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IAL Unit 5 Edexcel Notes

Physics Unit 5 Revision IAL Edexcel
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
293 views27 pages

IAL Unit 5 Edexcel Notes

Physics Unit 5 Revision IAL Edexcel
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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EDEXCEL International Advanced Level

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Edexcel IAL Physics Unit 5
Summary©

HASAN SAYGINEL

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Thermal energy

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1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

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Heat is energy and is more accurately referred to as thermal energy; heating is a process
which involves a flow of thermal energy. Heating can occur through 3 different processes
and these are namely conduction, convection and radiation.

On the other hand, temperature is related to the mean, random, kinetic energy of the
vibrating atoms of a body. According to the kinetic theory, when energy is supplied to an
object, the particles in that object take up the energy as kinetic energy, and move faster. In
solids, this motion is usually in the form of vibrations. If we are considering a gas, we imagine
the molecules whizzing around their container at a greater speed. It is this kinetic energy
that determines the temperature. If the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a
substance increases, then it is at a higher temperature.

Temperature is one of the fundamental SI quantities. The base SI unit of temperature is the
Kelvin, symbol K. This is defined in terms of what is called the absolute thermodynamic scale
of temperature, which has absolute zero as its zero and defines the melting point of ice as
273 K. The formula for the interconversion between Celsius and Kelvin are as follows:

T/K = 𝜃/°C + 273

A change in temperature of ∆𝜃 measured in °C is numerically the same as the corresponding


change of temperature ∆𝑇 in K.

Absolute zero
Absolute zero is the lowest temperature that can theoretically exist and is given a
temperature of 0 K. In terms of the kinetic theory, absolute zero is the temperature at which
the molecules of matter have their lowest possible average kinetic energy. In a simplified
model, the molecules are considered to have no average kinetic energy at absolute zero, in
other words they have no random movement. In practice, quantum mechanics requires that
they have a minimum kinetic energy, called the zero-point energy.

2 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY


Transferring the same amount of heat energy to two different objects will increase their
internal energy by the same amount. However, this will not necessarily cause the same rise
in temperature in both. The effect that transferred heat energy has on the temperature of
an object depends on three things:
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1- The amount of heat energy transferred

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2- The mass of the object

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3- The specific heat capacity of the material from which the object is made

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Specific heat capacity: the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
particular substance by 1K.

Different materials have different specific heat capacities because their molecular structures
are different and so their molecules will be affected to different degrees by additional heat
energy. For a certain amount of energy, ∆𝐸, transferred to a material, the change in
temperature ∆𝜃 is related to the mass of the material, m, and the specific capacity, c, by the
expression:

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃

3 INTERNAL ENERGY
The average kinetic energy of the molecules in a material give it its temperature. However,
as well as having kinetic energy, each molecule will have some potential energy virtue of its
position within the structure of the material, or in relation to other molecules in the
substance. This potential energy is due to the bonds between molecules. If we sum the
kinetic and potential energies of all molecules within a given mass of a substance, we have
measured its internal energy.

It is important to note that the molecules do not all have the same amount of kinetic and
potential energies. The internal energy is randomly distributed across all the molecules
according to the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. If we identify the individual velocity of
each molecule in a particular sample, the values will range from a few moving slowly to a
few moving very fast, with the majority moving at close to the average speed.

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution: plot of the kinetic energy against the number of molecules
that have that energy.

A Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution graph is for one specific temperature. As the temperature


changes, so the graph changes. The peak on the graph moves towards higher energies (and
therefore higher speeds) as the temperature increases.
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4 THE KINETIC THEORY
Evidence for the existence of molecules as well as the kinetic theory comes from Brownian
motion. Robert Brown noticed that tiny grains of pollen, when suspended in water and
viewed under a microscope, continually moved backwards and forwards with small, random,
jerky paths. This happens because of the unequal bombardment of the very fine grains of
pollen by the invisible water molecules, which themselves must therefore be in continuous
motion.

Brownian motion provides a strong evidence for particles of matter being in continuous
motion. Kinetic theory relates the macroscopic behaviour of an ideal gas, in terms of its
pressure, volume and temperature, to the microscopic properties of its molecules.

