S.No Practical Name Date Remark

1.   To study motherboard.    
 
2.   Study of microprocessor.    
 
3.   To study SMPS and UPS.    
 
4.   To study the CD-ROM and DVD-ROM.    
 
5.   To study working of keyboard and mouse.    
 
6.   To study different ports and slots.    
 
7.   To study various types of Cables &    
Connectors.
 
8.   Study of monitor.    
 
9.   To study different types of printers.    
 
10.   To assemble a PC.    
 
11.   To study Floppy Disk Drive.    

 
 

 
 

Practical-1
Aim:-To study motherboard.

Motherboard: The main circuit board of a microcomputer. The motherboard contains the
connectors for attaching additional boards. Typically, the motherboard contains the CPU, BIOS,
memory, mass storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers
required to control standard peripheral devices, such as the display screen, keyboard, and disk
drive. Collectively, all these chips that reside on the motherboard are known as the
motherboard's chipset.

The motherboard is the primary component of the entire system. In addition to hardware the
motherboard also contains some software .The system ROM actually contains three small but
very critical programs these are post, the BIOS and the setup program. This device provides,
even the C.P.U is enabled to function. In addition to hardware the motherboard also contain
some software. The following is the picture of motherboard:
1. Mouse & keyboard: Keyboard Connectors are two types basically. All PCs have a Key
board port connected directly to the motherboard. The oldest, but still quite common type, is a
special DIN, and most PCs until recently retained this style connector. The AT-style keyboard
connector is quickly disappearing, being replaced by the smaller mini DIN PS/2-style keyboard
connector. You can use an AT-style keyboard with a PS/2-style socket (or the other way around)
by using a converter. Although the AT connector is unique in PCs, the PS/2-style mini-DIN is
also used in more modern PCs for the mouse. Fortunately, most PCs that use the mini-DIN for
both the keyboard and mouse clearly mark each mini-DIN socket as to its correct use. Some
keyboards have a USB connection, but these are fairly rare compared to the PS/2 connection
keyboards.

2. USB (Universal serial bus): USB is the General-purpose connection for PC. You can
find USB versions of many different devices, such as mice, keyboards, scanners, cameras, and
even printers. A USB connector's distinctive rectangular shape makes it easily
recognizable. USB has a number of features that makes it particularly popular on PCs. First,
USB devices are hot swappable. You can insert or remove them without restarting your system.

3. Parallel port: Most printers use a special connector called a parallel port. Parallel port
carries data on more than one wire, as opposed to the serial port, which uses only one wire.
Parallel ports use a 25-pin female DB connector. Parallel ports are directly supported by the
motherboard through a direct connection or through a dangle.

4. CPU Chip: The central processing unit, also called the microprocessor performs all the
calculations that take place inside a pc. CPUs come in Variety of shapes and sizes. Modern
CPUs generate a lot of heat and thus require a cooling fan or heat sink. The cooling device
(such as a cooling fan) is removable, although some CPU manufactures sell the CPU with a fan
permanently attached.

5. RAM slots: Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data currently being
used by the CPU. RAM is measured in units called bytes. RAM has been packaged in many
different ways. The most current package is called a 168-pin DIMM (Dual Inline Memory
module).

6. Floppy controller: The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon
cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is one that is used to
control the floppy drive.

7. IDE controller: Industry standards define two common types of hard drives: EIDE and
SCSI. Majority of the PCs use EIDE drives. SCSI drives show up in high end PCs such as
network servers or graphical workstations. The EIDE drive connects to the hard drive via a 2-
inch-wide, 40-pin ribbon cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. IDE controller is
responsible for controlling the hard drive.
 8. PCI slot: Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus protocol. The PCI
bus is used to connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID controllers) to the main logic of the
computer. PCI bus has replaced the ISA bus.

9. ISA slot: (Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard architecture of the Expansion
bus. Motherboard may contain some slots to connect ISA compatible cards. The memory
address bus is to 32 bits .The bus speed is 8.33 MHZ and the bandwidth is 16 bits.

10. CMOS Battery: To provide CMOS with the power when the computer is turned off all
motherboards comes with a battery. These batteries mount on the motherboard in one of three
ways: the obsolete external battery, the most common onboard battery, and built-in battery.

11. AGP slot: If you have a modern motherboard, you will almost certainly notice a single
connector that looks like a PCI slot, but is slightly shorter and usually brown. You also
probably have a video card inserted into this slot. This is an Advanced Graphics Port
(AGP) slot

12. CPU slot: To install the CPU, just slide it straight down into the slot. Special notches in
the slot make it impossible to install them incorrectly. So remember if it does not go easily, it is
probably not correct. Be sure to plug in the CPU fan's power.

13. Power supply plug in: The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the necessary
electrical power to make the pc operate. The power supply takes standard 110-V AC power and
converts into +/-12-Volt, +/-5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt DC power.

The power supply connector has 20-pins, and the connector can go in only one direction.

