Two types of conduit are used to convey water, the open channel and the

pressure conduit (pipe). An Open Channel is one which in stream is not

completely enclosed by solid boundaries and therefore has a free surface
subjected only to atmospheric pressure. The hydraulic grade line is the
same as the water surface elevation. Flow is caused by gravity component
along the slope of the channel. Thus open channel flow is often referred to
as free surface flow, or gravity flow and may either be uniform or non-
uniform flow.

Principal Types of Open Channels:

1. Natural streams and rivers
2. Artificial canals (e.g. water-power development, irrigation
canals, water supply, and drainage or flood control and other
purposes)
3. Sewers, tunnels and pipelines not completely filled or not
flowing full
 y>yo

y=yo
y yo

A B
C
Nonuniform
D
Uniform E
Nonuniform

Figure 4.1. Steady flow down a chute or spillway.

From the above figure, the flow is accelerating in the reach from A to C, becomes established as
uniform flow from C to D, suffers a violent deceleration due to the change of slope between D and
E, and finally approaches a new depth of uniform flow somewhere beyond E. There is acceleration
in the reach from B to C because the gravity component along the slope is greater than the
boundary shear resistance. As the flow accelerates, the boundary shear resistance becomes equal
to the gravity component along the slope. Beyond C there is no acceleration, the velocity is
constant, and the flow is uniform. The depth in uniform flow is commonly referred to as the normal
depth yo.
 EGL
Slope S
2
V1 /2g

HGL Slope Sw
2
V2 /2g
y1

Slope So y2
z1 L
z2
Horizontal Datum
∆x

Figure 4. 2. Distinct Slopes in Open Channels

In open channel flow (Figure 4.2) we refer

So= slope of the channel bed

Sw= slope of water surface
S= slope of energy grade line
L= distance along the channel bed between sections 1 and 2
∆x = horizontal distance between two sections
Note that energy gradient, S is define as the head loss per length of flow path and that is usually
assumed that α=1.0. This assumption is reasonable when the flow depth is less than the channel
width. Also, for all practical purposes, the angle θ between the channel bed and the horizontal is
small; hence L is almost equal to ∆x.

So 
z1  z2    z
x x
z  y   z2  y21   z  y 
Sw  1 1
x x
 V2   V2 
 z1  y1  1 2 g    z2  y2  2 2 g 
S L    
h
L L

Slope in downward direction is considered as negative (-) slope and slope in upward direction is
considered as positive (+) slope.
 STEADY-UNIFORM FLOW

2 EGL, Slope=S
V1 /2g hL=SL

HGL
2
V2 /2g
z1

θ Channel Bed, Slope=So

z2

Figure 4.3. Uniform flow in open channel.

A. Characteristics
1. Cross-section (shape and area) through which flow occurs is constant
2. Velocity is constant thus, y1=y2 & V1=V2

For this condition, the stream surface is parallel to the channel bed and the energy grade line
is parallel to the stream surface, and therefore the slope of the energy grade line S is equal to
slope of channel bed So. Thus,

 z
So  S w   tan 
and
x
hL
S  sin 
L

In most open channels (rivers, canals and ditches), the bed slope is small, that is
z 1
So   or   5.7 o
x 10

In such a case sin   tan , then

So  S w  S
A. Uniform Flow Resistance Equation

Chezy Formula (1775)

From Darcy-Weisbach equation:

fLV 2
hf 
D2 g
where : D  4 R for non circular pipe
fL V 2
hf 
4R 2 g
hL f V2 hL
 , where S
L 8g R L
8g
V2  RS
f
1/ 2
 8g 
V    RS 1 / 2
 f 

1/ 2
 8g 
let   C
 f 
Then the equation becomes,

V  C RS
Q  AC RS
where : V  average velocity
Q  max imum disch arg e
A  cros sec tional area
R  hydraulic radius
S  energy slope
C  chezy coefficien t or roughness

Chezy coefficient C, varies from about 30m1/2/s for small rough channels to 90m1/2/s for large
smooth channels

A great deal of hydraulic researchers correlate C with roughness, shape and slope of various
open channels. Among them were Ganguillet and Kutter (1869), Manning (1889), Bazin (1897)
and Powel in 1950.
Kutter and Ganguillet Equation

S.I. or Metric Units

1
k
C n
kn
1
R
0.00155
where : k  23 
S
English Units
1.8
k
C n
kn
1
R
0.00281
where : k  41.65 
S

n  Kutter ' s " n" roughness factor

R  hydraulic radius
S  slope of energy gradeline
Manning Equation

S.I or Metric Units

1 2 3 12
V R S
n
English Units
1.486 2 3 12
V R S
n

Relationship between Manning’s “n” and Chezy “C”

1
C RS  R S
2 1
3 2

n
1
CR  R
1 2
2 3

n
1
C R
1
( S .I . units )
6

n
1.486
C
1
R ( English units )
6

where : n  Manning ' s roughness coefficien t

R  hydraulic radius
S  slope of energy gradeline
C  Manning ' s C
Bazin Equation
S.I or Metric Units
87
C
m
1
R
English Units
87
C
m
0.552 
R

where : m  Bazin coefficien t

R  hydraulic radius

Powell Equation
S.I or Metric Units
C 
C  42 log  
 Re R 

where : Re  Re ynolds number

R  hydraulic radius
  roughness in meter
Table 4.1. Values of “m” in Bazin’s Equation
Nature of Surface m
Smooth cement 0.06
Planed wood 0.06
Brickwork 0.16
Roughness planks 0.16
Rubble masonry 0.46
Smooth earth 0.85
Ordinary earth 1.30
Rough channels 1.75
Table 4.2. Values of the roughness coefficient “n” for Manning and Kutter
n
Nature of Surface
Min Max
Neat cement surface 0.010 0.013
Wood-stave pipe 0.010 0.013
Plank flumes, planed 0.010 0.014
Vitrified sewer pipe 0.010 0.017
Metal flumes, smooth 0.011 0.015
Concrete, precast 0.011 0.013
Cement mortar surfaces 0.011 0.015
Plank flumes, unplanned 0.011 0.015
Common-clay drainage tile 0.011 0.017
Concrete monolithic 0.012 0.016
Brick with cement mortar 0.012 0.017
Cast iron-new 0.013 0.017
Cement rubble surfaces 0.017 0.030
Riveted steel 0.017 0.020
Corrugated metal pipe 0.021 0.025
Canals and ditches, smooth earth 0.017 0.025
Metal flumes, corrugated 0.022 0.030
Canals:
Dredged in earth, smooth 0.025 0.033
In rock cuts, smooth 0.025 0.035
Rough beds and weeds on sides 0.025 0.040
Rock cuts, jagged and irregular 0.035 0.045
Natural streams
Smoothest 0.025 0.033
Roughest 0.045 0.060
Very weedy 0.075 0.150
 BOUNDARY SHEAR STRESS (  O )