Assumption Experimental evidence


A gas consists of a very large number of Brownian motion.
molecules.
These molecules are in continuous, rapid,
random motion.
Collisions between molecules and between If not, molecules would gradually slow down
molecules and the walls of a container are – this cannot be the case as Brownian
perfectly elastic (i.e. no kinetic energy is motion is observed to be continuous. It
lost) would also mean that the gas would
gradually cool down.
The volume occupied by the molecules It is easy to compress a gas by a large
themselves is negligible compared with the amount.
volume of the container.
Intermolecular forces are negligible except From the above it follows that on average
during a collision. the molecules are very far apart relative to
their size and so the intermolecular forces
become very small.
The duration of collisions is negligible This also follows from the fact that the
compared with the time spent in between molecules, on average, are very much
collisions. further apart than their size.
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5 KINETIC MODEL OF TEMPERATURE
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6 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
A- Boyle’s law
Boyle’s law states that:

For a constant mass of gas at a constant temperature, the pressure exerted by the gas is
inversely proportional to the volume it occupies.

1
𝑝𝛼
𝑉

The graph of p against V is called an isothermal. An isothermal is a curve that shows the
relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at a particular temperature. As this is
a straight line through the origin we can deduce that:
1 1
𝑝 = 𝑉 or 𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑉

Giving pV = constant

A convenient way of remembering Boyle’s law for calculations is:

𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2

Three different graphs may be drawn which illustrate Boyle’s law and these are shown below
along with how each graph would be altered with an increase in temperature.
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B- Charles’s law
Charles’s law states that:

For a constant mass of gas at a constant pressure, the volume occupies by the gas is
proportional to its absolute temperature.

𝑉∝𝑇

C- The pressure law


The pressure law states that:

For a constant mass of gas at a constant volume, the pressure exerted by the gas is
proportional to its absolute temperature.

The pressure law can be shown in symbols as:

𝑝∝𝑇

As the graph is a straight line through the origin, it


shows that
𝑝
𝑝 ∝ 𝑇 or = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇

for a fixed mass of gas at constant volume.


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7 IDEAL GAS LAW

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Assuming an ideal gas, we can combine the three gas laws to produce a single equation

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relating the pressure, volume, temperature and amount of gas:

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𝑝𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇

Where N is the number of molecules of the gas and k is the Boltzmann constant. The
temperature must be absolute temperature in Kelvin.

This is known as the equation of state for an ideal gas, expressed in terms of the number of
molecules present.

To make this more useful in practice, where we are dealing with very large numbers of
molecules, we replace the Boltzmann constant and the number N to obtain:

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

Where n is the number of moles of the gas; R is the Universal gas constant, R = 8.31 J kg-1
mol-1.

Nuclear decay
1 BACKGROUND RADIATION
Background radiation: low levels of radiation always present in the environment, largely
from natural sources.

The main natural sources of background radiation are:

Radioactive gases (mainly radon) emitted from the ground, which can be trapped in
buildings and build up to potentially dangerous level – high levels of radon can
greatly increase the risk of lung cancer.
Radioactive elements in the Earth’s crust – mainly uranium and the isotopes it forms
when it decays – these give rise to gamma radiation, which is emitted from the
ground and rocks and building materials.
Cosmic rays from outer space which bombard the Earth’s atmosphere producing
showers of lower-energy particles such as muons, neutrons and electrons also
gamma rays.
Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes present in our food and drink, and in the air
we breathe, including carbon-14 and potassium-40.

Background radiation also comes from artificial sources such as medical sources.
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2 NUCLEAR RADIATION

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When a nuclear decay occurs, the radiation particle emitted will leave the nucleus with a

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certain amount of kinetic energy. As the particle travels, it will ionise particles in its path,

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losing a small amount of that kinetic energy at each ionisation. When all the kinetic energy is
transferred, the radiation particle stops and is absorbed by the substance it is in that
moment.

Alpha particles
Alpha particles are composed of two protons and two neutrons, the same as a helium
nucleus. This is a relatively large particle with a significant positive change (+2e), so it is
highly ionising. As it ionises so much, it quickly loses its kinetic energy and is easily absorbed.
A few centimetres travel in air is enough to absorb alpha particles, and they are completely
blocked by paper and skin.

Beta particles
A beta particle is an electron emitted at high speed from the nucleus when a neutron decays
into a proton. With its single negative charge and much smaller size, the beta particle is
much less ionising than an alpha particle, and thus penetrate much further. Several metres
of air, or a thin sheet of aluminium, are needed to absorb beta particles.