 
 

Praactical-22
Study of micropro
Aim:-S m ocessor.
A microp processor inncorporates the functionns of a computer's centraal processingg unit (CPU)) on a
single integrated (IC), or at most a few
w integraated circuuits. It is a
multipurppose, prograammable devvice that acccepts digital data as inpuut, processees it accordinng to
instructioons stored in
n its memoryy, and proviides results as output. Itt is an exammple of sequeential
digital loogic, as it has
h internall memory. Microproces
M ssors operate on numbeers and sym mbols
representted in the bin
nary numeraal system.
The advvent of low--cost compuuters on inttegrated cirrcuits has trransformed modern socciety.
General-ppurpose miccroprocessorrs in personaal computerss are used for
fo computattion, text edditing,
multimeddia display, and commuunication oveer the Internnet. Many more
m microprrocessors aree part
of embeddded system ms, providinng digital coontrol of a myriad of objects froom appliances to
automobiiles to cellullar phones annd industriall process conntrol.
Structu
ure:-
The interrnal arrangemment of a microprocesso
m or varies deppending on the
t age of thhe design annd the
intended purposes of o the proceessor. The complexity
c of an integgrated circuiit is boundeed by
physical limitations of the numbber of transiistors that can be put onnto one chipp, the numbber of
package terminationss that can coonnect the processor
p to other parts of
o the systemm, the numbber of
interconnnections it is possible to
t make on the chip, annd the heat that the chhip can dissiipate.
Advancinng technolog gy makes moore complexx and powerfful chips feassible to mannufacture.
 A block diagram of the internal architecture of the Z80 microprocessor, showing the arithmetic
and logic section, register file, control logic section, and buffers to external address and data
lines
Intel 4004:-
 

The Intel 4004 is generally regarded as the first

commercially available microprocessor,and
cost $60. The project that produced the 4004
originated in 1969, when Busicom, a Japanese
calculator manufacturer, asked Intel to build a
chipset for high-performance desktop
calculators. Busicom's original design called
for a programmable chip set consisting of
seven different chips. Three of the chips were
to make a special-purpose CPU with its Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor
program stored in ROM and its data stored in  
shift register read-write memory.

Differences between processor:-

8 bit 12 bit 16 bit 32 bit 64 bit

Image

Type Intel 8008 was The Intersil 6100 The first multi-chip The most Intel 64 are 64
first 8 bit family consisted of 16-bit significant of the bit
microprocessor a 12- microprocessor 32-bit designs is microprocessor
bit microprocessor was the National the MC68000
Semiconductor
IMP-16

Bus 8 bit 12 bit 16 bit 32 bit 64 bit

Examp Intel 8080, Zilog Harris HM-6100 TMS 9900, iAPX 432, EM64T
le Z80 MC68010
Multi-core processor:-

Multi Core processor

Definition A multi-core processor is simply a single chip containing more than

one microprocessor core, effectively multiplying the potential
performance with the number of cores

Image

Advantages Improve overall performance Because the cores are physically very
close they interface at much faster clock rates

Example Pentium dual-core and quad-core processors

 Practical-3
Aim:- To study SMPS and UPS.
SMPS

A Switched-mode power supply (also Switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or

simply Switcher) is an electronic Power Supply Unit (PSU) that incorporates a switching
regulator in order to provide the required output voltage. An SMPS is actually a power converter
that transmits power from a source (e.g., a battery or the electrical power grid) to a load (e.g., a
personal computer) with ideally no loss. The function of the converter is to provide a reliable
output voltage often at a different level than the input voltage.

Interior view of an ATX SMPS:

Below A - input EMI filtering

A - Bridge rectifier
B - Input filter capacitors
Between B and C - Primary side heat sink
C - Transformer
Between C and D - Secondary side heat sink
D - Output filter coil
E - Output filter capacitors
The coil and large yellow capacitor below E are additional input filtering components that are
mounted directly on the power input connector and are not part of the main circuit board.

Classification

SMPS can be classified into four types according to the input and output waveforms:

 AC in, DC out: rectifier, off-line converter input stage

 DC in, DC out: voltage converter, or current converter, or DC to DC converter
 AC in, AC out: frequency changer, cycloconverter, transformer
 DC in, AC out: inverter

Applications:

Switched-mode PSUs in domestic products such as personal computers often have universal
inputs, meaning that they can accept power from most mains supplies throughout the world, with
rated frequencies from 50 Hz to 60 Hz and voltages from 100 V to 240 V (although a manual
voltage range switch may be required). In practice they will operate from a much wider
frequency range and often from a DC supply as well. In 2006, at an Intel Developers Forum,
Google engineers proposed the use of a single 12 V supply inside PCs, due to the high efficiency
of switch mode supplies directly on the PCB.

Switched mode mobile phone charger

SMPS Connectors:

 Amphenol connector gives power supply to Mother Board

  Mole x gives power supply to IDE drives
 Mini Molex gives power supply to floppy drive.

UPS

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery

backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power
source, typically the utility mains, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power
system or standby generator in that it will provide instantaneous or near-instantaneous protection
from input power interruptions by means of one or more attached batteries and associated
electronic circuitry for low power users, and or by means of diesel generators and flywheels for
high power users. The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively
short—5–15 minutes being typical for smaller units—but sufficient to allow time to bring an
auxiliary power source on line, or to properly shut down the protected equipment.

Technologies

The general categories of modern UPS systems are on-line, line-interactive or standby. An on-
line UPS uses a "double conversion" method of accepting AC input, rectifying to DC for passing
through the battery (or battery strings), then inverting back to 120V/240V AC for powering the
protected equipment. A line-interactive UPS maintains the inverter in line and redirects the
battery's DC current path from the normal charging mode to supplying current when power is
lost. In a standby ("off-line") system the load is powered directly by the input power and the
backup power circuitry is only invoked when the utility power fails. Most UPS below 1 kVA are
of the line-interactive or standby variety which is usually less expensive.