The average boundary shear stress, τo, acting over the wetted surface of the channel is:
 o  RS
where :   unit weigth of the liquid
R  hydraulic radius
S  slope of EGL

For uniform flow, S< 1/10 (θ< 5.7o), thus S=So

1. Calculate the average velocity and flow rate in a rectangular canal with a width of 4m and a
depth of 1.50m. The canal bed is straight and has a drop of 90 cm per kilometre. Use n= 0.014.
3
Answer: 1.938m/s; 11.627m /s

2. Determine the depth of uniform flow (also called normal depth) in a rectangular canal with a
width of 4.0m and a channel bed slope of 0.0004 when the discharge is 8m 3/s. Use n=0.013
with Chezy-Manning formula.
Answer: 1.46m

3. Determine the required diameter of a concrete pipe to deliver water at 5.0 m3/s using
Manning’s equation. Pipe roughness is 0.015 and channel bed slope is 0.0004. Consider pipe is
flowing full.
Answer: 2.54m

4. Calculate the flow rate in a 1.60m diameter circular pipe when depth of uniform flow is 1.20m.
The pipe is laid with a drop of 40cm for every kilometre horizontal distance. Pipe wall
roughness is 0.014.
3
Answer: 1.42m /s
5. A canal has a slope of 0.0009 and a bed roughness of 0.015. The cross-section of the canal is as
shown. Calculate the average velocity and the flow rate when uniform flow depth is 1.60m.
3
Answer: 1.44 m/s; 4.856m /s

1.0m
0.60m

0.8 1.20m 0.8

6. What flow can be expected in a 1.20m wide rectangular channel, cement-lined channel
(n=0.015) laid on a slope of 4m in 10km, if the water flows 0.60m deep? Use Kutter’s C.
3
Answer: 0.425m /s

7. A circular pipe sewer pipe 1.60m in diameter is laid on a slope of 2m per kilometer. The pipe is
made of concrete with n=0.013. Determine the discharge when the pipe is two-thirds full.
3
Answer: 2.73m /s

8. Show the correlation between roughness factor f and Manning roughness factor n.
2
Answer: f  8 gn
1/ 3
2.21R

9. What is the average shear stress at the sides and bottom of a rectangular flume 3.66m wide,
flowing 1.22m deep and laid on slope of 1.60m/1000m?
Answer: 0.0115kPa

10. A flow of 2.22m3/s is carried at a flume that is half-square. The flume is 1220m long and drops
0.610m in that length. Using Manning’s equation and n=0.012, determine the dimensions.
Answer: 1.95m x 0.975m
Problem # 1

Calculate the average velocity and flow rate in a rectangular canal with a width of 4m and a depth of
1.50m. The canal bed is straight and has a drop of 90cm per kilometer. Use n = 0.014.

Find, Q = ? and V = ?

Given:

b  4.0m
y  1.5m
n  0.014
90cm 1km 1m
S     0.0009
km 1000m 100cm

Solution:

Get the value of R:

A
R
P
A  1.5  4  6
P  2(1.5)  4  7

Then substitute,

6
R  0.857
7

Using Manning’s formula:

1 2 1
V  R 3S 2
n

1 2 1
V  (0.857) 3 (0.009) 2  1.938m / s
0.014
Q  AV  6(1.938)  11.627m 3 / s
Problem # 2

Determine the depth of uniform flow ( also called normal depth ) in a rectangular canal with a width of
4.0m and a channel bed slope of 0.0004 when the discharge is 8m 3/s. Use n = 0.013 with Chezy –
Manning formula.

Find the depth of flow “yo”= ?

Given:

Q  8m 3 / s
w  4.0 m
S  0.0004
n  0.013

Solution:

Use the Chezy-Manning’s formula:

1 2 1
Q  AR 3 S 2
n

Get the values of R:

A  ( y o  4)  4 y o
P  2 yo  4

Then substitute:
2
1  4 yo  3
1
8 ( 4 y o )
 2y  4 
 (0.0004) 2
0.013  o 

( 4 y o ) 2.5
11.858  .................equation 1
( 2 y 0  4)

Let M=11.858

By trial and error:

Assume yo M
1 .5 12.597
1 .4 10.913
1.455 11.825
1.456 11.843

 yo=1.456m
Problem # 3

Determine the required diameter of a concrete pipe to deliver water at 5.0m 3/s using Manning’s
equation. Pipe roughness is 0.015 and channel bed slope is 0.0004. Consider pipe is flowing full.

Find the diameter of the pipe D = ?,

Given:

Q = 5m3/s

n = 0.015

S = 0.0004

Solution:

Use the Manning’s formula:

1 2 1
Q AR 3 S 2
n

where,

D 2
A 
4
P  D
D 2
A 4 D
R   
P D 4

Substitute it to the main formula:

2
1  D 2  D  3 1
5  
 4  (0.0004) 2
0.015 
 4  

D8/3=12.03

Therefore, D=2.542m
Problem # 4

Calculate the flow rate in a 1.6m diameter circular pipe when depth of uniform flow is 1.2m. The pipe is
laid with a drop of 40cm for every kilometer horizontal distance. Pipe wall roughness is 0.014.

