = 0.03.
solution Assuming continuous compounding, if r = 0.08, then the present value of $1300 four years
from now is 1300e−0.08(4) = $943.99. It is better to get $1,000 now. On the other hand, if r = 0.03, the
present value of $1300 four years from now is 1300e−0.03(4) = $1153.00, so it is better to get the $1,300 in
four years.
41. Find the interest rate r if the PV of $8000 to be received in 1 year is $7300.
solution Solving 7,300 = 8,000e−r(1) for r yields
 
7,300
r = − ln = 0.0916,
8,000
or 9.16%.
42. A company can earn additional profits of $500,000/year for 5 years by investing $2 million to upgrade its
factory. Is the investment worthwhile if the interest rate is 6%? (Assume the savings are received as a lump
sum at the end of each year.)
solution The present value of the stream of additional profits is

500,000(e−0.06 + e−0.12 + e−0.18 + e−0.24 + e−0.3 ) = $2,095,700.63.

This is more than the $2 million cost of the upgrade, so the upgrade should be made.
 S E C T I O N 5.9 Exponential Growth and Decay 717

43. A new computer system costing $25,000 will reduce labor costs by $7000/year for 5 years.
(a) Is it a good investment if r = 8%?
(b) How much money will the company actually save?
solution
(a) The present value of the reduced labor costs is

7000(e−0.08 + e−0.16 + e−0.24 + e−0.32 + e−0.4 ) = $27,708.50.

This is more than the $25,000 cost of the computer system, so the computer system should be purchased.
(b) The present value of the savings is

$27,708.50 − $25,000 = $2708.50.

44. After winning $25 million in the state lottery, Jessica learns that she will receive five yearly payments of
$5 million beginning immediately.
(a) What is the PV of Jessica’s prize if r = 6%?
(b) How much more would the prize be worth if the entire amount were paid today?
solution
(a) The present value of the prize is

5,000,000(e−0.24 + e−0.18 + e−0.12 + e−0.06 + e−.06(0) ) = $22,252,915.21.

(b) If the entire amount were paid today, the present value would be $25 million, or $2,747,084.79 more
than the stream of payments made over five years.

45. Use Eq. (3) to compute the PV of an income stream paying out R(t) = $5000/year continuously for
10 years, assuming r = 0.05.
 10 10
−0.05t

−0.05t 
solution P V = 5,000e dt = −100,000e  = $39,346.93.
0 0
46. Find the PV of an investment that pays out continuously at a rate of $800/year for 5 years, assuming
r = 0.08.
 5 5
−0.08t

−0.08t 
solution P V = 800e dt = −10,000e  = $3296.80.
0 0

47. Find the PV of an income stream that pays out continuously at a rate R(t) = $5000e0.1t /year for 7 years,
assuming r = 0.05.
 7  7 7
0.1t −0.05t

0.05t 
solution P V = 5000e e dt = 5000e 0.05t
dt = 100,000e  = $41,906.75.
0 0 0
48. A commercial property generates income at the rate R(t). Suppose that R(0) = $70,000/year and that
R(t) increases at a continuously compounded rate of 5%. Find the PV of the income generated in the first
4 years if r = 6%.
 4 
70,000 −0.01t 4
solution P V = 70,000e0.05t e−0.06t dt = − e  = $274,473.93.
0 0.01 0
49. Show that an investment that pays out R dollars per year continuously for T years has a PV of R(1 −
e−rT )/r.
solution The present value of an investment that pays out R dollars/year continuously for T years is
 T
PV = Re−rt dt.
0

Let u = −rt, du = −r dt. Then

 
1 −rT R u −rT R R
PV = − Re du = − e 
u
= − (e−rT − 1) = (1 − e−rT ).
r 0 r 0 r r
718 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

50. Explain this statement: If T is very large, then the PV of the income stream described in Exercise
49 is approximately R/r.
solution Because

1
lim e−rT = lim = 0,
T →∞ T →∞ erT

it follows that
R R
lim (1 − e−rT ) = .
T →∞ r r

51. Suppose that r = 0.06. Use the result of Exercise 50 to estimate the payout rate R needed to produce an
income stream whose PV is $20,000, assuming that the stream continues for a large number of years.
R R
solution From Exercise 50, P V = so 20000 = or R = $1200.
r 0.06
52. Verify by differentiation:

e−rt (1 + rt)
te−rt dt = − +C 1
r2
Use Eq. (1) to compute the PV of an investment that pays out income continuously at a rate R(t) = (5000 +
1000t) dollars per year for 5 years, assuming r = 0.05.
solution
 −rt 
d e (1 + rt) −1  −1  −rt
− 2
= 2 e−rt (r) + (1 + rt)(−re−rt ) = e − e−rt − rte−rt = te−rt
dt r r r
Therefore
 5  5  5
PV = (5000 + 1000t)e−0.05t dt = 5000e−0.05t dt + 1000te−0.05t dt
0 0 0
 
5000 −0.05(5) e−0.05(5) (1 + .05(5)) 1
= (e − 1) − 1000 + 1000
−0.05 (0.05)2 (0.05)2
= 22119.92 − 389400.39 + 400000 ≈ $32,719.53.

53. Use Eq. (1) to compute the PV of an investment that pays out income continuously at a rate R(t) =
(5000 + 1000t)e0.02t dollars per year for 10 years, assuming r = 0.08.
solution
 10  10  10
PV = (5000 + 1000t)(e0.02t )e−0.08t dt = 5000e−0.06t dt + 1000te−0.06t dt
0 0 0
 
5000 −0.06(10) e−0.06(10) (1 + 0.06(10)) 1
= (e − 1) − 1000 + 1000
−0.06 (0.06)2 (0.06)2
= 37599.03 − 243916.28 + 277777.78 ≈ $71,460.53.

54. Banker’s Rule of 70 If you earn an interest rate of R percent, continuously compounded, your
money doubles after approximately 70/R years. For example, at R = 5%, your money doubles after 70/5 or
14 years. Use the concept of doubling time to justify the Banker’s Rule. (Note: Sometimes, the rule 72/R is
used. It is less accurate but easier to apply because 72 is divisible by more numbers than 70.)
solution The doubling time is

ln 2 ln 2 · 100 69.93 70
t= = = ≈ .
r r% r% r%
 S E C T I O N 5.9 Exponential Growth and Decay 719

55. Drug Dosing Interval Let y(t) be the drug concentration (in micrograms per kilogram) in a
patient’s body at time t. The initial concentration is y(0) = L. Additional doses that increase the concentra-
tion by an amount d are administered at regular time intervals of length T . In between doses, y(t) decays
exponentially—that is, y
= −ky. Find the value of T (in terms of k and d) for which the the concentration
varies between L and L − d as in Figure 15.
y (mcg/milliliter)
Exponential decay
L

L−d

Dose administered
t
T 2T 3T

FIGURE 15 Drug concentration with periodic doses.

solution Because y
= −ky and y(0) = L, it follows that y(t) = Le−kt . We want y(T ) = L − d, thus
 
1 d
Le−kT = L − d or T = − ln 1 − .
k L

Exercises 56 and 57: The Gompertz differential equation

dy y
= ky ln 2
dt M
(where M and k are constants) was introduced in 1825 by the English mathematician Benjamin Gompertz
and is still used today to model aging and mortality.
kt
56. Show that y = Meae satisfies Eq. (2) for any constant a.
kt
solution Let y = Meae . Then
dy kt
= M(kaekt )eae
dt
and, since
ln(y/M) = aekt ,
we have
kt dy
ky ln(y/M) = Mkaekt eae = .
dt
57. To model mortality in a population of 200 laboratory rats, a scientist assumes that the number P (t) of
rats alive at time t (in months) satisfies Eq. (2) with M = 204 and k = 0.15 month−1 (Figure 16). Find P (t)
[note that P (0) = 200] and determine the population after 20 months.
Rat population
P(t)
200

100

t
10 20 30 40
Time (months)
FIGURE 16

solution The solution to the Gompertz equation with M = 204 and k = 0.15 is of the form:
0.15t
P (t) = 204eae
720 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Applying the initial condition allows us to solve for a:

200 = 204ea
200
= ea
204
 
200
ln =a
204

so that a ≈ −0.02. After t = 20 months,

P (20) = 204e−0.02e
0.15(20)
= 136.51,

so there are 136 rats.