For large power units, Dynamic Uninterruptible Power Supply are sometimes used. A
synchronous motor/alternator is connected on the mains via a choke. Energy is stored in a
flywheel. When the mains power fails, an Eddy-current regulation maintains the power on the
load. DUPS are sometimes combined or integrated with a diesel-generator, forming a diesel
rotary uninterruptible power supply, or DRUPS.

A Fuel cell UPS has been developed in recent years using hydrogen and a fuel cell as a power
source, potentially providing long run times in a small space.

Applications

N+1

In large business environments where reliability is of great importance, a single huge UPS can
also be a single point of failure that can disrupt many other systems. To provide greater
reliability, multiple smaller UPS modules and batteries can be integrated together to provide
redundant power protection equivalent to one very large UPS. "N+1" means that If the load can
be supplied by N modules, the installation will contain N+1 modules. In this way, failure of one
module will not impact system operation

Multiple redundancy

Many computer servers offer the option of redundant power supplies, so that in the event of one
power supply failing, one or more other power supplies are able to power the load. This is a
critical point - each power supply must be able to power the entire server by itself.

Redundancy is further enhanced by plugging each power supply into a different circuit (i.e. to a
different circuit breaker).

Outdoor use

When a UPS system is placed outdoors, it should have some specific features that guarantee that
it can tolerate weather with a 'minimal to none' effect on performance. Factors such as
temperature, humidity, rain, and snow among others should be considered by the manufacturer
when designing an outdoor UPS system. Operating temperature ranges for outdoor UPS systems
could be around −40 °C to +55 °C.

Internal systems

UPS systems can be designed to be placed inside a computer chassis. There are two types of
Internal UPS. The first type is a miniaturized regular UPS that is made small enough to fit into a
5.25″ CD-ROM slot bay of a regular computer chassis. The other type are re-engineered
switching power supplies that utilize dual power sources of AC and/or DC as power inputs and
have an AC/DC built-in switching management control units.
 Practical- 4
Aim:- To study the CD-ROM and DVD-ROM.
CD-ROM

The Compact Disk - Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) drive has gone from pricey luxury to
inexpensive necessity on the modern PC. The CD-ROM has opened up new computing vistas
that were never possible before, due to its high capacity and broad applicability. In many ways,
the CD-ROM has replaced the floppy disk drive, but in many ways it has allowed us to use our
computers in ways that we never used them before. In fact, the "multimedia revolution" was
largely a result of the availability of cheap CD-ROM drives.

A CD can store up to 74 minutes of music, so the total amount of digital data that must be stored
on a CD is:

44,100 samples/channel/second x 2 bytes/sample x 2 channels x 74 minutes x 60

seconds/minute = 783,216,000 bytes

To fit more than 783 megabytes (MB) onto a disc only 4.8 inches (12 cm) in diameter requires
that the individual bytes be very small.

CD Drive Components:-

The CD drive has the job of finding and reading the data stored as bumps on the CD.
Considering how small the bumps are, the CD drive is an exceptionally precise piece of
equipment. The drive consists of three fundamental components:

· A drive motor spins the disc. This drive motor is precisely controlled to rotate between 200
and 500 rpm depending on which track is being read.

· A laser and a lens system focus in on and read the bumps.

· A tracking mechanism moves the laser assembly so that the laser's beam can follow the
spiral track. The tracking system has to be able to move the laser at micron resolutions.

CD Drive- Basic design:-

A schematic of an optical three-beam pick-up of a CD drive is shown in the next figure along
with the laser beam route through the system.

Cross-section of a CD

A CD has a single spiral track of data, circling from the inside of the disc
to the outside. The fact thatthe spiral track starts at the center means that the CD can be smaller
than 4.8 inches (12 cm) if desired, and in fact there are now plastic baseball cards and business
cards that you can put in a CD player. CD business cards hold about 2 MB of data before the size
and shape of the card cuts off the spiral.

Here's how the CD-ROM works:

1. A beam of light energy is emitted from an infrared laser diode and aimed toward a
reflecting mirror. The mirror is part of the head assembly, which moves linearly along the
surface of the disk.
 2. The light reflects off the mirror and through a focusing lens, and shines onto a specific
point on the disk.
3. A certain amount of light is reflected back from the disk. The amount of light reflected
depends on which part of the disk the beam strikes: each position on the disk is encoded
as a one or a zero based on the presence or absence of "pits" in the surface of the disk.
This is discussed in more detail in the section on CD-ROM media.
4. A series of collectors, mirrors and lenses accumulates and focuses the reflected light from
the surface of the disk and sends it toward a photo detector.
5. The photo detector transforms the light energy into electrical energy. The strength of the
signal is dependent on how much light was reflected from the disk.

DVD-ROM

A Digital Versatile Disc - Read Only Memory, or DVD-ROM, is a media storage disk that
closely resembles a CD or compact disc. The major difference is that the DVD is formatted to
hold far more data. A CD commonly has a capacity of 650 megabytes, while the smallest
capacity DVD can store about seven times more data, or 4.38 gigabytes (GB).
There are various kinds of DVDs, but the DVD-ROM refers to a read-only disc, or a disc that
cannot be written over. A DVD movie bought from the local video store is a good example.
Blank DVDs with designations like "DVD-R" and "DVD+R" are formatted, recordable DVDs.
The —R and +R refer to competing format standards, but both will record movies, audio, or
other data.

How does a DVD work?