Find the discharge Q = ?,

Given:

d  1.2m
40cm 1m 1km
S     0.0004
km 100cm 1000m
D  1.6m
n  0.014 

Solution:

Total wetted area: Wetted angle:

At  Asec tor  Atriangle

 0.4
Cos 
r 
2
1 2 2 0.8
  r Sin 
360 2   120

 (0.8) ( 240)
2
1
  (08) 2 Sin 120
360 2
 1.340  0.277
At  1.617 m 2

The total wetted perimeter:

 (180)(240)
P  3.351m
180

Then hydraulic radius,

A 1.617
R   0.483
P 3.351

Substitute values to Manning’s Equation:

(1.617)0.483 3 (0.0004) 2
1 2 1
Q
0.014

Therefore, Q =1.422m3/s
Problem # 5

A canal has a slope of 0.0009 and a bed roughness of 0.015. The cross – section of the canal is as shown.
Calculate the average velocity and the flow rate when uniform flow of depth is 1.60m.

Find the discharge Q = ? and velocity V = ?

Given:

S = 0.0009

n = 0.015

yo  1.6m

Solution:

Wetted area and wetted perimeter:

r 2  (0.6) 2
AT   bd   2.8(1)  3.365m 2
2 2
2r 2 (0.6)
P  (2b  d )   (2  1.6)  5.485
2 2

Then,

A 3.365
R   0.613
P 5.485

Using Manning’s Equation,

1 2 1
V (0.613) 3 (0.0009) 2
0.015

V=1.444m/s

Thus, discharge

Q = AV

=(3.365)(1.444)

Q = 4.859m3/s
Problem # 6

What flow can be expected in a 1.2m wide rectangular channel, cemented-lined channel (n = 0.015) laid
on a slope of 4.0m in 10km, if the water flows 0.60m deep? Use Kutter’s C.

Find the discharge Q,

Given:

w  1.2m
d  0.6m
4m 1Km
S    0.0004
10km 1000m
n  0.015

Solution:

Q  AC RS

Using Kutter’s C formula:

1
K  A 0.6(1.2)
C  n , where: R    0.3
Kn P 2(0.6)  1.2
1
R

and K is equal to

0.0015 0.0015
K  23   23   26.875
S 0.0004

So,

1
26.875 
0.015 93.542
C    53.88
26.875(0.015) 1.736
1
0.3

From the above equation,

Q  AC RS  (0.6  1.2)(53.88) (0.3)(0.0004)  0.425m 3 / s

Problem # 7

A circular pipe sewer pipe 1.6m in diameter is laid on a slope of 2m per kilometer. The pipe is made of
concrete with n = 0.013. Determine the discharge when the pipe is two-thirds full.

Find the flow rate Q = ?,

Given:

D  1.6m
2m 1Km
S    0.002
Km 1000m
2 2
y  D  (1.6)  1.067 m
3 3
n  0.013

Solution:

Use the formula:

1 2 1
Q AR 3 S 2
n

Wetted area and wetted perimeter:

h  y  r  1.067  0.8  0.2667m

 h 0.2667
Cos  
2 r 0.8
  141.058

Total area,

r 2 1 2
AT  Asec tor  ATriangle   r Sin
360 2

 (0.8) 2 (218.942) 1
A  (0.8) 2 Sin 141.058  1.223  0.201  1.424m 2
360 2

Wetted perimeter,

r  (0.8)(218.942)
P   3.057m
180 180

Therefore discharge,
2
1 2 1 1  1.424  3 1
Q AR 3 S 2  (1.424)  (0.002) 2
 2.944m 3 / s
n 0.013  3.057 
Problem # 8

Show the correlation between roughness factor ƒ and Manning roughness factor n.

Solution:

Derive the formulas in terms of V, using Manning’s and

Using Darcey-Weisbach equation,

fLV 2
hf 
D2 g
but ,
hf
S  ,
L
D  4R
fV 2
S 
8 Rg
8SgR
V  ......................equation1
f

From Manning’s Equation ,

1.486 2 3 12
V  R S .....................equation 2
n

Equate equation 1 and equation 2

1 1 1 2 1
2 2 2 3 2
(8 g ) S R 1.486 R S
1

f 2 n
2
 n 8 gR 
 f  2

 1.486 2


 R 3 
8 gn 2
f  1
3
2.21R
Problem # 9

What is the average shear stress at the side and bottom of a rectangular flume 3.66m wide, flowing
1.22m deep and laid on a slope of 1.6m / 1000m?

Find τ = ?,

Given:

d  1.22m
w  3.66m
1.6m
S   0.0016
1000m

Solution:

Use the Shear Stress formula:

  RS

Hydraulic radius,

A  1.22(3.66)  4.4652m 2
P  (1.22  2)  3.66  6.1m
A 4.4652
R   0.732
P 6.1

Then, from the formula:

  RS
1kPa
 (9810)(0.732)(0.0016)  11.489 Pa 
1000 Pa
  0.0115kPa
Problem # 10

A flow of 2.22m3/s is carried at a flume that is half-square. The flume is 1220m long and drops 0.601m in
that length. Using Manning’s equation and n = 0.012, determine and the dimensions.

Find the depth of flow yo = ? and the wide B = ?,

Given:

Q  2.22m 3 / s
0.601m
S   0.0005
1220m
n  0.012

Solution:

Manning’s equation:

1 2 1
Q AR 3 S 2
n

Wetted area and wetted perimeter:

b b
2
A  b  h  b  
2 2
b
P  2   b  2b
2

Then,

b2
A b
R  2 
P 2b 4

So,
2
1  b2  b  3 1
2.22   
 4  (0.0005) 2
0.012 
 2  

b 1.957
Therefore, b=1.957m , h  yo    0.978m
2 2
NATURAL STREAMS WITH OVERFLOW BANKS HAVING DIFFERENT ROUGHNESS VALUES

I
III
II
n1
n3

n2

Required: Flow rate by Chezy-Manning Equation

Solution :

(1) Discharge,
Q = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
where : Q1  1
n1
A1 R12 / 3 S11 / 2
Q2  1
n2
A2 R22 / 3 S 21 / 2
Q3  1
n3
A3 R32 / 3 S 31 / 2

(2) Average velocity,

Q
V 
A
where : A  A1  A2  A3
Current meter

Current meter is a device to measure velocity in streams.