Gamma rays
Gamma rays are high energy, high frequency, electromagnetic radiation. These photons
have no charge and no mass and so will rarely interact with particles in their path, which
means they are the least ionising nuclear radiation. They are never completely absorbed,
although their energy can be significantly reduced by several centimetres of lead, or several
meters of concrete. If the energy is reduced to a safe level, gamma rays are often said to
have been absorbed.

3 DANGERS FROM NUCLEAR RADIATIONS


Ionising radiations can interact with the particles which make up human cells. There may be
so much ionisation that the cells die as a result. Where there is less ionisation, the molecules
of DNA in the cells may change slightly. These DNA mutations can cause cells to have an
increased tendency to become cancerous. As the different types of nuclear radiation ionise
to different extents, the hazard to humans is different for each type.
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4 RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

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Nuclear decay is spontaneous and random in nature. Any radioactive nucleus may decay at

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any moment. For each second that it exists, there is a certain probability that the nucleus

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will decay. This probability is called the decay constant, 𝜆. The likelihood that a particular
nucleus will decay is not affected by factors outside the nucleus, such as temperature and
pressure, or by the behaviour of the neighbouring nuclei – each nucleus acts entirely
independently.

If we have a large sample of the nuclei, the probability of decay will determine the fraction
of these nuclei that will decay each second. Naturally, if the sample is larger, then the
number that decay in a second will be greater. So the number decaying per second, called
the activity A, is proportional to the number of nuclei in the sample, N. Mathematically, this
is expressed as:

The minus sign in the formula occurs because the number of nuclei in the sample, N,
decreases with time.

The formula for the rate decay of nuclei in a sample is a differential equation. It can be
solved to give a formula for the number of nuclei remaining in a sample, N, after a fixed
time, t:

Half-life
The activity of a radioactive sample decreases over time as the radioactive nuclei decay.
While activity of a sample depends on the nuclei present, the rate at which the activity
decreases depends only on the particular isotope. A measure of this rate of decrease of
activity is the half-life. This is the time taken for half of the atoms of that nuclide within a
sample to decay.
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Half-life graphs
An experiment to determine the half-life of a substance will usually measure its activity over
time. As activity is proportional to the number of nuclei present, when the activity is plotted
against time, the shape of the curve is exponential decay. The activity, A, follows the
equation:

We can use the graph of activity against time to determine the half-life of the substance by
finding the time taken for the activity to halve.

Notice that the time interval is not identical


each time. This is due to random nature of
radioactive decay, plus experimental and
graphing errors. The best-fit curve will be a
matter of the drawer’s judgement. Thus, to
get the best answer for the half-life, we
must undertake the analysis on the graph
several times in different parts of the graph
and average the results.

5 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY


Energy-mass equivalence
We might expect that if we
known the constituent parts of
any nucleus, we can calculate
its mass by finding the total
mass of its nucleons. However,
in practice we find that the actual, measured mass of a nucleus is always less than the total
mass of its constituent nucleons. This difference is called the mass deficit, or sometimes the
mass defect.

1 u = 1.66 x 10-27
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Nuclear binding energy

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The mass deficit comes about because a small amount of the mass of the nucleons is

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converted into the energy needed to hold the nucleus together. This is called binding

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energy. It is calculated using Einstein’s mass-energy relationship:

∆𝐸 = 𝑐 2 𝑚

,where c is the speed of light.

There are two common systems of units for calculating binding energy. If you have
calculated the mass deficit in kilograms (SI units) then using c = 3.00 x 10 8 m s-1 will give the
binding energy in joules. Alternatively, if you have calculated the mass deficit in atomic mass
units, then you convert this into binding energy in mega-electronvolts (MeV) using:

1 u = 931.5 MeV

6 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON


Nuclear binding energy per nucleon which is the energy that would be needed to remove
one nucleon from a nucleus can be calculated by dividing the nuclear binding energy by the
number of nucleons. Drawing a graph of binding energy per nucleon against mass number
for the nuclei gives us a useful means of comparing how tightly different nuclides are bound
together.

The graph shows us that small nuclides can combine together to make larger nuclei (up to
Fe-56) with a greater binding energy per nucleon. This process is called nuclear fusion.
Similarly, larger nuclei can break up into smaller pieces which have a greater binding energy
per nucleon. Reactions like this are called nuclear fission.
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7 NUCLEAR FISSION

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Nuclear fission is the process by which a large nucleus breaks up into smaller daughter

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nuclei, with the release of some neutrons and energy.