A DVD works exactly the same way, but it can hold a lot more information -- about 4.7
gigabytes (about seven times as much as a CD). DVDs can hold more data than CDs because the
bumps are smaller and the tracks are closer together, giving DVDs more storage space. Here are
the typical contents of a movie stored on a DVD:

· Up to 133 minutes of high-resolution video in letterbox or pan-and-scan format, at

720 dots of horizontal resolution (The video compression ratio is typically 40:1
under MPEG-2.)
· Soundtrack presented in up to eight languages using 5.1 channel Dolby
digital surround sound
· Subtitles in up to 32 languages
Storing Data on a DVD

DVDs are of the same diameter and thickness as CDs, and they are made using some of the same
materials and manufacturing methods. Like a CD, the data on a DVD is encoded in the form of
small pits and bumps in the track of the disc.

A DVD is composed of several layers of plastic, totaling about 1.2 millimeters thick. Each layer
is created by injection molding polycarbonate plastic. This process forms a disc that has
microscopic bumps arranged as a single, continuous and extremely long spiral track of data.
More on the bumps later.

Once the clear pieces of polycarbonate are formed, a thin reflective layer is sputtered onto the
disc, covering the bumps. Aluminum is used behind the inner layers, but a semi-reflective gold
layer is used for the outer layers, allowing the laser to focus through the outer and onto the inner
layers. After all of the layers are made, each one is coated with lacquer, squeezed together and
cured under infrared light. For single-sided discs, the label is silk-screened onto the non readable
side. Double-sided discs are printed only on the non readable area near the hole in the middle.
Cross sections of the various types of completed DVDs (not to scale) look like this:

Each writable layer of a DVD has a spiral track of data. On single-layer DVDs, the track always
circles from the inside of the disc to the outside. That the spiral track starts at the center means
that a single-layer DVD can be smaller than 12 centimeters if desired.

What the image to the right cannot impress upon you is how incredibly tiny the data track is --
just 740 nanometers separate one track from the next (a nanometer is a billionth of a meter). And
the elongated bumps that make up the track are each 320 nanometers wide, a minimum of 400
nanometers long and 120 nanometers high. The following figure illustrates looking through the
polycarbonate layer at the bumps.
 

Practical-5
Aim: To study working of keyboard and mouse.
The computer keyboard is the peripheral used to enter data (text and characters) into the
computer, manage applications or enter command to be executed. The different types of
keyboards contain generally from 83 to 105 keys placed sometimes differently. Most of these
keys are known as alphanumeric keys with letters and numbers, others permit to input
punctuation.

There are also many special keys used for different functions such as to delete or enter data or
command, print screen, escape, etc

Working of keyboard:

1. Keystroke Detection:

The keyswitches are the devices that are used to actually detect "keystrokes", that is, the finger
motions that mean a key has been pressed. The keyswitches respond to mechanical motion by
creating an electrical signal that tells the keyboard's internal controller that "a key was pressed".
From there, the internal circuitry must take over and determine which key, and figure out how to
communicate this fact to the system.

2. Scan code detection:

A scancode (or scan code) is the data that most computer keyboards send to a computer to report
which keys have been pressed. A number, or sequence of numbers, is assigned to each key on the
keyboard. The first issue that the circuitry must deal with is figuring out which key was actually
pressed. This would seem fairly simple: there's one keyswitch for each key, and that keyswitch
could be connected to the keyboard controller; it would just send it a signal when that key was
pressed.

The keyswitch sensors are arranged in a matrix of rows and columns, not unlike a spreadsheet.
When a specific key is pressed, it generates a signal for the row and column assigned to that key.
The controller is programmed to know that, for example, the letter "T" is at row # 3 and column
#8, and so on, for each key. This design means that instead of, say, 104 signal lines being needed
for a 104-key keyboard, 9 row lines and about 12 column lines will suffice, for example. (The
number of rows and columns doesn't necessarily correspond to the number of rows and columns
of keys on the keyboard, since the wiring of different keys can be changed by the design of the
circuit board in the keyboard.)

3. Make and Break Codes

The keyboard scan codes are broken into 'Make' and 'Break' codes. One make code is sent every
time a key is pressed. Once released, a break code is sent. For most keys, the break code is a
data stream of F0 followed by the scan code for the key. Using this configuration, the system
can tell whether or not the key has been pressed, and if more than one key is being held down, it
can distinguish which key has been released. Using two codes, the PC system can tell not only
what keys were pressed, but for how long, and also which keys have been held down for a period
of time. One example of this is when a shift key is held down. While it is held down, the '3' key
should return the value for the '#' symbol instead of the value for the '3' symbol. Another thing to
note is that if a key is held down, the make code is continuously sent via the typematic rate until
it is released, when the break code is sent. The full set of make and break codes is included in
the scan code sets available from USAR Systems.

Keyboard Operation
The scan codes are sent serially on the bi-directional data line. When neither the keyboard nor
the computer wants to send data, the data line and the clock line are high (inactive). The
transmission of a single key or command consists of the following components:

 start bit ('0')

 8 data bits representing the scan code

  parity bit (odd parity such that the eight data bits plus the parity bit are an odd number of
ones)

 stop bit ('1')

 A total of 11 bits

The following describes the sequence of events that occur during a transmission of a command
by the keyboard.

1. The keyboard checks to ensure that both the clock and keyboard lines are inactive. If both
are inactive, the keyboard prepares the 'start' bit by dropping the data line low.

2. The keyboard then drops the clock line low for approximately 35us.

3. The keyboard will then clock the remaining 10 bits at an approximate rate of 70us per
clock period.

4. The computer is responsible for recognizing the ‘start’ bit and to receive the data. The
data, which is 8 bits, is followed by a parity bit and finally a stop bit. If the keyboard
wishes to send more data, it follows the 11th bit immediately with the next ‘start’ bit.