Sample Problem:

A natural stream has a section as shown. Each sub-section has the same slope of 0.0005. Calculate
the total distance and average velocity flow in the stream.

1.40m I
III 1.80m
II
1.20m n1=0.012
n3=0.014 0.80m

n2=0.013
100m 20m 150m

Solution:

Area,
A=1.40x100 = 140m2
A=(1.4+1.2)(20) = 52m2
A=150(1.80)=270m2
Total Area, AT = 462m2
Perimeter,
P= 1.40+100=101.4 m
P= 1.20+20+0.80=22 m
P= 150+1.8= 151.8 m

Flowrate
Q = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
where : Q1  1
n1
A1 R12 / 3 S11 / 2
Q2  1
n2
A2 R22 / 3 S 21 / 2
Q3  1
n3
A3 R32 / 3 S 31 / 2

Therefore, Q=323.36 + 158.545 +633.384 = 1,115.289 m3/s

 MOST EFFICIENT SECTIONS (MES)

Most efficient section is also known as most economical sections. These are sections, which for a
given slope, area and roughness, the rate of discharge is maximum.

1
From Manning formula Q 
2 1
AR 3 S 2 it can be seen that with A, n, and S are constant, Q is
n
maximum when the hydraulic radius R is maximum, since R= A/P, then R is maximum i P is
minimum since A is constant. Therefore the most efficient section is one that have the least
wetted perimeter and therefore requires the least cost of grading and lining which makes it most
economical.
Rectangular Section:

Perimeter , P  b  2 y
Area , A  by
then , b  A / y
A
thus , P   2 y equation 1
y
Differenti ate eqtn with respect to y. A is cons tan t
dP Ad ( y 1 ) 2d ( y)  A
   2 2
dy dy dy y

dP
For Q to be max imum, P must be min imum. For P min imum, 0
dy
A
0 2
y2
A
2
2
y
A  2y2
by  2 y 2

b  2y
 A y2 2y2
R  
P b  2y 2y  2y
2y2
R
4y

y
R
2
Trapezoidal Section:

B
x x

c y y c

 

Derivation of formula:
y
x
y  x tan  tan 
y  c sin  y
c
sin 
Area , Wetted Perimeter
P  b  2c
A  by 
1
2 xy 
2 2y
b
 by  xy sin 
y2 A y 2y
A  by    
tan  y tan  sin 
A y 2y
P   equation 1
A y y tan  sin 
thus , b  
y tan 
A and θ are constants. Differentiate equation 1 with respect to y.

𝐴 𝑦 2𝑦
𝑃= − +
𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑑𝑃 𝐴𝑑 𝑦 −1 1 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
= − +
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑃 −𝐴 1 2
= 2− +
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
 dP
For discharge Q to be maximum, 0
dy

−𝐴 1 2
0= − +
𝑦 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝐴 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= −
𝑦 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝐴 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
𝑦2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
𝐴= 𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑦2 2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
𝑏𝑦 + = 𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

cos 𝜃 𝑦 2 2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
𝑏𝑦 + = 𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

2𝑦 − cos 𝜃𝑦 cos 𝜃𝑦 2𝑦 − 2cos 𝜃𝑦

𝑏= − =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

2𝑦(1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑏=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
To simplify the above equation, from (a) power reduced formula and (b) double angle formula

1
a sin2 𝜃 = 1 − cos 2𝜃
2

𝜃 1
sin2 = 1 − cos 𝜃
2 2

b sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

𝜃 𝜃
sin 𝜃 = 2 sin cos
2 2

Thus,
𝜃 𝜃
2𝑦 2 sin2 2 2𝑦 sin 2
𝑏= =
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 ∙ cos 2 cos 2

𝜃
𝑏 = 2𝑦 tan
2
Since bottom width of trapezoidal section is

2𝑦(1 − cos 𝜃) 2𝑦 2𝑦 cos 𝜃 2𝑦

𝑏= = − = 2𝑐 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃

𝑏 = 2𝑐 − 2𝑥

𝑏 + 2𝑥 = 2𝑐

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐵 = 𝑏 + 2𝑥

Therefore, top width of free water surface B is equal to the sum of sloping sides c.

𝐵 = 2𝑐
Hydraulic Radius

𝑦2
𝐴 𝑏𝑦 +
𝑅= = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑃 2𝑦
𝑏 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑦 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2𝑦 𝑦+
= sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
1 − cos 𝜃 2𝑦
2𝑦 +
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃

2𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 2 cos 𝜃 𝑦 2 cos 𝜃
+ sin 𝜃
= sin 𝜃
2𝑦 cos 𝜃 2𝑦
2𝑦 − sin 𝜃 + sin 𝜃

2𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 2 cos 𝜃 + 𝑦 2 cos 𝜃 2𝑦 2 − 𝑦 2 cos 𝜃

= =
2𝑦 − 2𝑦 cos 𝜃 + 2𝑦 4𝑦 − 2𝑦 cos 𝜃

𝑦 2 2 − cos 𝜃
𝑅=
2𝑦 2 − cos 𝜃

𝑦
𝑅=
2
Most Efficient Side Slope of Trapezoidal Section, 𝜃

2𝑦
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑐 = 𝑏 +
sin 𝜃

2𝑦(1 − cos 𝜃) 2𝑦
= +
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜃

4𝑦 − 2𝑦 cos 𝜃
=
sin 𝜃

2 − cos 𝜃
𝑃 = 2𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
sin 𝜃

Hydraulic radius,

𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃

𝐴 𝐴
𝑃= =
𝑅 𝑦
2

2𝐴
𝑦=
𝑃
Substitute value of y to equation 1

2𝐴 2 − cos 𝜃
𝑃=2
𝑃 sin 𝜃

𝑃2 = 4𝐴 2 − cos 𝜃 sin−1 𝜃 equation 2

Differentiating equation 1 with respect to 𝜃

2𝑃𝑑𝑃
= 4𝐴 2 − cos 𝜃 − sin−2 𝜃 cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃 + sin−1 𝜃 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃

− 2 − cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢

= 4𝐴 +
sin2 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑢 = 2 − cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑢 = − − sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃
2𝑃𝑑𝑃 2 − cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑣 = sin−1 𝜃
= −4𝐴 + 4𝐴 𝑑𝑣 = − sin−2 𝜃 cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃 sin2 𝜃
 dP
For wetted perimeter P to be minimum, 0
d

2 − cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
4𝐴 = 4𝐴
sin2 𝜃

2 − cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
1=
sin2 𝜃

sin2 𝜃 = 2 − cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃 − cos2 𝜃

sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃

1 = 2 cos 𝜃
1
cos 𝜃 =
2

𝜃 = 60𝑜
Triangular Section:

𝑥 𝑥

𝑐 𝑐
𝑦
𝜃

𝑥 𝜃 𝑥
tan =
2 𝑦
𝜃
𝑦 x = 𝑦 tan
𝑐 2
𝜃/2
𝜃 𝑦
cos =
2 𝑐
𝑦 𝜃
𝑐= = 𝑦 sec
𝜃 2
cos
2
Then area of triangle,
1 2
𝜃
A = 2𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦 tan 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
2 2

Thus,

𝜃 𝐴
tan = 2
2 𝑦

θ A2 + y 4
sec =
2 y2

Wetted perimeter
𝜃
𝑃 = 2𝑐 = 2𝑦 sec
2
𝐴2 + 𝑦 4
= 2𝑦
𝑦2
𝐴2 + 𝑦 4
𝑃=2 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
𝑦
Differentiate P in terms of y
𝑃 = 2 𝐴2 + 𝑦 4 ∙ 𝑦 −1

𝑑 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢

1
𝑢= 𝐴 2 + 𝑦 4 = 𝐴2 + 𝑦 4 2
1 2 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝐴 + 𝑦 4 − 2 . 4𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦
2
𝑣 = y −1
𝑑𝑣 = − y −2 𝑑𝑦

1
𝑑𝑃 𝐴2 + 𝑦 4 2 2𝑦 3
=2 + 1
𝑑𝑦 −𝑦 2 𝑦 𝐴2 + 𝑦 4 2

4𝑦 2 2 𝐴2 + 𝑦 4
0= −
𝐴2 + 𝑦 4 𝑦2

4𝑦 4 − 2 𝐴2 + 𝑦 4
0=
𝑦 2 𝐴2 + 𝑦 4

0 = 4𝑦 4 − 2 𝐴2 + 𝑦 4

4𝑦 4 = 2 𝐴2 + 𝑦 4

2𝑦 4 = 𝐴2 + 𝑦 4

𝐴2 = 2𝑦 4 − 𝑦 4 = 𝑦 4

𝐴 = 𝑦2
From equation 1

𝜃 𝑦2
tan = 2 = 1
2 𝑦

𝜃
= tan−1 1
2

𝜃
= 45𝑜
2

𝜃 = 90𝑜

Therefore, the most efficient triangular section is the 90o V-notch.

Circular Section:

𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 − 𝜃
2

A E C
π-θ 𝐷
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 − 𝜃
2
D O
θ y

Let 𝜃 = angle in radians

Depth of flow, y
𝑦 = 𝑂𝐵 + 𝐶𝐸
𝑦 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 cos 𝜋 − 𝜃 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1

But cos 𝜋 − 𝜃 = − cos 𝜃

then, 𝑦 = 𝑟 1 − cos 𝜃
𝐷
𝑦= 1 − cos 𝜃
2
Are of flow, A
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝑂𝐶𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝑂𝐶

Area of sector, 𝐴𝐴𝑂𝐶𝐵

1
𝐴𝐴𝑂𝐶𝐵 = 𝜃𝐷 2
4

Area of triangle, 𝐴𝐴𝑂𝐶

1
𝐴𝐴𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝐴 . 𝑂𝐸
2
1 𝐷
= 𝐷 sin 𝜋 − 𝜃 . cos 𝜋 − 𝜃
2 2

𝐷2
= . sin 𝜃 −cos 𝜃
4
𝐷2
𝐴𝐴𝑂𝐶 = − . sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
4
Hence, area of flow A
𝐷2
𝐴= 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
4

Wetted Perimeter, P

𝐷
𝑃 = 𝑟 2𝜃 = 2𝜃 = 𝐷𝜃
2

Hydraulic radius, R
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑅=
𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐷2
4 θ − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
=
𝐷𝜃
𝐷 θ − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= .
4 𝜃
𝐷 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= 1−
4 𝜃
𝐷 sin 2𝜃
𝑅= 1−
4 2𝜃
Flow rate, Q
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
1
where: 𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅2/3 𝑆1/2

2/3
𝐷2 1 𝐷 θ − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑄 = 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑆1/2
4 𝑛 4 𝜃

𝐷8/3 𝑆1/2 2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 5/3

𝑄=
32𝑛 𝜃 2/3

For maximum discharge, 𝜃 = 2.639 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 or 151.20o

𝑦 = 0.938 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Velocity, V
2/3 1/2 2/3
𝐷 𝑆 2𝜃 − sin2𝜃
𝑉=
4𝑛 𝜃

For maximum velocity, 𝜃 = 2.247 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 or 128.74o

𝑦 = 0.813 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Problem:

1. A rectangular canal is to deliver water at the rate of 4000l/s. It has a bed slope of 0.0004 and a
channel roughness of 0.013. Calculate the cross-sectional dimensions and average velocity of
flow for the canal. Answer: y=1.312m; b=2.624m and V=1.162m/s

2. A canal with trapezoidal section has a side slopes of 1H:2V. Canal bed slope is 0.0004 and
channel roughness is 0.012. Calculate the cross-sectional dimensions and average velocity at
most efficient flow condition if flow rate is 4000li/sec.
Answer: y=1.342m; b=1.663m and V=1.276m/s

3. A trapezoidal canal section has a bed slope of 0.0004 and channel roughness 0.012. Calculate
the cross-sectional dimensions and average velocity of the most efficient among all
trapezoidal sections to deliver water at 40 oC.
Answer: y=1.344m; b=1.552m and V=1.279m/s

4. A circular pipe with a diameter of 1.60m was laid at a slope of 0.0004. The wall roughness in
the pipe is 0.012.
a. Calculate the discharge in the pipe when it is flowing full.
b. Calculate the discharge in pipe when flowing half full.
c. Calculate the maximum discharge in the pipe.
Answer: Q=1.819m3/s; Q=0.910m3/s and Q=1.958m3/s

5. Using Manning’s formula, show that the theoretical depth for maximum velocity in a circular
conduit is 81.30% of its diameter.