58. Isotopes for Dating Given that the age of the earth is approximately 4.5 billion years, which
of the following would be most suitable for dating extremely old rocks: carbon-14 (half-life 5570 years),
lead-210 (half-life 22.26 years), or potassium-49 (half-life 1.3 billion years)? Explain why.
solution For extremely old rocks, you need to have an isotope that decays very slowly. In other words,
you want a very large half-life such as Potassium-49; otherwise, the amount of undecayed isotope in the rock
sample would be too small to accurately measure.
59. Let P = P (t) be a quantity that obeys an exponential growth law with growth constant k. Show that P
increases m-fold after an interval of (ln m)/k years.
ln m
solution For m-fold growth, P (t) = mP0 for some t. Solving mP0 = P0 ekt for t, we find t =
k

Further Insights and Challenges

60. Average Time of Decay Physicists use the radioactive decay law R = R0 e−kt to compute the
average or mean time M until an atom decays. Let F (t) = R/R0 = e−kt be the fraction of atoms that have
survived to time t without decaying.
(a) Find the inverse function t (F ).
(b) By definition of t (F ), a fraction 1/N of atoms decays in the time interval
    
j j −1
t ,t
N N
 
1 
N
j
Use this to justify the approximation M ≈ t . Then argue, by passing to the limit as N → ∞, that
N N
j =1
 1
M= t (F ) dF . Strictly speaking, this is an improper integral because t (0) is infinite (it takes an infinite
0
amount of time for all atoms to decay). Therefore, we define M as a limit
 1
M = lim t (F ) dF
c→0 c

(c) Verify the formula ln x dx = x ln x − x by differentiation and use it to show that for c > 0,
 
1 1
M = lim + (c ln c − c)
c→0 k k
(d) Show that M = 1/k by evaluating the limit (use L’Hôpital’s Rule to compute lim c ln c).
c→0
(e) What is the mean time to decay for radon (with a half-life of 3.825 days)?
solution
ln F
(a) F = e−kt so ln F = −kt and t (F ) =
−k
 S E C T I O N 5.9 Exponential Growth and Decay 721

1 N
(b) M ≈ t (j/N ). For the interval [0, 1], from the approximation given, the subinterval length
N j =1
is 1/N and thus the right-hand endpoints have x-coordinate (j/N ). Thus we have a Riemann sum and by
definition,
 1
1 
N
lim t (j/N ) = t (F )dF.
N→∞ N 0
j =1
 
d 1
(c) (x ln x − x) = x + ln x − 1 = ln x. Thus
dx x
 1 1 1
1  1 
t (F ) dF = − (F ln F − F ) = (F − F ln F )

c k c k c
1
= (1 − 1 ln 1 − (c − c ln c))
k
1 1
= + (c ln c − c),
k k
and
 1  
1 1
M = lim t (F ) dF = lim + (c ln c − c)
c→0 c c→0 k k
(d) By, L’Hôpital’s Rule,
ln c c−1
lim c ln c = lim = lim = − lim c = 0.
c→0+ c→0+ c−1 c→0+ −c−2 c→0+
 1  
1 1 1
Thus, M = lim t (F )dF = lim + (c ln c − c) = .
c→0 c c→0 k k k
ln 2 1
(e) Since the half-life is 3.825 days, k = and = 5.52. Thus, M = 5.52 days.
3.825 k

1 n
 n
61. Modify the proof of the relation e = lim 1 + n given in the text to prove ex = lim 1 + xn . Hint:
n→∞ n→∞
Express ln(1 + xn−1 ) as an integral and estimate above and below by rectangles.
solution Start by expressing
  1+x/n
x dt
ln 1 + = .
n 1 t
Following the proof in the text, we note that
x  x x
≤ ln 1 + ≤
n+x n n
provided x > 0, while
x  x x
≤ ln 1 + ≤
n n n+x
when x < 0. Multiplying both sets of inequalities by n and passing to the limit as n → ∞, the squeeze
theorem guarantees that
  x n
lim ln 1 + = x.
n→∞ n
Finally,
 x n
lim 1+ = ex .
n→∞ n
62. Prove that, for n > 0,
 n  n+1
1 1
1+ ≤e ≤ 1+
n n
Hint: Take logarithms and use Eq. (4).
722 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

solution Taking logarithms throughout the desired inequality, we find the equivalent inequality
   
1 1
n ln 1 + ≤ 1 ≤ (n + 1) ln 1 + .
n n
Multiplying Eq. (4) by n yields
 
n 1
≤ n ln 1 + ≤ 1,
n+1 n
which establishes the left-hand side of the desired inequality. On the other hand, multiplying Eq. (4) by n + 1
yields
 
1 1
1 ≤ (n + 1) ln 1 + ≤1+ ,
n n
which establishes the right-hand side of the desired inequality.
63. A bank pays interest at the rate r, compounded M times yearly. The effective interest rate re is the rate
at which interest, if compounded annually, would have to be paid to produce the same yearly return.
(a) Find re if r = 9% compounded monthly.
(b) Show that re = (1 + r/M)M − 1 and that re = er − 1 if interest is compounded continuously.
(c) Find re if r = 11% compounded continuously.
(d) Find the rate r that, compounded weekly, would yield an effective rate of 20%.
solution
(a) Compounded monthly, P (t) = P0 (1 + r/12)12t . By the definition of re ,
P0 (1 + 0.09/12)12t = P0 (1 + re )t
so
(1 + 0.09/12)12t = (1 + re )t or re = (1 + 0.09/12)12 − 1 = 0.0938,
or 9.38%
(b) In general,
P0 (1 + r/M)Mt = P0 (1 + re )t ,
so (1 + r/M)Mt = (1 + re )t or re = (1 + r/M)M − 1. If interest is compounded continuously, then
P0 ert = P0 (1 + re )t so ert = (1 + re )t or re = er − 1.
(c) Using part (b), re = e0.11 − 1 ≈ 0.1163 or 11.63%.
(d) Solving
 r 52
0.20 = 1 + −1
52
for r yields r = 52(1.21/52 − 1) = 0.1826 or 18.26%.

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISES

In Exercises 1–4, refer to the function f whose graph is shown in Figure 1.
1. Estimate L4 and M4 on [0, 4].
solution With n = 4 and an interval of [0, 4], x = = 1. Then,
4−0
4
 
1 5 23
L4 = x(f (0) + f (1) + f (2) + f (3)) = 1 +1+ +2 =
4 2 4
and
          
1 3 5 7 1 9 9
M4 = x f +f +f +f =1 +2+ + = 7.
2 2 2 2 2 4 4
 Chapter Review Exercises 723

2. Estimate R4 , L4 , and M4 on [1, 3].

solution With n = 4 and an interval of [1, 3], x = 3−1
4 = 2 . Then,
1

       
3 5 1 5 9 35
R4 = x f + f (2) + f + f (3) = 2+ + +2 = ;
2 2 2 2 4 8
      
3 5 1 5 9 31
L4 = x f (1) + f + f (2) + f = 1+2+ + = ; and
2 2 2 2 4 8
          
5 7 9 11 1 3 9 5 17 67
M4 = x f +f +f +f = + + + = .
4 4 4 4 2 2 4 2 8 16

 b
3. Find an interval [a, b] on which R4 is larger than f (x) dx. Do the same for L4 .
a
&b
solution In general, RN is larger than a f (x) dx on any interval [a, b] over which f (x) is increasing.
&b
Given the graph of f (x), we may take [a, b] = [0, 2]. In order for L4 to be larger than a f (x) dx, f (x)
must be decreasing over the interval [a, b]. We may therefore take [a, b] = [2, 3].
 2
3 9
4. Justify ≤ f (x) dx ≤ .
2 1 4

y
3

x
1 2 3 4

FIGURE 1

solution Because f (x) is increasing on [1, 2], we know that

 2
LN ≤ f (x) dx ≤ RN
1

for any N . Now,

 
1 3 1 5 9
L2 = (1 + 2) = and R2 = 2+ = ,
2 2 2 2 4
so
 2
3 9
≤ f (x) dx ≤ .
2 1 4

In Exercises 5–8, let f (x) = x 2 + 3x.