This pattern repeats until the keyboard is finished sending data at which point the clock and data
lines will return to their inactive state. When implementing the VHD code, it will be necessary to
filter the keyboard clock to ensure clean signals.

The computer system can also send commands to the keyboard. These include

 keyboard initialization data

 request for resend of the last

 illumination of status lights including caps-lock, scroll-lock, and Num lock LED.

The computer system sends data to the keyboard as follows:

1. System drives the clock line low for approximately 60us (clock line is bi-directional).

2. System drives the data line low and then releases the clock line.

3. The keyboard will generate clock signals in order to clock in the command.

4. The system will send its 8 bit command followed by a parity bit and a stop bit.
 5. After the stop bit is driven high, the data line is released.

6. Upon completion of the command, the keyboard will send an ACK signal if it received the data
successfully.

Keyboard Connectors:
1. 6 pin DIN Connector

2.5 pin DIN Connector

3. USB pin connector

Working of Mouse:
Mouse is a computer’s peripheral device used along with the keyboard which allows a user to
indicate what function he wants that his computer to carry out by selecting from a list of
commands presented as a menu. The first mouse system was introduced for IBM PCs in 1982.
With the help of mouse, the user points at a menu selection by physically moving the input
device, which causes a core on screen movement of the cursor. One more button at the top of the
mouse enables the user to indicate that he can select a menu item. The name mouse, originated at
the Stanford Research Institute, derives from the resemblance of early models (which had a cord
attached to the rear part of the device, suggesting the idea of a tail) to the common mouse.

A Computer Mouse

Types of mouse:
1. Mechanical Mouse: -

The design is based on a small boll that is fixed at the bottom and rotated as the mouse is pushed
along the surface. Switches inside the mouse detect the movement in four directions (i.e. cores to
two axes of 2-D system) and relay the direction of ball’s rotation to the host computer. This
mouse requires that the user move it across a surface. The parts of mechanical mouse can break,
so care must be taken.
Operation of Mouse:-The main goal of any mouse is to translate the motion of your hand
into signals that the computer can use. Let's take a look inside a track-ball mouse to see how it
works:

1. A ball inside the mouse touches the desktop and rolls when the mouse moves.

2. Two rollers inside the mouse touch the ball. One of the rollers is oriented so that it detects
motion in the X direction, and the other is oriented 90 degrees to the first roller so it detects
motion in the Y direction. When the ball rotates, one or both of these rollers rotate as well. The
following image shows the two white rollers on this mouse:

3. The rollers each connect to a shaft, and the shaft spins a disk with holes in it. When a roller
rolls, its shaft and disk spin. The following image shows the disk:

4. On either side of the disk there is an infrared LED and an infrared sensor. The holes in
the disk break the beam of light coming from the LED so that the infrared sensor sees pulses of
light. The rate of the pulsing is directly related to the speed of the mouse and the distance it
travels.

5. An on-board processor chip reads the pulses from the infrared sensors and turns them into
binary data that the computer can understand. The chip sends the binary data to the computer
through the mouse's cord.

2. Optical Mouse:

In this type of mouse, instead of rotating the ball, a right-beam is used to detect movement across
a specially designed mouse pad.

The mouse uses two pairs of LEDs and photodiodes at its bottom. One pair is oriented at the
right angles with the other. The matching mouse pad is coated with an overlapped pattern of blue
& yellow grids. Each pair of LED and photodiode detects the motion in either direction across
one axis of the grid.
 Practical- 6
Aim: To study different ports and slots.
These are situated on the backside of the cabinet to connect I/O devices. There are following
types of ports in a computer.

PORTS

1. Serial Port: -It is nine pin connector used for connecting peripheral devices.

2. Parallel Port: - It is a twenty five-pin connector used for connecting peripheral devices. The
parallel port may transfer data at more speed than a serial port because of 25 pins.

3. USB Port: - It is the Universal Serial Bus used for connecting peripheral devices. It is a four-
pin connector.

4. RJ-45(Register Jacket) port: RJ-45 jacks and plugs have 8 pins. If you have a computer patch
cable laying around, you can see them on the plug. (Those shiny metal lines on the end.) RJ-45's
are sometimes referred to as 8P8C connectors. This stands for 8 Position (which describes the
width) 8 Conductor (or 8 Connector depending on who you talk to).

5. Sound port: Commonly, It includes Line In, Line Out and MIC Socket.

6. VGA Port: It is 15 pin VGA connector use for connecting monitor/LCD/TFT with Cabinet.

7. Keyboard & Mouse port: It is a 9 PIN PS/2 connector use for connecting keyboard & mouse
only.

8. The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) defines physical specifications communications

protocol standards for the short-range exchange of data over infrared light, for uses such as
personal area networks (PANs).

9. RF PORT: Radio frequency (RF) is the range of electromagnetic frequencies above the audio
range and below infrared light (from 10kHz to 300GHz).

Common Peripherals

LPT PORT:
LPT is Commonly known as the parallel port and
typically used as the printer connection device. For
distances limited to 20 feet or less. Faster than
LPI PORT
serial COM ports but more expensive. A typical LPT
port reaches a speed of 150kb/sec.. It is most common
to have only one for the printer called LPT1. It is
shaped as a trapezoid with the short end in the bottom
and 2 rows of pins, one 13 and other with 12 pins. A Plug forLPT port

COM PORT

COM is not an acronym unlike many of the

other ports; it simply stands for the "com" in
communications. It is commonly known as the
serial port because it was the first port to use
that type of communication. Like the LPT port
it is shaped like a trapezoid, but smaller, with
the short end in the bottom and has 9 pins
divided in 2 rows, one with 5 and other with 4
(be careful not to confuse it with the monitor
port which is similar in size and shape but it COM Port-Socket COM Port-Plug
has more pins and it is use only for monitors.)