6. Using Manning’s formula, show that the most efficient flow in a circular conduit has a depth of
93.80% of its diameter.

7. For a given cross-section area, determine the best dimensions for trapezoidal channel.
B
y tanθ y tanθ

y y y secθ
y secθ
 

b
𝒚
Answer: 𝑹 = 𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 − 𝒉𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏
𝟐

8. A rectangular channel has a width of 3m and a depth of 1m. If roughness coefficient and bed
slope are the same, what is the diameter of a semicircular channel that will have the same
discharge. Answer: D=2.668m

9. A trapezoidal canal section having a side slope of 2H:3V has a total depth of 1.50m. For most
efficient proportion, what is the required bottom width in meters.
Answer: b=1.606m
SPECIFIC ENERGY and ALTERNATE DEPTH OF FLOW- WIDE RECTANGULAR CHANNELS

EGL

2
V /2g

HGL

z Channel Bed

DATUM

Figure 4.4. Typical geometry of open channel

The total energy at the section is

V2
H  z y
2g
The total specific energy is the energy head referred to the channel bed as datum of a particular
section, thus
V2
E  y
2g

Solving for velocity, v  2g ( E  y)

Thus, discharge is Q  A 2g ( E  y)

If the above equation is plotted, it can be seen that when y=0, Q=0 and when y=E, Q=0 and by
substituting values of yin terms of E we can establish a curve. For example if the rectangular channel
has a width of 2m and E=5m, using the above equation, the curve below will be plotted.
 y

y Q

0 0
1 17.717788 Qmax

2 30.688108
3 37.585103
4 35.435575
Q
5 0 0
Critical Flow

Consider a rectangular channel relatively wide with uniform in depth, the flow near the center of the
channel will be unaffected by the side boundaries of the channel.

let q=unit discharge per unit width

or rate of flow in the channel
y for critical condition

b 𝑄
𝑞=
𝑏

where: 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝑄
𝑉= 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑄 = 𝑞𝑏
𝐴
𝑞𝑏 𝑞𝑏 𝑞
𝑉= = =
𝐴 𝑏𝑦 𝑦

𝑞 = 𝑉𝑦
Specific energy of the section is also express as

𝑄2
𝐸 =𝑦+ … … … . 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
2𝑔𝐴2

Because area A is a function of the depth y, the magnitude of the specific energy is a function of the
depth at section. For a given channel of constant width, the value of q remains constant along the
channel, although the depth, y, may vary. A relationship of depth versus specific energy is obtain, as
plotted in Figure 4.5. Figure shows that for a given value of specific energy, the depth may be either
large or small. This means that for low depth, the bulk of energy of flow is in the form of kinetic energy
𝑄2
2𝑔𝐴2
; whereas for a larger depth, most of the energy is in potential energy.

Substituting the value of velocity considering the unit discharge per unit width of the channel, specific
energy will be
𝑞2
𝑦2
𝐸 =𝑦+ … … … . 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
2𝑔
𝑞2
𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔𝑦 2

𝑞2
2
𝐸−𝑦 𝑦 = … … … . 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3
2𝑔
 y

Potential Energy

𝑉𝑐2
y=E 𝑦+ =𝐸
2𝑔
ysub

2 𝑉𝑐2
𝐸
3 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2𝑔

yc

ysup
o
45
E
Emin
yneg

Figure 4.5. Specific-energy diagram for constant rates of discharge, Q in a rectangular channel
For given q and E , equation 3 is a cubic equation with three solutions, ysub, ysub , and yneg. If the specific
energy is large enough (i.e., E>Emin, where Emin is a function of q), two of solutions are positive and the
other yneg, is negative. The negative root, represented by the curved dashed line shown in the figure,
has no physical meaning and can be ignored. Thus, for a given flowrate and specific energy there are
two possible depths, unless the vertical line from the E axis does not intersect the specific energy
curve corresponding to the value of q given (i.e., E< Emin). These two depths are termed alternate
depths.

The specific energy diagram consists of two portions divided by a point on the “nose” of the curve
with depth yc, where specific energy is minimum. The flow condition at this point corresponds to
critical conditions. Thus, critical flow is the flow that occurs when the specific energy is minimum for a
given discharge. Those on the upper portion of the curve correspond to subcritical conditions and
those on the lower portion of the curve correspond to supercritical conditions.

It is observe that a specific discharge requires at least a minimum energy, thus minimum energy is
referred to as critical energy, Ec. When flow is near the critical, a rippling, unstable surface results. It is
not desirable to design channels with slopes near the critical. Critical-depth and specific energy
relations are essential in studying gradually varied flow and in determining control sections in open-
channel flow.
STAGES OF FLOW
y

EGL
𝑉2
2𝑔 Upper Stage,

Qmax
E
y subcritical Lower Stage,
depth, FN<1.0 critical depth, dc
supercritical FN=1.0
depth, FN>1.0

Q
0
Variation of discharge with depth for
constant energy, E

It appears in the curve that, within limits (from 0 to H), there are two depths which any given discharge
will flow with the same energy content. These two depths are called alternate stages, and are spoken as
the tranquil or upper stage and the rapid or lower stage.
Critical depth

Differentiate equation 1 in terms of y

𝑑𝐸 𝑞2
=1+ . −2𝑦 −3
𝑑𝑦 2𝑦

The critical depth for a given Q occurs when E is minimum. E is minimum when dE  0
dy
𝑞2
0=1− 3
𝑔𝑦