5. Calculate R6 , M6 , and L6 for f on the interval [2, 5]. Sketch the graph of f and the corresponding
rectangles for each approximation.
solution Let f (x) = x 2 + 3x. A uniform partition of [2, 5] with N = 6 subintervals has

5−2 1 j
x = = , xj = a + j x = 2 + ,
6 2 2
and
 
1 7 j
xj∗ = a + j − x = + .
2 4 2
724 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Now,


6        
1 5 7 9
R6 = x f (xj ) = f + f (3) + f + f (4) + f + f (5)
2 2 2 2
j =1
 
1 55 91 135 625
= + 18 + + 28 + + 40 = .
2 4 4 4 8
The rectangles corresponding to this approximation are shown below.
y

35
30
25
20
15
10
x
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Next,


6             
1 9 11 13 15 17 19
M6 = x f (xj∗ ) = f +f +f +f +f +f
2 4 4 4 4 4 4
j =1
 
1 189 253 325 405 493 589 2254 1127
= + + + + + = = .
2 16 16 16 16 16 16 32 16
The rectangles corresponding to this approximation are shown below.
y

35
30
25
20
15
10
x
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Finally,


5       
1 5 7 9
L6 = x f (xj ) = f (2) + f + f (3) + f + f (4) + f
2 2 2 2
j =0
 
1 55 91 135 505
= 10 + + 18 + + 28 + = .
2 4 4 4 8
The rectangles corresponding to this approximation are shown below.
y

35
30
25
20
15
10
x
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

 x
6. Use FTC I to evaluate A(x) = f (t) dt.
−2

solution Let f (x) = x 2 + 3x. Then

 x    
1 3 3 2 x 1 3 8 1 3 10
A(x) = (t 2 + 3t) dt = t + t  = x3 + x2 − − + 6 = x3 + x2 − .
−2 3 2 −2 3 2 3 3 2 3
 Chapter Review Exercises 725

 5
7. Find a formula for RN for f on [2, 5] and compute f (x) dx by taking the limit.
2
5−2 3
solution Let f (x) = x 2 + 3x on the interval [2, 5]. Then x =
= and a = 2. Hence,
N N
    N  

N
3 
N
3j 2 3j 3  21j 9j 2
RN = x f (2 + j x) = 2+ +3 2+ = 10 + + 2
N N N N N N
j =1 j =1 j =1

63  27  2
N N
= 30 + j + j
N2 N3
j =1 j =1
   
63 N2 N 27 N3 N2 N
= 30 + + + + +
N2 2 2 N3 3 2 6
141 45 9
= + +
2 N 2N 2
and
 
141 45 9 141
lim RN = lim + + = .
N→∞ N→∞ 2 N 2N 2 2

 2
8. Find a formula for LN for f on [0, 2] and compute f (x) dx by taking the limit.
0

solution Let f (x) = x 2 + 3x and N be a positive integer. Then

2−0 2
x = =
N N
and
2j 2j
xj = a + j x = 0 + =
N N
for 0 ≤ j ≤ N . Thus,

 N−1  
2  4j 2 8  2 12 
N−1 N−1 N−1
6j
LN = x f (xj ) = + = 3 j + 2 j
N N2 N N N
j =0 j =0 j =0 j =0

4(N − 1)(2N − 1) 6(N − 1) 26 10 4

= + = − + .
3N 2 N 3 N 3N 2
Finally,
 2  
26 10 4 26
f (x) dx = lim − + = .
0 N→∞ 3 N 3N 2 3

9. Calculate R5 , M5 , and L5 for f (x) = (x 2 + 1)−1 on the interval [0, 1].

solution Let f (x) = (x 2 + 1)−1 . A uniform partition of [0, 1] with N = 5 subintervals has

1−0 1 j
x = = , xj = a + j x = ,
5 5 5
and
 
1 2j − 1
xj∗ = a + j − x = .
2 10
726 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

Now,

5          
1 1 2 3 4
R5 = x f (xj ) = f +f +f +f + f (1)
5 5 5 5 5
j =1
 
1 25 25 25 25 1
= + + + + ≈ 0.733732.
5 26 29 34 41 2
Next,

5           
1 1 3 1 7 9
M5 = x f (xj∗ ) = f +f +f +f +f
5 10 10 2 10 10
j =1
 
1 100 100 4 100 100
= + + + + ≈ 0.786231.
5 101 109 5 149 181
Finally,

4         
1 1 2 3 4
L5 = x f (xj ) = f (0) + f +f +f +f
5 5 5 5 5
j =0
 
1 25 25 25 25
= 1+ + + + ≈ 0.833732.
5 26 29 34 41

10. Let RN be the N th right-endpoint approximation for f (x) = x 3 on [0, 4] (Figure 2).
64(N + 1)2
(a) Prove that RN = .
N2
(b) Prove that the area of the region within the right-endpoint rectangles above the graph is equal to
64(2N + 1)
N2

y
64

32

x
1 2 3 4

FIGURE 2 Approximation RN for f (x) = x 3 on [0, 4].

solution
(a) Let f (x) = x 3 and N be a positive integer. Then
4−0 4 4j 4j
x = = and xj = a + j x = 0 + =
N N N N
for 0 ≤ j ≤ N . Thus,

N
4  64j 3
N
256  3
N
256 N 2 (N + 1)2 64(N + 1)2
RN = x f (xj ) = = j = = .
N N3 N4 N4 4 N2
j =1 j =1 j =1

(b) The area between the graph of y = x 3 and the x-axis over [0, 4] is
 4 
1 4
x 3 dx = x 4  = 64.
0 4 0
The area of the region below the right-endpoint rectangles and above the graph is therefore
64(N + 1)2 64(2N + 1)
− 64 = .
N2 N2
 Chapter Review Exercises 727

11. Which approximation to the area is represented by the shaded rectangles in Figure 3? Compute R5 and
L5 .
y
30

18

6
x
1 2 3 4 5

FIGURE 3

solution There are five rectangles and the height of each is given by the function value at the right endpoint
of the subinterval. Thus, the area represented by the shaded rectangles is R5 .
From the figure, we see that x = 1. Then
R5 = 1(30 + 18 + 6 + 6 + 30) = 90 and L5 = 1(30 + 30 + 18 + 6 + 6) = 90.

12. Calculate any two Riemann sums for f (x) = x 2 on the interval [2, 5], but choose partitions with at
least five subintervals of unequal widths and intermediate points that are neither endpoints nor midpoints.
solution Let f (x) = x 2 . Riemann sums will, of course, vary. Here are two possibilities. Take N = 5,
P = {x0 = 2, x1 = 2.7, x2 = 3.1, x3 = 3.6, x4 = 4.2, x5 = 5}
and
C = {c1 = 2.5, c2 = 3, c3 = 3.5, c4 = 4, c5 = 4.5}.
Then,

5
R(f, P , C) = xj f (cj ) = 0.7(6.25) + 0.4(9) + 0.5(12.25) + 0.6(16) + 0.8(20.25) = 39.9.
j =1

Alternatively, take N = 6,
P = {x0 = 2, x1 = 2.5, x2 = 3.5, x3 = 4, x4 = 4.25, x5 = 4.75, x6 = 5}
and
C = {c1 = 2.1, c2 = 3, c3 = 3.7, c4 = 4.2, c5 = 4.5, c6 = 4.8}.
Then,

6
R(f, P , C) = xj f (cj )
j =1

= 0.5(4.41) + 1(9) + 0.5(13.69) + 0.25(17.64) + 0.5(20.25) + 0.25(23.04) = 38.345.

In Exercises 13–16, express the limit as an integral (or multiple of an integral) and evaluate.
 
π 
N
π πj
13. lim sin +
N→∞ 6N 3 6N
j =1

solution Let f (x) = sin x and N be a positive integer. A uniform partition of the interval [π/3, π/2]
with N subintervals has
π π πj
x = and xj = +
6N 3 6N
for 0 ≤ j ≤ N . Then
 
π  
N N
π πj
sin + = x f (xj ) = RN ;
6N 3 6N
j =1 j =1
728 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

consequently,
   π/2 π/2
π  
N
π πj 1 1
lim sin + = sin x dx = − cos x  =0+ = .
N→∞ 6N 3 6N π/3 π/3 2 2
j =1

N−1  
3  3k
14. lim 10 +
N→∞ N N
k=0

solution Let f (x) = x and N be a positive integer. A uniform partition of the interval [10, 13] with N
subintervals has
3 3j
x = and xj = 10 +
N N
for 0 ≤ j ≤ N . Then
N−1  
3  
N−1
3k
10 + = x f (xj ) = LN ;
N N
k=0 j =0

consequently,
N−1    13 
3  3k 1 2 13
lim 10 + = x dx = x 
N→∞ N N 10 2 10
k=0
169 100 69
= − = .
2 2 2

5 
N
15. lim 4 + 5j/N
N→∞ N
j =1
√
solution Let f (x) = x and N be a positive integer. A uniform partition of the interval [4, 9] with N
subintervals has
5 5j
x = and xj = 4 +
N N
for 0 ≤ j ≤ N . Then

5  
N N
4 + 5j/N = x f (xj ) = RN ;
N
j =1 j =1

consequently,
 9 
5  2 3/2 9
N
√ 54 16 38
lim 4 + 5j/N = x dx = x  = − = .
N→∞ N 4 3 4 3 3 3
j =1

1k + 2 k + · · · + N k
16. lim (k > 0)
N→∞ N k+1
solution Observe that
 k  k  k  k  N  
1k + 2 k + 3 k + · · · + N k 1 1 2 3 N 1  j k
k+1
= + + + ··· = .
N N N N N N N N
j =1

Now, let f (x) = x k and N be a positive integer. A uniform partition of the interval [0, 1] with N subintervals
has
1 j
x = and xj =
N N
 Chapter Review Exercises 729

for 0 ≤ j ≤ N . Then
N  
1  j k 
N
= x f (xj ) = RN ;
N N
j =1 j =1

consequently,
N    1 1
1  j k 1 
k+1  1
lim = x dx =
k
x  = .
N→∞ N N 0 k + 1 0 k + 1
j =1

In Exercises 17–30, calculate the indefinite integral.