SCSI PORT

SCSI stands for "Small Computer System

Interface" and is usually known by the way it's
Port
pronounced "scuzzy". It's a general-
purpose male and parallel port for connecting
many different devices to a computer. It's a fast
port that was available
Plug
before USB and FireWire. Usually used with
CD-ROM drives and scanners.

USB PORT
USB or Universal Serial BUS is
a serial and female port that can be use for any
peripheral available in both Macs and PCs. It is Ports
one of the newest and faster computer available.
It is slower than a FireWire port but is more
than adequate for the type of peripherals for
which it was designed for.
Plugs

SLOTS

1. PCI

Picture PCI types

The PCI world is somewhat of a mess right now.
There are at least five different types of PCI
socket in use!

 Original PCI.
 Wide PCI.
 Fast/wide PCI.
 Fast/wide 3.3-volt PCI.
 PCI-X.

2. ISA
Industry Standard Architecture (in practice almost always shortened to ISA) was a computer
bus standard for IBM compatible computers.

Year created: 1981

Created by: IBM
Superseded by: PCI (1993)

Width in bits: 8 or 16
Number of devices: Up to 6 devices
Capacity 8 MHz
Style: Parallel

3. EISA
The Extended Industry Standard Architecture (in practice almost always shortened to EISA and
frequently pronounced "eee-suh") is a bus standard for IBM compatible computers.

Year created: 1988

Created by: Gang of Nine
Superseded by: PCI (1993)
Width in bits: 32
Number of devices: 1 per slot
Capacity 8.33 MHz
Style: Parallel

4. VESA

The VESA Local Bus (usually

abbreviated to VL-Bus or VLB) was mostly used in personal computers.

5. IDE

Short for Integrated Drive Electronics or IBM Disc

Electronics, IDE is more commonly known as ATA and is a standard interface for IBM
compatible hard drives. IDE is different from the Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) and
Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) because its controllers are on each drive, meaning the
drive can connect directly to the motherboard or controller.

6. SATA

The serial ATA or SATA computer bus, is a storage-interface for connecting host bus
adapters to mass storage devices such as hard disk drives and optical drives.

Year created: 2003

Supersedes: Parallel ATA (PATA)

Capacity 1.5, 3.0, 6.0 Gbit/s

Style: Serial
 Yes
Hotplugging?
External? Yes (eSATA)

7. AGP
The Accelerated Graphics Port (often shortened to AGP) is a high-speed point-to-point
channel for attaching a video card to a computer's motherboard, primarily to assist in the
acceleration of 3D computer graphics.

Year created: 1997

Created by: Intel
PCI Express
Superseded by:
(2004)
Width in bits: 32
Numberof
1 device/slot
devices:
Capacity up to 2133 MB/s
Style: Parallel
Hotplugging? no
No
External?

8. USB

USB (Universal Serial Bus) is as its name suggests, based on serial type architecture. However, it
is an input-output interface much quicker than standard serial ports. Serial architecture was used
for this type of port for two main reasons:

 Serial architecture gives the user a much higher clock rate than a parallel interface
because a parallel interface does not support too high frequencies (in a high speed
architecture, bits circulating on each wire arrive with lag, causing errors);
 serial cables are much cheaper than parallel cables.
USB standards

So, from 1995, the USB standard has been developed for connecting a wide range of devices.

The USB 1.0 standard offers two modes of communication:

 12 Mb/s in high speed mode,

 1.5 Mb/s in low speed.
 

 
 

Practical-7
Aim: To study various types of Cables & Connectors.
Cables
USB cables can be used to connect most new devices to your computer including flash memory
sticks, portable media players, internet modems and digital cameras.

Computer accessories like mice, keyboards, webcams, portable hard-drives, microphones,

printers, scanners and speakers can also be connected to the computer through USB ports.
Additionally, USB cables are also used for charging a variety of gadgets including mobile
phones or for transferring data from one computer to another.

1. Audio Cables and Connectors

3.5mm headphone jack Digital Optical Audio

Picture

Uses A larger variety of the TSR For high-end audio, like when you
connector, 1/4″ TRS, is want to connect the output of a
commonly used in professional DVD player or a set-top box to a
audio recording equipment Dolby home theater, you need the
 TOSLINK (or S/PDIF) connector.

2. Video Cables
VGA DVI Monitor Port S-Video

Picture

Pin A standard VGA connector A DVI cable has 29

has 15-pins pins.
Uses VGA cable is used to It allows DVI monitor These are commonly
connect your laptop to a TV to receive input from used for connecting
screen or a projector. an HDMI cable. DVD players,
camcorders, older
video consoles to the
television.

3. Audio and Video Cables

RCA Connector HDMI Cables DisplayPort
Cables

Picture

Resolution HDMI support a It support

maximum resolutions up to
resolution of 2560 × 1600 × 60
4096×2160p Hz.
Uses These are fiber optic cables HDMI is the new A combined digital
and can therefore transmit standard that video and audio
pure digital audio through provide both cable that is more
light. audio and video commonly used in
transmission computers is
through a single DisplayPort
cable.
4. Data Cables
Firewire IEEE 1394 eSATA Cables

Picture

Uses It is commonly used for SATA cables are used

connecting digital internally for connecting the
camcorders and external hard hard drive to the computer's
drives to a computer. motherboard

5. Networking Related Cables

Phone RJ11 Cable Ethernet Cable

Picture

No. Of Wires A standard phone cable has It is made from 8 individual

4 wires. wires.