𝑔𝑦 3 = 𝑞 2

3
𝑞2
𝑦 =
𝑔

3 𝑞2
𝑦𝑐 =
𝑔
At critical depth yc, maximum q is given for a given E

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦𝑐 2𝑔 𝐸 − 𝑦𝑐

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔𝑦 3

Critical velocity

𝑞 2 = 𝑔𝑦 3
2
𝑉𝑦 = 𝑔𝑦 3
𝑉 2 = 𝑔𝑦

𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦𝑐

or

𝑉𝑐
= 1 (Froude number, F)
𝑔𝑦𝑐

This shows that the Froude number for critical depth is equal to 1.
Critical Specific Energy, Ec

𝑉𝑐 2
𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 +
2𝑔

𝑔𝑦𝑐
𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 +
2𝑔

3
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐
2

Thus,
2
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐
3
Critical Slope

From Manning’s Formula

1
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2
𝑛

where: 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑏𝑦 𝑔𝑦
𝐴 𝑏𝑦
𝑅= =
𝑃 𝑏 + 2𝑦

Substitute values,
2/3
1 𝑏𝑦
𝑏𝑦 𝑔𝑦 = 𝑏𝑦 𝑆 1/2
𝑛 𝑏 + 2𝑦
2/3
𝑏𝑦
𝑛 𝑔𝑦 = 𝑆 1/2
𝑏 + 2𝑦
2/3 2
𝑏 + 2𝑦
𝑆 1/2 = 𝑛 𝑔𝑦
𝑏𝑦
2
𝑏 + 2𝑦 4/3
𝑆 = 𝑛 𝑔𝑦
𝑏𝑦
4/3
2
𝑏 + 2𝑦
𝑆 = 𝑔𝑛 4/3 1/3
𝑏 𝑦
2 4/3
𝑔𝑛 𝑏 + 2𝑦
𝑆=
𝑏 𝑏𝑦 1/3

𝑔𝑛2 𝑦𝑐
𝑆𝑐 = 4/3
𝑅
For a very wide rectangular channel

𝑃≈𝑏

Then
𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃
𝑏𝑦
=
𝑏
𝑅=𝑦

Using Manning’s Formula

1
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2
𝑛

Substitute values,

1
𝑏𝑦 𝑔𝑦 = 𝑏𝑦 𝑦 2/3 𝑆1/2
𝑛
1
𝑔𝑦 = 𝑦 2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑛
2
𝑛 𝑔𝑦
𝑆 1/2 = 2/3
𝑦

𝑔𝑛2
𝑆𝑐 = 1/3
𝑦
Froude number

For a rectangular section the square of the Froude number is

2 𝑞2
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔𝑦 3

2 𝑉2𝑦2
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔𝑦 3

Therefore,
𝑉
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔𝑦
Table 4.3 Characteristics of subcritical, critical and supercritical flow in rectangular channel

Subcritical Critical Supercritical

1/3
𝑞2
Depth of flow, y 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑐
𝑔

Velocity of flow 𝑉 < 𝑉𝑐 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦 𝑉 > 𝑉𝑐

Slope for uniform

Mild slope, So< Sc Critical slope, So= Sc Steep slope, So> Sc
flow

Froude Number F<1.0 F=1.0 F>1.0

V2 1 V2 1 V2 1
Other Feature  y  y  y
2g 2 2g 2 2g 2
CRITICAL DEPTH IN NONRECTANGULAR CHANNELS

Consider an irregularly shaped flow section of area A carrying a flow Q.

dA
B

dy

Then
𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝐴
𝐵= = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑦
Specific Energy,
𝑉2
𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔
𝑄
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑉 =
𝐴
then
𝑄2
𝐸 =𝑦+ 2
𝐴 2𝑔

Q is constant and A varies with y

𝑑𝐸 𝑄 2 −2
=𝑦+ 𝐴
𝑑𝑦 2𝑔

𝑄2 𝑑𝐴
0=1+ −2𝐴−3 .
2𝑔 𝑑𝑦

𝑄2
0=1− 3𝐵
𝑔𝐴

𝑄2
𝐵 = 1 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝐹𝑟 … … … … . . 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝑔𝐴3
Critical depth occurs in a channel when

2
𝑔𝐴3
𝑄 =
𝐵

𝑄2 𝐴3
=
𝑔 𝐵 𝑦 =𝑦𝑐

Critical velocity, Vc

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉𝑐

𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔 𝑦𝐻 𝑐
𝐴
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑦𝐻 𝑐 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ =
𝐵

𝐴
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔
𝐵
Critical slope, 𝑆𝑐

𝑛2 𝑉𝑐2
𝑆𝑐 = 4
𝑅𝑐
3

From equation 1, square of Froude No. for non-rectangular section

𝑄2
𝐹𝑟2 = 𝐵
𝑔𝐴3

(𝐴𝑉)2 𝐴2 𝑉 2 𝐵 𝑉2𝐵
𝐹𝑟2 = 𝐵 = =
𝑔𝐴3 𝑔𝐴3 𝑔𝐴

𝑉2 𝑉2
𝐹𝑟2 = =
𝐴3 𝑔 𝑦𝐻 𝑐
𝑔 𝐵

Square both sides, thus

𝑉
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔 𝑦𝐻 𝑐

or
𝑉
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑉𝑐
FLOW UNDER A SLUICE GATE

Flow under a sluice gate is an example in which two depths occur for a given value of specific
energy. The large depth and low kinetic energy occurs upstream of the gate; the ;low depth and
large large kinetic energy occurs downstream. The depth depths as used here is alternate depth.
That is for a given value of E, the large depth is alternate to the low depth, or vice versa. Figure 4.6
shows that if flow maintain at the same rate but set the gate with larger opening, the upstream
depth will drop, and the downstream depth will rise. Thus, it has different alternate depths and a
smaller value of specific energy than before. Figure shows subcritical flow occurs upstream and
supercritical flow occurs downstream of the sluice gate.