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Process of fission of U-235

U-235 absorbs a slow-moving neutron.


U-235 splits and daughter elements are formed.
This releases energy and more neutrons.
Once fission has taken place, the neutrons can
be absorbed by other nuclei and further
reactions can take place. This is called a chain
reaction.

Nuclear power stations use fission


reactions to generate the heat needed to
produce steam. The nuclear reactor
controls the chain reaction so that energy
is steadily released. Fission occurs in the
fuel rods and causes them to become
very hot. The coolant is a fluid pumped
through the reactor. Control rods, made
of boron, absorb neutrons, preventing
the chain reaction getting out of control.
Moving the control rods in and out of the reactor core changes the amount of fission that
takes place.

8 NUCLEAR FUSION
If we take some light nuclei and force them to
join together, the mass of the new, heavier,
nucleus will be less than the mass of the
constituent parts, as some mass is converted
into energy. However, not all of this energy is
used as binding energy for the new larger
nucleus, so energy will be released from this
reaction. The binding energy per nucleon
afterwards is higher than at the start. This is the
process of nuclear fusion and is what provides
the energy to make stars shine.
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Problems about nuclear fusion

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Scientists have not yet successfully maintained a controlled nuclear fusion reaction.

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Very high temperatures are needed

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To overcome electrostatic repulsion / forces
Nuclei come close enough to fuse / for strong (nuclear) force to act
Very high densities are needed
(Together with high nuclei speeds) this gives a sufficient collision rate
(Very high) temperatures lead to confinement problems
Contact with container causes temperature to fall (and fusion to cease)

Oscillations
1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Simple harmonic motion is periodic motion about an equilibrium position and all SHMs share
two common characteristics:

The resultant force acting on the oscillating body, and therefore its acceleration, is
proportional to the displacement of the body from the equilibrium position.
The resultant force, and therefore the acceleration, always acts in a direction
towards the equilibrium position.

These conditions are combined into a simple equation:

𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 or 𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2

X is the horizontal distance from the centre. The motion is a


projection of a circular motion so the equations for angular
velocity, displacement, frequency and time are equally valid for
simple harmonic motion.

When the object is at position A, this projected distance x is equal to


the radius of the circle, r, but at position B this distance is shown by OC. This distance can be
calculated from:

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃

Or: 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos(𝜔𝑡)

In this experiment a spring is used therefore r is replaced with A which denotes the
displacement. The equation for SHM is then:

𝐹 = −𝑘𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡)
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Equations for displacement, velocity and acceleration can be derived from this single

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equation.

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−𝐹 −𝐹

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𝑥= = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡)

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𝑘 −𝑘

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Therefore,

𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡)

𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
= 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣) and 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎)
𝑑𝑡

𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡)

𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2 cos(𝜔𝑡)
1 2𝜋
𝑇=𝑓= so, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔

2 GRAPHS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION


There are two key points in the motion:

At each end of the oscillation, when the


velocity is momentarily zero, the displacement
curve is a maximum, positive or negative (A or –
A), and its gradient = 0.
At the centre of the motion,
corresponding to x = 0, the velocity has its
maximum value – you can see from the graph
for x that the gradient, and hence the velocity, is
a maximum at each point where the curve
crosses the t-axis; furthermore, the gradient
alternates between being positive and negative
as the body moves first one way, and then back
again, through the mid-point of its oscillations.

As a pendulum swings to and fro there is a


continuous interchange of kinetic and gravitational potential energy. At one end of its
swing, the pendulum momentarily comes to rest and so its kinetic energy is zero. At this
point it will have maximum potential energy because the bob is at its highest point. As the
bob swings down, it loses gravitational potential energy and gains kinetic energy. At the
bottom of the swing, the midpoint of motion, the bob will have maximum velocity and thus
maximum kinetic energy. As this is the lowest point of its motion, its gravitational potential
energy will have its minimum value. This cyclic interchange of energy is repeated twice every
oscillation.
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3 SPRING

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The equation for a spring that obeys Hooke’s law is F = kx where k is the spring constant, or

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stiffness of the spring, and x is the extension.

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4 SIMPLE PENDULUM
In this context simple means

A small, dense, pendulum bob and


A light, inextensible string

In the case of the simple pendulum, the force causing the oscillation is
provided by a component of the weight of the pendulum bob.