6. Twisted pair cable

Category Maximum data rate Usual application

Super-fast broadband
CAT 6 Up to 400 MHz applications
Most popular cabling for new
 installs

Up to 625 MHz Support for 10 Gigabit Ethernet

CAT 6E
(field-tested to 500 MHz) (10GBASE-T)

Full-motion video
CAT 7 600-700 MHz Teleradiology
(ISO Class 1.2 GHz in pairs with Government and
F) Siemon connector manufacturing environments
Shielded system

Connectors
There are various types of connectors are used in a computer system. These connectors support
various cables required for a number of operations. The connectors provided are:

1. Power Connector

2. Data Interface Connector

1. POWER CONNECTOR:
A power connector is an electrical connector designed to carry a significant amount of electrical
power, usually as DC or low-frequency AC. Some types of RF connector may also carry large
amounts of power, but are considered as a separate category. Connectors carrying small amounts
of power are known as signal connectors.

Personal computer power supply connectors

Molex Berg ATX motherboard SATA

Picture
No of pins 4 4 4 6
Uses Used for used by some It is now older AT- for connecting
powering CD- hard drives, and style connectors. host bus
ROM drives, carrying the same adapters to
burners etc. power supplies as mass storage
the HDD devices
connectors

2. DATA INTERFACE CONNECTOR:

Modern hard disk drives use one of two interfaces: IDE (ATA) and its variants, or SCSI. You
can tell immediately by looking at the back of the hard disk which interface is being used by the
drive:

IDE/ATA SCSI
Picture

No of pins 40 50,68 or 80
Shape rectangular D shaped

 Keyboard Connector

The keyboard connector is the device at the end of the cable that is used to attach the keyboard to
the system. The connector on the motherboard "stands up" from the surface of the board, making
it rather fragile.

5-Pin DIN 6-Pin DIN USB Pin

Picture
 Practical-8
Aim-Study of monitor.
MONITOR

Monitor Display Technology: -Often referred to as a monitor when packaged in a separate

case, the display is the most-used output device on a computer. The display provides instant
feedback by showing you text and graphic images as you work or play.

Most desktop displays use liquid crystal display (LCD) or cathode ray tube (CRT) technology,
while nearly all portable computing devices such as laptops incorporate LCD technology.
Because of their slimmer design and lower energy consumption, monitors using LCD technology
(also called flat panel or flat screen displays) are replacing the venerable CRT on most desktop.

Common Display Standards and Resolutions:-

Standard Resolution Typical Use

15- and 17-inch
XGA (Extended CRT monitors
1024x768
Graphics Array) 15-inch LCD
monitors
15- and 17-inch
SXGA (Super CRT monitors
1280x1024
XGA) 17-and 19-inch
LCD monitors
19-, 20-, 21-inch
UXGA (Ultra CRT monitors
1600x1200
XGA) 20-inch LCD
monitors
QXGA (Quad 21-inch and larger
2048x1536
XGA) CRT monitors
Wide aspect 15.4-
WXGA (Wide
1280x800 inch laptops
XGA)
LCD displays
WSXGA+ (Wide Wide aspect 20-
1680x1050
SXGA plus) inch LCD monitors
Wide aspect 22-
WUXGA (Wide
1920x1200 inch and larger
Ultra XGA)
LCD monitors
 LCD
Stands for "Liquid Crystal Display." LCDs are super-thin displays that are used in laptop
computer screens and flat panel monitors. Smaller LCDs are used in handheld TVs, PDAs, and
portable video game devices. The image on an LCD screen is created by sandwiching an
electrically reactive substance between two electrodes. This color of this substance can be
changed by increasing or reducing the electrical current. Since LCD screens are based on the
principle of blocking light (rather than emitting it), they use up much less power than standard
CRT (Cathode-Ray Tube) monitors.

LED

Stands for "Light-Emitting Diode." An LED is an electronic device that emits light when an
electrical current is passed through it. Early LEDs produced only red light, but modern LEDs can
produce several different colors, including red, green, and blue (RGB) light. Recent advances in
LED technology have made it possible for LEDs to produce white light as well.
LEDs are commonly used for indicator lights (such as power on/off lights) on electronic devices.
They also have several other applications, including electronic signs, clock displays, and
flashlights. Since LEDs are energy efficient and have a long lifespan (often more than 100,000
hours), they have begun to replace traditional light bulbs in several areas.

Diff. b/w LCD and LCD:-

Monitor LCD LED

Picture

Contrast It has lower contrast LCD is not better then Contrast and Black level
than LCD and LED. LED. of the LED screen is
better than the LCD
screens
Color Almost same of LED. Color accuracyfor direct
accuracy and edge LED displays
and LCD displays are
almost same but the RGB
 LEDs display has quite
better color accuracy
Viewing If the viewing angle of the LEDs have a wider
Angle display is much wider than viewing angle, which
thirty degrees from the means the image is still
center then the contrast clear when viewed from
ratio of the image is the side.
diminished in LCD.
Power It consume more power Less power is consumed by More power is consumed by
than LCD and LED. LCD. the local dimming LED
display than LCD.
The high power
consumption results in
high power
consumption of cathode
ray tube.
Use of LCD use mercury. LED displays do not use
Mercury mercury (used in cathode
lamps in LCD backlight) so
they are environment
friendly.
Size Size is more than LCD LCD size is more then that of The size of Edge and RGB
and LED. LED. monitors is slightly thinner
than the LCD monitors.
Price These costs about 2-3 This advantage further beats LED displays yield a higher
times lesser than LCD the retail price up of a price tag, which reflects
television with an LCD their efficiency and the
and LED. display. better picture quality. LED
displays also allow for
thinner, lighter televisions.
 Practical-9
Aim: To study different types of printers.
The machine through which any type of data in the computer can be print on a paper is called
Printer.