 3
17. 4x − 2x 2 dx

2
solution (4x 3 − 2x 2 ) dx = x 4 − x 3 + C.
3

18. x 9/4 dx

4 13/4
solution x 9/4 dx = x + C.
13

19. sin(θ − 8) dθ

solution sin(θ − 8) dθ = − cos(θ − 8) + C.

20. cos(5 − 7θ ) dθ

1
solution cos(5 − 7θ ) dθ = − sin(5 − 7θ ) + C.
7

21. (4t −3 − 12t −4 ) dt

solution (4t −3 − 12t −4 ) dt = −2t −2 + 4t −3 + C.

22. (9t −2/3 + 4t 7/3 ) dt

6
solution (9t −2/3 + 4t 7/3 ) dt = 27t 1/3 + t 10/3 + C.
5

23. sec2 x dx

solution sec2 x dx = tan x + C.

24. tan 3θ sec 3θ dθ

1
solution tan 3θ sec 3θ dθ = sec 3θ + C.
3

25. (y + 2)4 dy

1
solution (y + 2)4 dy = (y + 2)5 + C.
5

3x − 9
3
26. dx
x2
 
3x 3 − 9 3
solution 2
dx = (3x − 9x −2 ) dx = x 2 + 9x −1 + C.
x 2
730 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

27. (ex − x) dx

1
solution (ex − x) dx = ex − x 2 + C.
2

28. e−4x dx

1
solution e−4x dx = − e−4x + C.
4

29. 4x −1 dx

solution 4x −1 dx = 4 ln |x| + C.

30. sin(4x − 9) dx

1
solution sin(4x − 9) dx = − cos(4x − 9) + C.
4
In Exercises 31–36, solve the differential equation with the given initial condition.
dy
31. = 4x 3 , y(1) = 4
dx
dy
solution Let dx = 4x 3 . Then

y(x) = 4x 3 dx = x 4 + C.

Using the initial condition y(1) = 4, we find y(1) = 14 + C = 4, so C = 3. Thus, y(x) = x 4 + 3.

dy
32. = 3t 2 + cos t, y(0) = 12
dt
solution Let dy dt = 3t + cos t. Then
2

y(t) = (3t 2 + cos t) dt = t 3 + sin t + C.

Using the initial condition y(0) = 12, we find y(0) = 03 + sin 0 + C = 12, so C = 12. Thus, y(t) =
t 3 + sin t + 12.
dy
33. = x −1/2 , y(1) = 1
dx
solution Let dx dy
= x −1/2 . Then

y(x) = x −1/2 dx = 2x 1/2 + C.
√
Using the initial condition y(1) = 1, we find y(1) = 2 1 + C = 1, so C = −1. Thus, y(x) = 2x 1/2 − 1.
dy 
34. = sec2 x, y π4 = 2
dx
dy
solution Let dx = sec2 x. Then

y(x) = sec2 x dx = tan x + C.

Using the initial condition y( π4 ) = 2, we find y( π4 ) = tan π

4 + C = 2, so C = 1. Thus, y(x) = tan x + 1.
dy
35. = e−x , y(0) = 3
dx
dy
solution Let dx = e−x . Then

y(x) = e−x dx = −e−x + C.

Using the initial condition y(0) = 3, we find y(0) = −e0 + C = 3, so C = 4. Thus, y(x) = 4 − e−x .
 Chapter Review Exercises 731

dy
36. = e4x , y(1) = 1
dx
dy
solution Let dx = e4x . Then

1 4x
y(x) = e4x dx = e + C.
4

Using the initial condition y(1) = 1, we find y(1) = 1 4

4e + C = 1, so C = 1 − 41 e4 . Thus, y(x) =
4e + 1 − 4e .
1 4x 1 4

37. Find f (t) if f

(t) = 1 − 2t, f (0) = 2, and f

(0) = −1.
solution Suppose f

(t) = 1 − 2t. Then

 
f
(t) = f

(t) dt = (1 − 2t) dt = t − t 2 + C.

Using the initial condition f

(0) = −1, we find f
(0) = 0 − 02 + C = −1, so C = −1. Thus, f
(t) =
t − t 2 − 1. Now,
 
1 1 3
f (t) = f
(t) dt = (t − t 2 − 1) dt = t 2 − t − t + C.
2 3

Using the initial condition f (0) = 2, we find f (0) = 12 02 − 13 03 − 0 + C = 2, so C = 2. Thus,

1 2 1 3
f (t) = t − t − t + 2.
2 3

38. At time t = 0, a driver begins decelerating at a constant rate of −10 m/s2 and comes to a halt after
traveling 500 m. Find the velocity at t = 0.
solution From the constant deceleration of −10 m/s2 , we determine

v(t) = (−10) dt = −10t + v0 ,

where v0 is the velocity of the automobile at t = 0. Note the automobile comes to a halt when v(t) = 0,
which occurs at
v0
t= s.
10
The distance traveled during the braking process is

s(t) = v(t) dt = −5t 2 + v0 t + C,

for some arbitrary constant C. We are given that the braking distance is 500 meters, so
v   v 2 v 
0 0 0
s − s(0) = −5 + v0 + C − C = 500,
10 10 10
leading to

v0 = 100 m/s.

In Exercises 39–42, use the given substitution to evaluate the integral.

 2
dt
39. , u = 4t + 12
0 4t + 12
solution Let u = 4t + 12. Then du = 4dt, and the new limits of integration are u = 12 and u = 20.
Thus,
  20
2 dt 1 20 du 1  1 1 20 1 5
= = ln u = (ln 20 − ln 12) = ln = ln .
0 4t + 12 4 12 u 4 12 4 4 12 4 3
732 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL


(x 2 + 1) dx
40. , u = x 3 + 3x
(x 3 + 3x)4
solution Let u = x 3 + 3x. Then du = (3x 2 + 3) dx = 3(x 2 + 1) dx and
 
(x 2 + 1) dx 1 1 1
= u−4 du = − u−3 + C = − (x 3 + 3x)−3 + C.
(x + 3x)
3 4 3 9 9
 π/6
41. sin x cos4 x dx, u = cos x
0
√
solution Let u = cos x. Then du = − sin x dx and the new limits of integration are u = 1 and u = 3/2.
Thus,
  √
π/6 3/2
sin x cos x dx = −
4
u4 du
0 1
√
1 5  3/2
=− u 
5 1
 √ 
1 9 3
= 1− .
5 32

42. sec2 (2θ ) tan(2θ ) dθ, u = tan(2θ )

solution Let u = tan(2θ ). Then du = 2 sec2 (2θ ) dθ and

 
1 1 1
sec (2θ ) tan(2θ ) dθ =
2
u du = u2 + C = tan2 (2θ ) + C.
2 4 4

In Exercises 43–92, evaluate the integral.