The required force is the component mgsin 𝜃. If 𝜃 is small then sin 𝜃 is close
to 𝜃 and so the force is proportional to displacement. It can then be shown,
for oscillations of small amplitude that the period, to a good approximation is given by

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
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5 FREE, DAMPED AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS

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A free oscillation is one in which no external force acts on the oscillation system except the

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force that gives rise to the oscillation.

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A damped oscillation is one in which energy is being transferred to the surroundings,
resulting in oscillations of reduced amplitude and energy. An oscillation system does work
against external forces acting on it, such as air resistance, and so uses up some energy. This
transfer of energy from the oscillating system to internal energy of the surrounding air
causes the oscillations to slow down and eventually die away.

Forced oscillations occur if a force is repeatedly or continually applied to keep the oscillation
going so that the system is make to vibrate at the frequency of the vibrating source and not
at its own natural frequency of vibration.

6 RESONANCE
If a system or object is forced to vibrate at its natural frequency, it will the maximum
energy and amplitude of the oscillations will reach its maximum.

The effects of resonance can be reduced by means of damping. If there is damping, the
resonant frequency at which the amplitude is a maximum is lower than the natural
frequency, and that this difference increases as the degree of damping increases. As the
amount of damping increases, the resonant peak is much lower, and the resonance curve
broadens out. Damping can be achieved by using a material which absorbs energy from the
oscillation (energy is transferred into the internal energy of the object) or it can be achieved
by the plastic deformation of ductile materials.
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Astrophysics and cosmology

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1 GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS

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A particle that has mass will feel a force when it is in a gravitational field. Like electric fields
created by charged particles, a massive particle will generate a radial gravitational field
around itself. Unlike electric fields, gravity is always attractive.

The force that a body will feel is the strength of the gravitational field (g) multiplied by the
amount of mass (m), as given by the equation:

F = mg

Newton was the first scientist to determine the equation that gives us the gravitational force
between two masses, m1 and m2, which are separated by a distance, r, between their
centres of gravity.

G has the value 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2

Radial fields
Any mass will generate a gravitational field that will exert a force on
any mass within the field. As gravity is always attractive, the field
produced by a point mass will be radial in shape and the field lines will
always point towards the mass.

Gravitational field strength


The radial field produced by a point mass naturally has its field lines closer together nearer
the mass. This means that the strength of the field decreases with increasing distance from
the mass causing it.
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Similarities and differences between gravitational and electric fields

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Gravitational field Electric field

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−𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2

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Force

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𝐹= 𝐹=
𝑟2 𝑟2

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Force is between Objects with mass Objects with charge
Field strength −𝐺𝑚 𝑘𝑞
𝑔= 2 𝐸= 2
𝑟 𝑟
Constant of proportionality G k
Force in a radial field Always attractive Can be attractive or repulsive
Potential in a radial field J kg-1 J C-1
Scalar Scalar
Always less than zero Sign depends on charges

2 LUMINOSITY AND FLUX


Luminosity is used to describe the total output power of a star, unit W. For example, the
luminosity of the Sun is L0 = 3.90 x 1026 W.

The electromagnetic wave energy per second per unit area from a star reaching us on Earth
is called the radiation flux from the star, symbol F, unit W m-2 (i.e. J s-1 m-2).

𝐿
𝐹=
4𝜋𝑑 2

3 STANDARD CANDLES
Standard candles are stellar objects of known luminosity.
Standard candle’s brightness (radiation flux) on earth is measured or known.
𝐿
The inverse square law 𝐹 = 4𝜋𝑑2 is used.
Distance to standard candle is calculated.

Cepheid stars are an example for standard candles. These stars have a luminosity which
varies periodically. The process of finding the distance to a Cepheid star is:

Locate the Cepheid variable star.


Measure its period T.
Find the star’s luminosity L.
Measure the radiation flux (brightness) F from the star at Earth
𝐿
Calculate d using = √4𝜋𝐹 .
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4 TRIGONOMETRIC PARALLAX

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To measure the distance to relatively close stars, astronomers use a method that is

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commonly used in surveying, known as trigonometric parallax. As the Earth moves around

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the Sun, a relatively close star will appear to move across the background of more distant
stars. This optical illusion is used to determine the distance of the star. The star itself does
not move significantly during the course of the observations. To determine the trigonometric
parallax you measure the angle to a star, and observe how that changes as the position of
the Earth changes. We know that in six months the Earth will be exactly on the opposite side
of its orbit, and therefore will be two astronomical units from its location today.