EGL

EGL
Subcritical flow
Subcritical flow
HGL
HGL
Supercritical flow Supercritical flow
OCCURRENCE OF CRITICAL DEPTH

The depth must pass through critical depth when flow changes from

a. Subcritical to supercritical

1. flow from mild to steep slope

Upstream of the break in slope there is a mild slope, the flow is subcritical, and yo1 > yc.
Downstream of the break there is a steep slope, the flow is supercritical, and yo2 < yc. At
the break in the slope the depth passes through critical depth. This point in the stream
is referred to as a control section since depth at the break controls the depth upstream.
2. water from reservoir entering a canal where the flow is supercritical

yc

yc

Critical depth occurs when water from reservoir enters a canal in which the uniform
depth is less than critical. In such an instance, the depth passes through critical depth in
the vicinity of the entrance to the canal.
3. free outfall with subcritical flow in channel prior to outfall

Drop-down curve

yo
yc
yb ≈ 0.72yc
So < Sc

3 to 10yc

(a) mild slope

Since friction produces a constant diminution in energy in the direction of flow, it is

obvious that at the point of outfall the total energy must be less than at any point
upstream. As critical depth is the value for which the specific energy is a minimum, one
would expect critical depth to occur at the outfall. However, the value for the critical
depth is derived on the assumption that the water is flowing in straight lines. In the free
outfall, gravity creates a curvature of the streamlines, with the result that the depth at
the brink is less than critical depth. It has been found by experiment that the depth at
the brink yb≈0.72yc. Also, critical depth generally occurs upstream of the brink a distance
of somewhere between 3yc and 10yc.
If the flow is supercritical, there is no drop-down curve, see figure below.

yo
yc

So > Sc

(b) steep slope

4. humps and contractions

(a) P<<Pcrit (b) P<Pcrit

(b)

yc
yc

Pcrit

(c) P=Pcrit (d) P>Pcrit

(damming action)
(d)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃 = ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑝 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑝 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
In figure (a) is shown a small hump. If the flow upstream of the hump is subcritical, there
will be a slight depression in the water surface over the hump. Inspection of the
subcritical (upper) portion of the specific-energy diagram substantiates this statement.
The hump (locally raised bed) causes a drop in specific energy, E. A decrease in E is
accompanied by a decrease in y, which exceeds the decrease in E, hence there is a
depression in the water surface over the hump. If the height of the hump is increased
with no change in q there will be further drop in the water surface over the hump for
the same reason, see figure (b). Further increases in hump height create further
depression of the water surface over the hump until finally the depth on the hump
becomes critical, figure (c). The minimum height of the hump that causes the critical
depth is referred to as the critical hump height. If the hump is made still higher, figure
(d), critical depth is maintained on the hump and the depth upstream of the hump is
increased. This phenomenon is referred to as damming action. Downstream of the
hump the flow will be supercritical. In such situation, the hump, if it has a flat top,
becomes a broad-crested weir.
b. Supercritical to subcritical hydraulic jump usually occur
Problem:

1. A rectangular channel 8m wide carries a flow of 6m3/s.

a. Find the critical depth
b. Find the critical velocity
c. Find the critical slope when n=0.02
Answer: 0.386m; 1.946m/s; 0.006094

2. A water flows down on a wide rectangular channel with concrete lining (n=0.014) laid on a
slope of 0.002. Find the depth and rate of flow for critical conditions in the channel.
3
Answer: 0.889m; 2.625m /s per meter width

3. Water is released from sluice gate in a rectangular channel 1.50m wide such that the depth
is 0.60m and the velocity is 4.5m/s. Find
a. The critical depth for this specific energy
b. The type of flow
c. The alternate depth (Note: for particular q two values of y for a given E)
Answer: 1.088m supercritical flow; 1.46m

4. A flow of 0.25m3/s of water is carried in a 90o triangular flume built of planed timber
n=0.011. Find the critical depth and the critical slope.
Answer: 0.418m; 0.00317
5. A trapezoidal canal with side slopes 2H:1V has a bottom width of 3.0m and carries a flow of
20m3/s. Find the critical depth and the critical velocity.
Answer: 1.25m; 2.91m/s

6. A circular conduit of well-laid smooth brickwork n=0.012. when flowing half-full is to carry
10m3/s at a velocity of 3m/s. What will be the necessary drop for every kilometer length of
the conduit? Determine also the type of flow.
Answer: 2m flow is subcritical

7. Uniform flow of water occurs at 0.75m3/s in a 1.20m wide rectangular channel at a depth of
0.60m.
a) Is the flow subcritical or supercritical?
b) If the hump of height ∆z=0.10m is placed in the bottom of the flume, calculate the
water depth on the hump. Neglect head loss in flow over the hump.
c) If the hump height is raised to ∆z=0.20m, what then are the water depths upstream
and downstream of the hump? Once again neglect head loss over the hump
Answer: flow is subcritical; 0.46m and 0.26m; d up=0.668m and ddown=0.20m

8. A rectangular canal 3m wide carries 0.60m3/s in uniform flow at a depth of 0.27m. Find the
change in water surface elevation caused by a raise of channel bed by 0.06m.
Answer: 0.053m
9. Water from a surface reservoir changes into a 4m wide steep rectangular channel. The
highest point of the channel bed at the entrance is 2m below the water surface in the
reservoir. Compute the flow rate in the channel.
Answer: 1,667MLPD

10. Water flows uniformly at a steady rate of 0.40m3/s in a very long triangular flume which has
side slopes 1:1. The bottom of the flume is on a slope of 0.006 and n=0.012.
a. Is the flow subcritical or supercritical?
𝑉𝑐2
b. Find the relation between and yc for this channel.
2𝑔
𝑽𝟐𝒄 𝒚𝒄
Answer: flow is supercritical;
𝟐𝒈
= 𝟒

11. A rectangular channel 10ft wide carries 400cfs.

a.)Tabulate (as preliminary to preparing a diagram) depth of flow against specific energy for
depths from 1 ft to 8ft.
b.) Determine the minimum specific energy.
c.) What type of flow exists when the depth is 2ft and when it is 8ft?
d.) For C=100, what slopes are necessary to maintain the depths in (C)?

Answer: 0.0280; 0.000812