43. (20x 4 − 9x 3 − 2x) dx

9
solution (20x 4 − 9x 3 − 2x) dx = 4x 5 − x 4 − x 2 + C.
4
 2
44. (12x 3 − 3x 2 ) dx
0
 2
2 
solution (12x − 3x ) dx = (3x − x ) = (48 − 8) − 0 = 40.
3 2 4 3
0 0

45. (2x 2 − 3x)2 dx
 
4
solution (2x − 3x) dx = (4x 4 − 12x 3 + 9x 2 ) dx = x 5 − 3x 4 + 3x 3 + C.
2 2
5
 1
46. (x 7/3 − 2x 1/4 ) dx
0
  
1 3 10/3 8 5/4 1 3 8 13
solution (x 7/3
− 2x 1/4
) dx = x − x  = 10 − 5 = − 10 .
0 10 5 0

x 5 + 3x 4
47. dx
x2
 5 
x + 3x 4 1
solution dx = (x 3 + 3x 2 ) dx = x 4 + x 3 + C.
x2 4
 3
48. r −4 dr
1
   
3
−4 1 −3 3 1 1 26
solution r dr = − r  = − −1 = .
1 3 1 3 27 81
 Chapter Review Exercises 733

 3
49. |x 2 − 4| dx
−3

solution
 3  2  2  3
|x 2 − 4| dx = (x 2 − 4) dx + (4 − x 2 ) dx + (x 2 − 4) dx
−3 −3 −2 2
 −2  2  3
1 3  1  1 3 
= x − 4x  + 4x − x 3  + x − 4x 
3 −3 3 −2 3 2
     
16 16 16 16
= −3 + + + −3 +
3 3 3 3
46
= .
3
 4
50. |(x − 1)(x − 3)| dx
−2

solution
 4  1  3  4
|(x − 1)(x − 3)| dx = (x 2 − 4x + 3) dx + (−x 2 + 4x − 3) dx + (x 2 − 4x + 3) dx
−2 −2 1 3
 1  3  4
1 3  1  1 3 
= x − 2x 2 + 3x  + − x 3 + 2x 2 − 3x  + x − 2x 2 + 3x 
3 −2 3 1 3 3
   
4 50 4 4
= − − +0− − + −0
3 3 3 3
62
= .
3
 3
51. [t] dt
1
solution
     2 3
3 2 3 2 3  
[t] dt = [t] dt + [t] dt = dt + 2 dt = t  + 2t  = (2 − 1) + (6 − 4) = 3.

1 1 2 1 2 1 2

 2
52. (t − [t])2 dt
0
solution
 2  1  2
(t − [t])2 dt = t 2 dt + (t − 1)2 dt
0 0 1
 2
1 1 1 
= t 3  + (t − 1)3 
3 0 3 1
1 1 2
= + = .
3 3 3

53. (10t − 7)14 dt

solution Let u = 10t − 7. Then du = 10dt and

 
1 1 15 1
(10t − 7) dt =
14
u14 du = u +C = (10t − 7)15 + C.
10 150 150
734 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 3
54. 7y − 5 dy
2
solution Let u = 7y − 5. Then du = 7dy and when y = 2, u = 9 and when y = 3, u = 16. Finally,
 3  
1 16 1/2 1 2 3/2 16 2 74
7y − 5 dy = u du = · u  = (64 − 27) = .
2 7 9 7 3 9 21 21

(2x 3 + 3x) dx
55.
(3x 4 + 9x 2 )5
solution Let u = 3x 4 + 9x 2 . Then du = (12x 3 + 18x) dx = 6(2x 3 + 3x) dx and
 
(2x 3 + 3x) dx 1 1 1
= u−5 du = − u−4 + C = − (3x 4 + 9x 2 )−4 + C.
(3x + 9x )
4 2 5 6 24 24
 −1 x dx
56.
−3 (x 2 + 5)2
solution Let u = x 2 + 5. Then du = 2x dx and
  
−1 x dx 1 1 −1 6
6
−2
= u du = − u 
−3 (x 2 + 5)2 214 2 14
 
1 1 1 1
=− − =− .
2 6 14 21
 5 √
57. 15x x + 4 dx
0
solution Let u = x + 4. Then x = u − 4, du = dx and the new limits of integration are u = 4 and
u = 9. Thus,
 5  9
√ √
15x x + 4 dx = 15(u − 4) u du
0 4
 9
= 15 (u3/2 − 4u1/2 ) du
4
 
2 5/2 8 3/2 9
= 15 u − u 
5 3 4
   
486 64 64
= 15 − 72 − −
5 5 3
= 506.

√
58. t 2 t + 8 dt

solution Let u = t + 8. Then du = dt, t = u − 8, and

  
√ 2√
t t + 8 dt = (u − 8) u du = (u5/2 − 16u3/2 + 64u1/2 ) du
2

2 7/2 32 5/2 128 3/2

= u − u + u +C
7 5 3
2 32 128
= (t + 8)7/2 − (t + 8)5/2 + (t + 8)3/2 + C.
7 5 3
 1 π 
59. cos (t + 2) dt
0 3
 1 π  π 1 √
3  3 3
solution cos (t + 2) dt = sin (t + 2)  = − .
0 3 π 3 0 2π
 Chapter Review Exercises 735
  
π 5θ − π
60. sin dθ
π/2 6
solution Let
5θ − π 5
u= so that du = dθ.
6 6
Then
   
π 5θ − π 6 2π/3
sin dθ = sin u du
π/2 6 5 π/4
2π/3
6 
= − cos u
5 π/4
 √ 
6 1 2 3 √
=− − − = (1 + 2).
5 2 2 5

61. t 2 sec2 (9t 3 + 1) dt

solution Let u = 9t 3 + 1. Then du = 27t 2 dt and

 
1 1 1
t 2 sec2 (9t 3 + 1) dt = sec2 u du = tan u + C = tan(9t 3 + 1) + C.
27 27 27

62. sin2 (3θ ) cos(3θ ) dθ

solution Let u = sin(3θ ). Then du = 3 cos(3θ )dθ and

 
1 1 1
sin (3θ ) cos(3θ ) dθ =
2
u2 du = u3 + C = sin3 (3θ ) + C.
3 9 9

63. csc2 (9 − 2θ ) dθ

solution Let u = 9 − 2θ . Then du = −2 dθ and

 
1 1 1
csc2 (9 − 2θ ) dθ = − csc2 u du = cot u + C = cot(9 − 2θ ) + C.
2 2 2

√
64. sin θ 4 − cos θ dθ

solution Let u = 4 − cos θ . Then du = sin θ dθ and

 
√ 2 2
sin θ 4 − cos θ dθ = u1/2 du = u3/2 + C = (4 − cos θ )3/2 + C.
3 3
 π/3 sin θ
65. dθ
0 cos2/3 θ
solution Let u = cos θ . Then du = − sin θ dθ and when θ = 0, u = 1 and when θ = π3 , u = 12 . Finally,
 π/3  1/2 1/2 √
sin θ −2/3

1/3  −1/3 334
dθ = − u du = −3u  = −3(2 − 1) = 3 − .
0 cos2/3 θ 1 1 2

sec2 t dt
66.
(tan t − 1)2
solution Let u = tan t − 1. Then du = sec2 t dt and
 
sec2 t dt 1
= u−2 du = −u−1 + C = − + C.
(tan t − 1) 2 tan t − 1
736 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

67. e9−2x dx

solution Let u = 9 − 2x. Then du = −2 dx, and

 
1 1 1
e9−2x dx = − eu du = − eu + C = − e9−2x + C.
2 2 2
 3
68. e4x−3 dx
1
 
3 1 4x−3 3 1 9
solution e 4x−3
dx = e  = 4 (e − e).
1 4 1

3
69. x 2 ex dx

solution Let u = x 3 . Then du = 3x 2 dx, and

 
3 1 1 1 3
x 2 ex dx = eu du = eu + C = ex + C.
3 3 3
 ln 3 x
70. ex−e dx
0
solution Note ex−e = ex e−e . Now, let u = ex . Then du = ex dx, and the new limits of integration are
x x

u = e0 = 1 and u = eln 3 = 3. Thus,

 ln 3  ln 3  3 3
x −ex

−t 
e x−ex
dx = e e dx = −u
e du = −e  = −(e−3 − e−1 ) = e−1 − e−3 .
0 0 1 1

71. ex 10x dx
 
(10e)x (10e)x 10x ex
solution ex 10x dx = (10e)x dx = +C = +C = + C.
ln(10e) ln 10 + ln e ln 10 + 1

72. e−2x sin(e−2x ) dx

solution Let u = e−2x . Then du = −2e−2x dx, and

     
1 cos u 1
e−2x sin e−2x dx = − sin u du = + C = cos e−2x + C.
2 2 2

e−x dx
73.
(e−x + 2)3
solution Let u = e−x + 2. Then du = −e−x dx and
 
e−x dx 1 1
−x
= − u−3 du = 2 + C = −x
+ C.
(e + 2) 3 2u 2(e + 2)2

2 θ+1
74. sin θ cos θ ecos dθ

solution Let u = cos2 θ + 1. Then du = −2 sin θ cos θ dθ and

 
2 1 1 1 2
sin θ cos θ ecos θ+1 dθ = − eu du = − eu + C = − ecos θ+1 + C.
2 2 2
 π/6
75. tan 2θ dθ
0
 π/6
π/6 1  1
solution tan 2θ dθ = ln | sec 2θ | = ln 2.
0 2 0 2
 Chapter Review Exercises 737