Using observations of the star to be measured against a background of much more distant
stars, we can measure the angle between the star and the Earth in these two different
positions in space, six months apart. As we know the size of the Earth’s orbit, geometry
allows calculation of the distance to the star.

The star is viewed from two positions at 6 months intervals.


The change in angular position of the star against background of fixed stars is
measured.
Trigonometry is used to calculate the distance to the star.
The diameter/radius of the Earth’s orbit about the Sun must be known.

This method of distance measurement is only suitable for the stars and star clusters closest
to the Earth.

If the stars are too far away the angular displacement is too small to be determined and
the uncertainty is too large.
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5 THE HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL DIAGRAM

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The H-R diagram is a plot of stellar luminosity against surface temperature. Note it is a

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diagram not a graph – each dot represents a single star. To understand the diagram you

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need to remember what the two axes are telling you.

The vertical axis is luminosity, scaled in Sun-powers, i.e. multiples of L0. The positions of
the stars go up and down from 1 in powers of 10, i.e. the scale is logarithmic. The Sun’s
luminosity L0 = 3.90 x 1026 W.
The horizontal axis is the surface temperature T of the star in Kelvin. This scale is also
logarithmic and goes from high temperature on the left to low temperatures on the
right.

6 WIEN’S LAW
To calculate luminosity, we need to know the temperature of
the star. When we examine the range of wavelengths emitted
by a star, known as its spectrum, we find that some
wavelengths are given off with more intensity than others.
This law assumes stars are black-body radiators meaning they
emit all wavelengths, yet with different intensities. Very hot
stars are blue and cool stars are red. At higher temperatures
the curve has a more pronounced peak, and the wavelength of the peak output gets shorter
as the temperature rises, the relationship between the peak wavelength and temperature is
described by Wien’s law:
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7 THE STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW

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The electromagnetic spectrum goes from the smaller 𝛾-rays and X-rays to the longer

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microwaves and radio waves. A star emits a continuous spectrum for which the total power

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output, its luminosity L, is proportional not to its temperature T, but to T 4.

That this does not match up with the L-T relationship shown for main sequence stars on an
H-R diagram is because the high-luminosity stars on the H-R diagram are larger than stars
like the Sun, and the Sun is larger than stars at the bottom right of the H-R diagram. The full
relationship is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

Working on the assumption that a star acts like a black body emitter, which is a very good
approximation, this equation describes the luminosity of a star.

8 THE LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR

The majority of material in the Universe is hydrogen or helium, and it is from these elements
that stars are initially formed. From an accreting collection of these gases, called a protostar,
the life cycle of a star follows a number of stages, with the star ending its life as a white
dwarf, neutron star or black hole.
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As the star undergoes nuclear fusion, the binding energy differences of the nuclei before

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and after fusion mean that the process releases energy, often as electromagnetic

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radiation, to heat the star. The pressure from the vibration of its particles and the

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electromagnetic radiation trying to escape hold up the structure of the star against

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gravitational collapse. It is this constant battle between outward pressure and gravity
that drives the evolution of a star throughout its lifetime. The initial mass of the star is a
critical factor in determining how the battle wages, and thus which of the possible life
cycles a star will follow.

Low-mass stars (Life cycle of our Sun)


Stage 1: The Sun was formed or born from a cloud of hydrogen and helium.

Stage 2 (current stage): The Sun joined the main sequence stars as it undergoes nuclear
fusion of hydrogen, converting into helium.

Stage 3: Eventually, the Sun will run low on hydrogen fuel, but will have produced so much
energy that it will expand slightly. This expansion causes the temperature to fall and the star
becomes a red giant. Once most of the hydrogen fuel is used, the star will start fusing helium
nuclei. This complex process can cause an explosion that throws some material from the star
out into space, forming a planetary nebula. As the fuel to produce energy to support the star
runs out, the outward pressure from fusion drops and gravity takes hold, causing the star to
contract to a much smaller size. This heats significantly and it becomes a white dwarf.

Stage 4 (theoretical): As time continues, the star will slowly run out of energy and die,
passing through the red dwarf stage to become a black dwarf.

Main sequence stars:

Fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium nuclei


Constant size

Red giants:

Fusion of helium nuclei and formation of


heavier elements
Loss of material into space and formation of a planetary nebula
Decrease in size and increase in temperature leading to formation of white dwarfs

White dwarfs:

White dwarf stars are the core remnant of a red giant star
There is no fusion going on in the white dwarf
They have small surface area so they are not very luminous
They are very hot, and appear white (because they emit all visible wavelengths)
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Massive stars

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If a protostar has more than four times the mass of our Sun, the star begins life as a blue

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supergiant. As with low mass stars, nuclear fusion begins and the star enters a stable stage

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of life in which heat pressure and gravity are in equilibrium. However, the fusion processes
happen at much higher temperatures than in lower mass stars. This means that it burns very
quickly, and the conditions make it possible for further fusion of some of the larger atoms it
produces to occur. The fusion of helium can produce a variety of the larger elements.

When the material of such a star has been fused to the point where it is mostly iron, it can
no longer undergo nuclear fusion and it stops producing energy. With the enormous
gravitational forces produced by the large mass, the star undergoes an incredible collapse.
This sudden increase in density produces a sudden huge burst of energy, effectively
bouncing the collapse back out. This explosion is a supernova and it is the most immense
burst of energy ever witnessed.

Within a supernova explosion there is so much energy that nuclear reactions occur which
produce the elements above iron in the periodic table. The natural occurrence of these
elements is evidence that supernovae must have occurred in the past, as the binding
energies of these heavy elements are such that they cannot be created in other natural
processes in the Universe.

After a high-mass star has exploded as a supernova, the entire star may be completely
shattered. If there remains a central core of stellar material, this will either be a neutron star
or a black hole. A neutron star consists almost entirely of neutrons, packed as densely
together as the nucleons within the nucleus of an atom. Black holes are even smaller and
hold even more matter than neutron stars. This means that their gravitational pull is
immense – so strong that even things travelling at the speed of light cannot escape.

9 THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSE AND HUBBLE’S LAW


Doppler red shift
The amount of red shift a galaxy exhibits, z, allows us to calculate how fast it is moving. This
can be done using measurements of either wavelength or frequency changes.
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Hubble’s law

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The recession velocity of a galaxy is directly proportional to its distance away from us. The

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constant of proportionality, the Hubble constant, can be found from the gradient of the

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graph. The best modern value is considered accurate to within 5%. H0 = 71 km s-1 Mpc-1.
With an accurate value for H0, astronomers can now use Hubble’s law to determine
distances to newly observed objects.

𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑑

Age of the universe


As all distant objects show a red shift, they are all moving away from us. This implies that the
Universe as a whole is expanding. If we imagine time running backwards from the present,
then the Universe would contract until a moment where everything was in the same place.
This would be the time of the Big Bang, when everything first exploded outwards from that
single point. Thus, if we can find the Hubble constant, it will tell us how quickly the Universe
is expanding.
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10 THE FATE OF THE UNIVERSE

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The 5% of the universe

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Nearby galaxies do not have enough visible gravitationally attracting (hadronic) matter to
keep the outermost stars moving in circles around the galaxy’s centre.
Distant galaxies appear to be moving away from the Solar system at an accelerating rate,
rather than slowing down as predicted by Newton’s law of gravitation.

The first problem suggests 24% of the mass of nearby galaxies consist of dark matter. Dark
matter cannot be detected via the EM-interaction but it has mass and exerts gravitational
force.

The second problem suggests that about 71% of our universe consists of a mysterious
antigravity material known as dark energy.

Therefore, 95% of the universe is unknown while the 5% of it is ordinary atoms.

The future of the universe


What the fate of the universe will be depends on the average density of matter it now
contains. With a high density the universe implodes into a Big Crunch; with a small density it
will go on expanding forever. When cosmologists try to estimate the average density of
matter in the universe, they discover problems. Some of these problems are:

Difficulty in making accurate measurement of distance to


galaxies
Hubble constant has a large uncertainty or age = 1/H may
not be valid as gravity is changing the expansion rate
Because of the existence of dark matter
Values of the average density/mass of the universe have a
large uncertainty
Dark energy may mean we don’t understand gravity as
well as we thought we did (so it’s hard to predict how gravity will determine the
ultimate fate.

Open universe: If the density of the universe is lower than the critical density, the universe
will continue expanding forever.

Closed universe: If the density of the universe is greater than the critical density, the
universe will reach a maximum size and will then reduce in size until imploding in a Big
Crunch.

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