 2π/3  
1
76. cot θ dθ
π/3 2
solution
     2π/3
2π/3 1  θ  
cot θ dθ = 2 ln sin
π/3 2 2  π/3
 π π
= 2 ln sin − ln sin
3 6
 √ 
3 1
= 2 ln − ln = ln 3.
2 2

dt
77.
t (1 + (ln t)2 )
solution Let u = ln t. Then, du = dt and1
t
 
dt du
= = tan−1 u + C = tan−1 (ln t) + C.
t (1 + (ln t) )
2 1 + u2

cos(ln x) dx
78.
x
solution Let u = ln x. Then du = dx x , and
 
cos(ln x)
dx = cos u du = sin u + C = sin(ln x) + C.
x
 e ln x dx
79.
1 x
solution Let u = ln x. Then du = dx
x and the new limits of integration are u = ln 1 = 0 and u = ln e = 1.
Thus,
  
e ln x dx 1 1 2 1 1
= u du = u  = .
1 x 0 2 0 2

dx
80. √
x ln x
solution Let u = ln x. Then du = x1 dx, and
  √
dx √
√ = u−1/2 du = 2 u + C = 2 ln x + C.
x ln x

dx
81.
4x 2 + 9
solution Let u = 2x
Then x = 32 u, dx = 23 du, and
3 .
  3   
dx 2 du 1 du 1 −1 1 −1 2x
= = = tan u + C = tan + C.
4x 2 + 9 4 · 49 u2 + 9 6 u2 + 1 6 6 3
 0.8
dx
82. √
0 1 − x2
 0.8 0.8
dx 
solution √ = sin−1 x  = sin−1 0.8 − sin−1 0 = sin−1 0.8.
0 1 − x2 0
 12
dx
83. √
4 x x2 − 1
 12 12
dx −1 

solution √ = sec x  = sec−1 12 − sec−1 4.
4 x x −1
2
4
738 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 3 x dx
84.
0 x2 + 9
solution Let u = x 2 + 9. Then du = 2xdx, and the new limits of integration are u = 9 and u = 18.
Thus,
  18
3 x dx 1 18 du 1  1 1 18 1
= = ln |u| = (ln 18 − ln 9) = ln = ln 2.
0 x +9
2 2 9 u 2 9 2 2 9 2

 3 dx
85.
0 x2 +9
solution Let u = x3 . Then du = dx
3 , and the new limits of integration are u = 0 and u = 1. Thus,
  
3 dx 1 1 dt 1 −1 1 1 −1 −1 1 π  π
= = tan t  = (tan 1 − tan 0) = − 0 = .
0 x +9
2 3 0 t +1
2 3 0 3 3 4 12


dx
86. √
e2x − 1
solution Let u = ex . Then

du = ex dx ⇒ du = udx ⇒ u−1 du = dx

By substitution, we obtain
 
dx du
√ = √
e2x −1 u u2 − 1
= sec−1 u + C = sec−1 (ex ) + C

x dx
87. √
1 − x4
√ √
solution Let u = x 2 . Then du = 2xdx, and 1 − x 4 = 1 − u2 . Thus,
 
x dx 1 du 1 1
√ = √ = sin−1 u + C = sin−1 (x 2 ) + C.
1−x 4 2 1−u 2 2 2

 √
5/ 2 dx
88. √ √
−5/ 2 25 − x 2
√ √
solution Let x = 5u. Then dx = 5 du, and the new limits of integration are u = −1/ 2 and u = 1/ 2.
Thus,
 √  √ 1/√2
5/ 2 dx 1/ 2 du  π  π π
√ √ = √ = sin −1
u √ = − − = .
−5/ 2 25 − x 2 −1sqrt2 1 − u2 −1/ 2 4 4 2

 4 dx
89.
0 2x 2 + 1
√ √ √
solution Let u = 2x. Then du = 2 dx, and the new limits of integration are u = 0 and u = 4 2.
Thus,
  √  √
4 dx 4 2 √1 du 1 4 2 du
2
= =√
0 2x 2 + 1 0 u2 + 1 2 0 u2+1
4√2
1  1  √  1 √
= √ tan−1 u = √ tan−1 (4 2) − tan−1 0 = √ tan−1 (4 2).
2 0 2 2
 Chapter Review Exercises 739

 8
dx
90. √
5 x x 2 − 16
solution Let x = 4u. Then dx = 4 du, and the new limits of integration are u = 54 and u = 2. Thus,
 8      
dx 1 2 du 1  −1  2 1 5 1 π 5
√ = √ = sec u  = sec−1 2 − sec−1 = − sec−1 .
5 x x 2 − 16 4 5/4 u u2 − 1 4 5/4 4 4 4 3 4

(tan−1 x)3 dx
1
91.
0 1 + x2
solution Let u = tan−1 x. Then
1
du = dx
1 + x2
and
  
1 (tan−1 x)3 dx π/4 1 4 π/4 1  π 4 π4
= u du = u 
3
= = .
0 1 + x2 0 4 0 4 4 1024

cos−1 t dt
92. √
1 − t2
solution Let u = cos−1 t. Then du = − √ 1 dt, and
1−t 2
 
cos−1 t 1 1 2
√ dt = − u du = − u2 + C = − (cos−1 t) + C.
1 − t2 2 2

93. Combine to write as a single integral:

 8  0  6
f (x) dx + f (x) dx + f (x) dx
0 −2 8

solution First, rewrite

 8  6  8
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
0 0 6
and observe that
 6  8
f (x) dx = − f (x) dx.
8 6
Thus,
 8  6  6
f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
0 8 0
Finally,
 8  0  6  6  0  6
f (x) dx + f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
0 −2 8 0 −2 −2
 x
94. Let A(x) = f (x) dx, where f is the function shown in Figure 4. Identify the location of the local
0
minima, the local maxima, and points of inflection of A on the interval [0, E], as well as the intervals where
A is increasing, decreasing, concave up, or concave down. Where does the absolute maximum of A occur?
y

x
A B C D E

FIGURE 4
740 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

solution Let f be the function shown in Figure 4 and define

 x
A(x) = f (x) dx.
0

Then A
(x)= f (x) and A

(x)
= f
(x).
Hence, A is increasing when f is positive, is decreasing when
f is negative, is concave up when f is increasing and is concave down when f is decreasing. Thus, A is
increasing for 0 < x < B, is decreasing for B < x < D and for D < x < E, has a local maximum at x = B
and no local minima. Moreover, A is concave up for 0 < x < A and for C < x < D, is concave down for
A < x < C and for D < x < E, and has a point of inflection at x = A, x = C and x = D. The absolute
maximum value for A occurs at x = B.
 x
t dt
95. Find the local minima, the local maxima, and the inflection points of A(x) = .
3 t +1
2

solution Let
 x t dt
A(x) = .
3 t2 + 1
Then
x
A
(x) =
x2 +1
and
(x 2 + 1)(1) − x(2x) 1 − x2
A

(x) = = .
(x 2 + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)2
Now, x = 0 is the only critical point of A; because A

(0) > 0, it follows that A has a local minimum at

x = 0. There are no local maxima. Moreover, A is concave down for |x| > 1 and concave up for |x| < 1. A
therefore has inflection points at x = ±1.
96. A particle starts at the origin at time t = 0 and moves with velocity v(t) as shown in Figure 5.
(a) How many times does the particle return to the origin in the first 12 seconds?
(b) What is the particle’s maximum distance from the origin?
(c) What is the particle’s maximum distance to the left of the origin?

v(t) (m/s)
4

2
5
t (s)
10
−2

−4

FIGURE 5

solution Because the particle starts at the origin, the position of the particle is given by
 t
s(t) = v(τ ) dτ ;
0

that is by the signed area between the graph of the velocity and the t-axis over the interval [0, t]. Using the
geometry in Figure 5, we see that s(t) is increasing for 0 < t < 4 and for 8 < t < 10 and is decreasing for
4 < t < 8 and for 10 < t < 12. Furthermore,
s(0) = 0 m, s(4) = 4 m, s(8) = −4 m, s(10) = −2 m, and s(12) = −6 m.
(a) In the first 12 seconds, the particle returns to the origin once, sometime between t = 4 and t = 8 seconds.
(b) The particle’s maximum distance from the origin is 6 meters (to the left at t = 12 seconds).
(c) The particle’s maximum distance to the left of the origin is 6 meters.
97. On a typical day, a city consumes water at the rate of r(t) = 100 + 72t − 3t 2 (in thousands of gallons
per hour), where t is the number of hours past midnight. What is the daily water consumption? How much
water is consumed between 6 pm and midnight?
 Chapter Review Exercises 741

solution With a consumption rate of r(t) = 100 + 72t − 3t 2 thousand gallons per hour, the daily
consumption of water is
 24 
 24
3 
(100 + 72t − 3t ) dt = 100t + 36t − t  = 100(24) + 36(24)2 − (24)3 = 9312,
2 2
0 0

or 9.312 million gallons. From 6 PM to midnight, the water consumption is

 24  24

(100 + 72t − 3t 2 ) dt = 100t + 36t 2 − t 3 
18 18

= 100(24) + 36(24) − (24)3 − 100(18) + 36(18)2 − (18)3
2

= 9312 − 7632 = 1680,

or 1.68 million gallons.
98. The learning curve in a certain bicycle factory is L(x) = 12x −1/5 (in hours per bicycle), which means
that it takes a bike mechanic L(n) hours to assemble the nth bicycle. If a mechanic has produced 24 bicycles,
how long does it take her or him to produce a subsequent batch of 12?
solution The second batch of 12 bicycles consists of bicycles 13 through 24. The time it takes to produce
these bicycles is
 24 24
 
12x −1/5 dx = 15x 4/5  = 15 244/5 − 134/5 ≈ 73.91 hours.
13 13

99. Cost engineers at NASA have the task of projecting the cost P of major space projects. It has been found
that the cost C of developing a projection increases with P at the rate dC/dP ≈ 21P −0.65 , where C is in
thousands of dollars and P in millions of dollars. What is the cost of developing a projection for a project
whose cost turns out to be P = $35 million?
solution Assuming it costs nothing to develop a projection for a project with a cost of $0, the cost of
developing a projection for a project whose cost turns out to be $35 million is
 35 35
−0.65

0.35 
21P dP = 60P  = 60(35)
0.35
≈ 208.245,
0 0

or $208,245.
100. An astronomer estimates that in a certain constellation, the number of stars per magnitude m, per degree-
squared of sky, is equal to A(m) = 2.4 × 10−6 m7.4 (fainter stars have higher magnitudes). Determine the
total number of stars of magnitude between 6 and 15 in a 1-degree-squared region of sky.
solution The total number of stars of magnitude between 6 and 15 in a one-degree-squared region of sky
is
 15  15
A(m) dm = 2.4 × 10−6 m7.4 dm
6 6
15
2 
= × 10−6 m8.4 
7 6
≈ 2162
 8 x 15 dx
101. Evaluate , using the properties of odd functions.
−8 3 + cos2 x
x 15
solution Let f (x) = 3+cos2 x
and note that

(−x)15 x 15
f (−x) = =− = −f (x).
3 + cos (−x)
2 3 + cos2 x
Because f is an odd function and the interval −8 ≤ x ≤ 8 is symmetric about x = 0, it follows that
 8
x 15 dx
= 0.
−8 3 + cos x
2
742 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

 1
102. Evaluate f (x) dx, assuming that f is an even continuous function such that
0
 2  1
f (x) dx = 5, f (x) dx = 8
1 −2

solution Using the given information

 2  1  2
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx = 13.
−2 −2 1

Because f (x) is an even function, it follows that

 0  2
f (x) dx = f (x) dx,
−2 0
so
 2 13
f (x) dx = .
0 2
Finally,
 1  2  2 13 3
f (x) dx = f (x) dx − f (x) dx = −5= .
0 0 1 2 2

103. Plot the graph of f (x) = sin mx sin nx on [0, π ] for the pairs (m, n) = (2, 4), (3, 5) and in
 π
each case guess the value of I = f (x) dx. Experiment with a few more values (including two cases with
0
m = n) and formulate a conjecture for when I is zero.
solution The graphs of f (x) = sin mx sin nx with (m, n) = (2, 4) and (m, n) = (3, 5) are shown below.
It appears as if the positive areas balance the negative areas, so we expect that
 π
I= f (x) dx = 0
0

in these cases.
y y
(2, 4) (3, 5)

0.5 0.5

x x
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

−0.5 −0.5

We arrive at the same conclusion for the cases (m, n) = (4, 1) and (m, n) = (5, 2).
y y
(4, 1) (5, 2)

0.5 0.5

x x
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

−0.5 −0.5

However, when (m, n) = (3, 3) and when (m, n) = (5, 5), the value of
 π
I= f (x) dx
0

is clearly not zero as there is no negative area.

 Chapter Review Exercises 743

y y

0.5 0.5

x x
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

−0.5 −0.5
(3, 3) (5, 5)

We therefore conjecture that I is zero whenever m  = n.

104. Show that

x f (x) dx = xF (x) − G(x)

where
 F
(x) = f (x) and G
(x) = F (x). Use this to evaluate
x cos x dx.

solution Suppose F
(x) = f (x) and G
(x) = F (x). Then
d
(xF (x) − G(x)) = xF
(x) + F (x) − G
(x) = xf (x) + F (x) − F (x) = xf (x).
dx
Therefore, xF (x) − G(x) is an antiderivative of xf (x) and

xf (x) dx = xF (x) − G(x) + C.
&
To evaluate x cos x dx, note that f (x) = cos x. Thus, we may take F (x) = sin x and G(x) = − cos x.
Finally,

x cos x dx = x sin x + cos x + C.

105. Prove
 2  2
1 1
2≤ 2x dx ≤ 4 and ≤ 3−x dx ≤
1 9 1 3
solution The function f (x) = 2x is increasing, so 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 implies that 2 = 21 ≤ 2x ≤ 22 = 4.
Consequently,
 2  2  2
2= 2 dx ≤ 2x dx ≤ 4 dx = 4.
1 1 1

On the other hand, the function f (x) = 3−x is decreasing, so 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 implies that
1 1
= 3−2 ≤ 3−x ≤ 3−1 = .
9 3
It then follows that
 2  2  2
1 1 −x 1 1
= dx ≤ 3 dx ≤ dx = .
9 1 9 1 1 3 3
 2
106. Plot the graph of f (x) = x −2 sin x, and show that 0.2 ≤ f (x) dx ≤ 0.9.
1
solution Let f (x) = x −2 sin x. From the figure below, we see that
0.2 ≤ f (x) ≤ 0.9
for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2. Therefore,
 2  2  2
0.2 = 0.2 dx ≤ f (x) dx ≤ 0.9 dx = 0.9.
1 1 1
744 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

0.8

0.6
x−2sin x
0.4

0.2

x
0.5 1 1.5 2

 1
107. Find upper and lower bounds for f (x) dx, for y = f (x) in Figure 6.
0

y y = x2 + 1 y = f(x)

2 y = x 1/2 + 1

x
1
FIGURE 6

√
solution From the figure, we see that the inequalities x 2 + 1 ≤ f (x) ≤ x + 1 hold for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Because
  1
1 1 3  4
(x 2 + 1) dx = x + x  =
0 3 0 3

and
  1
1 √ 2 3/2  5
( x + 1) dx = x + x  = ,
0 3 0 3

it follows that
 1
4 5
≤ f (x) dx ≤ .
3 0 3

In Exercises 108–113, find the derivative.

 x

108. A (x), where A(x) = sin(t 3 ) dt

3
 x
solution Let A(x) = sin(t 3 ) dt. Then A
(x) = sin(x 3 ).
3
 x cos t
109. A
(π ), where A(x) = dt
2 1+t
 x cos t cos x
solution Let A(x) = dt. Then A
(x) = and
2 1+t 1+x
cos π 1
A
(π ) = =− .
1+π 1+π
 y
d
110. 3x dx
dy −2
 y
d
solution 3x dx = 3y .
dy −2
 Chapter Review Exercises 745

 sin x
111. G
(x), where G(x) = t 3 dt
−2
 sin x
solution Let G(x) = t 3 dt. Then
−2

d
G
(x) = sin3 x sin x = sin3 x cos x.
dx
 x3 √
112. G
(2), where G(x) = t + 1 dt
0
 x3 √
solution Let G(x) = t + 1 dt. Then
0
 d 3 
G
(x) = x3 + 1 x = 3x 2 x 3 + 1
dx
√
and G
(2) = 3(2)2 8 + 1 = 36.
 9
1
113. H
(1), where H (x) = dt
4x t
2

 9  4x 2
1 1
solution Let H (x) = dt = − dt. Then
4x 2 t 9 t
1 d 8x 2
H
(x) = − 4x 2 = − 2 = −
4x 2 dx 4x x
and H
(1) = −2.
114. Explain with a graph: If f is increasing and concave up on [a, b], then LN is more accurate than
RN . Which is more accurate if f is increasing and concave down?
solution Consider the figure below, which displays a portion of the graph of an increasing, concave up
function.
y

The shaded rectangles represent the differences between the right-endpoint approximation RN and the left-
endpoint approximation LN . In particular, the portion of each rectangle that lies below the graph of y = f (x)
is the amount by which LN underestimates the area under the graph, whereas the portion of each rectangle
that lies above the graph of y = f (x) is the amount by which RN overestimates the area. Because the graph
of y = f (x) is increasing and concave up, the lower portion of each shaded rectangle is smaller than the
upper portion. Therefore, LN is more accurate (introduces less error) than RN . By similar reasoning, if f is
increasing and concave down, then RN is more accurate than LN .
 b
1
115. Explain with a graph: If f is linear on [a, b], then the f (x) dx = (RN + LN ) for all N .
a 2
solution Consider the figure below, which displays a portion of the graph of a linear function.
y

x
746 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

The shaded rectangles represent the differences between the right-endpoint approximation RN and the left-
endpoint approximation LN . In particular, the portion of each rectangle that lies below the graph of y = f (x)
is the amount by which LN underestimates the area under the graph, whereas the portion of each rectangle
that lies above the graph of y = f (x) is the amount by which RN overestimates the area. Because the graph
of y = f (x) is a line, the lower portion of each shaded rectangle is exactly the same size as the upper portion.
Therefore, if we average LN and RN , the error in the two approximations will exactly cancel, leaving
 b
1
(RN + LN ) = f (x) dx.
2 a

116. In this exercise, we prove

x2
x− ≤ ln(1 + x) ≤ x (for x > 0) 1
2
 x dt
(a) Show that ln(1 + x) = for x > 0.
0 1+t
1
(b) Verify that 1 − t ≤ ≤ 1 for all t > 0.
1+t
(c) Use (b) to prove Eq. (1).
(d) Verify Eq. (1) for x = 0.5, 0.1, and 0.01.
solution
(a) Let x > 0. Then
 x
x dt 
= ln(1 + t) = ln(1 + x) − ln 1 = ln(1 + x).
0 1+t 0

(b) For t > 0, 1 + t > 1, so 1

1+t < 1. Moreover, (1 − t)(1 + t) = 1 − t 2 < 1. Because 1 + t > 0, it follows
that 1 − t < 1+t
1
. Hence,

1
1−t ≤ ≤ 1.
1+t
(c) Integrating each expression in the result from part (b) from t = 0 to t = x yields

x2
x− ≤ ln(1 + x) ≤ x.
2
(d) For x = 0.5, x = 0.1 and x = 0.01, we obtain the string of inequalities

0.375 ≤ 0.405465 ≤ 0.5

0.095 ≤ 0.095310 ≤ 0.1
0.00995 ≤0.00995033≤ 0.01,

respectively.
117. Let
  x 
F (x) = x x 2 − 1 − 2 t 2 − 1 dt
1

Prove that F (x) and y = cosh−1 x differ by a constant by showing that they have the same derivative. Then
prove they are equal by evaluating both at x = 1.
solution Let
  x 
F (x) = x x 2 − 1 − 2 t 2 − 1 dt.
1

Then
dF  x2  x2  1
= x2 − 1 + √ − 2 x2 − 1 = √ − x2 − 1 = √ .
dx x −1
2 x −1
2 x −1
2
 Chapter Review Exercises 747

−1
Also, d
dx (cosh x) = √ 12 ; therefore, F (x) and cosh−1 x have the same derivative. We conclude that F (x)
x −1
−1
and cosh x differ by a constant:

F (x) = cosh−1 x + C.

Now, let x = 1. Because F (1) = 0 and cosh−1 1 = 0, it follows that C = 0. Therefore,

F (x) = cosh−1 x.

118. Let f be a positive increasing continuous function on [a, b], where 0 ≤ a < b as in Figure 7.
Show that the shaded region has area
 b
I = bf (b) − af (a) − f (x) dx 2
a

y
f(b)

y = f(x)

f(a)
x
a b

FIGURE 7

solution We can construct the shaded region in Figure 7 by taking a rectangle of length b and height f (b)
and removing a rectangle of length a and height f (a) as well as the region between the graph of y = f (x)
and the x-axis over the interval [a, b]. The area of the resulting region is then the area of the large rectangle
minus the area of the small rectangle and minus the area under the curve y = f (x); that is,
 b
I = bf (b) − af (a) − f (x) dx.
a

119. How can we interpret the quantity I in Eq. (2) if a < b ≤ 0? Explain with a graph.
solution We will consider each term on the right-hand side of (2) separately. For convenience, let I, II,
III and IV denote the area of the similarly labeled region in the diagram below.
y
f(b)

II
I

f(a)
III IV x
a b

Because b < 0, the expression bf (b) is the opposite of the area of the rectangle along the right; that is,

bf (b) = −II − IV.

Similarly,
 b
−af (a) = III + IV and − f (x) dx = −I − III.
a

Therefore,
 b
bf (b) − af (a) − f (x) dx = −I − II;
a

that is, the opposite of the area of the shaded region shown below.
748 CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL

y
f(b)

f(a)
x
a b

120. The isotope thorium-234 has a half-life of 24.5 days.

(a) What is the differential equation satisfied by y(t), the amount of thorium-234 in a sample at time t?
(b) At t = 0, a sample contains 2 kg of thorium-234. How much remains after 40 days?
solution
(a) By the equation for half-life,
ln 2 ln 2
24.5 = , so k = ≈ 0.028 days−1 .
k 24.5
Therefore, the differential equation for y(t) is

y
= −0.028y.

(b) If there are 2 kg of thorium-234 at t = 0, then y(t) = 2e−0.028t . After 40 days, the amount of thorium-234
is

y(40) = 2e−0.028(40) = 0.653 kg.

121. The Oldest Snack Food? In Bat Cave, New Mexico, archaeologists found ancient human remains,
including cobs of popping corn whose C14 -to-C12 ratio was approximately 48% of that found in living matter.
Estimate the age of the corn cobs.
solution Let t be the age of the corn cobs. The C 14 to C 12 ratio decreased by a factor of e−0.000121t which
is equal to 0.48. That is:

e−0.000121t = 0.48,

so

−0.000121t = ln 0.48,

and
1
t =− ln 0.48 ≈ 6065.9.
0.000121
We conclude that the age of the corn cobs is approximately 6065.9 years.
122. The C14 -to-C12 ratio of a sample is proportional to the disintegration rate (number of beta particles
emitted per minute) that is measured directly with a Geiger counter. The disintegration rate of carbon in a
living organism is 15.3 beta particles per minute per gram. Find the age of a sample that emits 9.5 beta particles
per minute per gram.
solution Let t be the age of the sample in years. Because the disintegration rate for the sample has
dropped from 15.3 beta particles/min per gram to 9.5 beta particles/min per gram and the C 14 to C 12 ratio
is proportional to the disintegration rate, it follows that
9.5
e−0.000121t = ,
15.3
so
1 9.5
t =− ln ≈ 3938.5.
0.000121 15.3
We conclude that the sample is approximately 3938.5 years old.
 Chapter Review Exercises 749

123. What is the interest rate if the PV of $50,000 to be delivered in 3 years is $43,000?
solution Let r denote the interest rate. The present value of $50,000 received in 3 years with an interest
rate of r is 50000e−3r . Thus, we need to solve

43000 = 50000e−3r

for r. This yields

1 43
r = − ln = 0.0503.
3 50
Thus, the interest rate is 5.03%.
124. An equipment upgrade costing $1 million will save a company $320,000 per year for 4 years. Is this a
good investment if the interest rate is r = 5%? What is the largest interest rate that would make the investment
worthwhile? Assume that the savings are received as a lump sum at the end of each year.
solution With an interest rate of r = 5%, the present value of the four payments is

$320,000 e−0.05 + e−0.1 + e−0.15 + e−0.2 = $1,131,361.78.

As this is greater than the $1 million cost of the upgrade, this is a good investment. To determine the largest
interest rate that would make the investment worthwhile, we must solve the equation

320000 e−r + e−2r + e−3r + e−4r = 1000000

for r. Using a computer algebra system, we find r = 10.13%.

125. Find the PV of an income stream paying out continuously at a rate of 5000e−0.1t dollars per year for 5
years, assuming an interest rate of r = 4%.
 5  5 
−0.1t −0.04t −0.14t 5000 −0.14t 5
solution P V = 5000e e dt = 5000e dt = e  = $17, 979.10.
0 0 −0.14 0
126. Calculate the limit:
   4n
4 n 1
(a) lim 1 + (b) lim 1+
n→∞ n n→∞ n
 
4 3n
(c) lim 1 +
n→∞ n
solution
    4
4 n 1 n/4
(a) lim 1 + = lim 1+ = e4 .
n→∞ n n→∞ n/4
    4
1 4n 1 n
(b) lim 1 + = lim 1+ = e4 .
n→∞ n n→∞ n
    12
4 3n 1 n/4
(c) lim 1 + = lim 1+ = e12 .
n→∞ n n→∞ n/4