Different Types Of Printers

A printer can make a great addition to any home or office. Printers can be used for used for
numerous reasons in a household, or and office. Having a printer is great for individuals, families
and businesses because they can be used to print off directions, emails, work papers, charts,
student papers, research, photos and much more. Printers are a great way to get the information
you have on your computer onto a piece of paper in a very quick amount of time.

There are many makes and models of printers making it hard to even know where to start from.

Types of Printers
1. Laser Printer

A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text and graphics on a regular piece
of computer paper, and it is the most common computer printer used today. Laser printers can
vary in speed with some of the fastest models being able to print over 12,000 pages per hour

2. Inkjet Printer

Inkjet printers operate by propelling variably sized droplets of liquid or

molten ink onto a piece of computer paper. Ink jet printers are the most common type of printers
used by the general consumer due to their low cost, high quality printing, and capability of
printing in different colors
3. Multifunctional Printer

Multifunctional printers are also known as an MFP which is a printer that

incorporates the ability to function multiple devices in one. The advantage to this is to one save
money from buying all kinds of office devices when you can buy a printer capable of doing all
these tasks.

4. Solid Ink Printer

Solid ink printers are also known as phase change printers can produce
excellent results. They are a type of thermal transfer printer that uses solid sticks of colored ink
that are very similar to candle wax. The sticks of ink are melted and fed into a crystal operated
print head, which sprays the ink on the rotating oil coated drum

5. Dye Sublimation Printer

A dye Sublimation printer is a printer that uses a printing process of heat to

transfer dye to a medium plastic, paper or canvas. The process is usually done to lay one color at
a time using a ribbon that has color panels.

6. Thermal Printer
 Thermal printers work by selectively heating regions of special heat sensitive paper.
Monochrome thermal printers are used in cash registers, ATMs, gasoline dispensers and some
older inexpensive fax machines. The color on the paper can be achieved with special papers and
different heating temperatures.

7. Dot Matrix Printer

A Dot matrix printer is an impact printer that produces text and graphics when
tiny wire pins one a print head strike a ink ribbon. The print head runs back and forth on the
paper like a type writer.

8. Large Format Printer

A large format printer is any printer with a print between 17 inches and 100
inches. Large format printers are used to print such things as banners, posters, and other large
printable objects. Large format printer generally use a roll of print material rather than individual
printing sheets.

9. LED/LCD printers

are types of electro photographic printers that are identical to laser printers in
most ways. Both LCD (liquid crystal display) and LED (light-emitting diode) printers use a
light source instead of a laser to create an image on a drum. In most contexts, "laser printer"
covers LCD and LED printers as well.
10. Portable printers

are usually fairly lightweight and sometimes carry the option of using a
battery instead of drawing power from the computer. Usually they realize basic print
resolutions suitable for plain text printing. Thermal printer, Thermal transfer printer and Ink-
Jet printer. The main advantage of thermal and thermal transfer printers is that they can be
very small.

11. Plotters

are large-scale printers that are very accurate at reproducing line drawings.
They are commonly used for technical drawings such as engineering drawings or
architectural blueprints. The two basic types of plotters are called flatbed plotters and drum
plotters.

12. Digital Photo printers

Many middle range printers are now able to print photo quality images.
Usually an option with color printers, specialist photo print heads allow a greater resolution
to be achieved to improve photo image quality. Photo ink jet printers expand their gamuts by
adding additional ink colors, usually light cyan and light magenta.

13. Network printer

is a printer that provides output capabilities to all network users.

14. The Bravo AutoPrinter

is the worlds first automated CD/DVD printing system that can truly be called
innovative. It combines automatic, robotic-based CD or DVD printing along with full-color,
2400 dpi disc printing all in one compact, desktop unit.
15. Printers for banking:

these printers realize innovative technology and functionality to increase

productivity, and reduce costs.

16. EZ CD/DVD Printers:

provide a low cost way to create professional printed CD-Rs and DVD-Rs.
Instead of writing on the CD or applying labels, you can print directly on the CD surface!
With high speed capabilities, a full color image can be printed directly on the top surface of
your CDs in less than 1 minute.

17. Label Printers

are the smartest way to print labels one at a time. The printers allow easy
installation. You can get high-quality, professional results every time.

18. VersaLaser™

is peripheral tool, that can transform images or drawings on your computer

screen into real items made out of an amazing variety of materials… wood, plastic, fabric,
paper, glass, leather, stone, ceramic, rubber… and it’s as easy to use as your printer. 2 models
of VersaLaser have 16"x12"(VL-200) and 24"x12" (VL-300) work areas.

19. 3D Printers

The ZPrinter 310 System creates physical models directly from computer-aided
design system (“CAD”) and other digital data in hours instead of days. The printer is fast,
versatile and simple, allowing engineers to produce a range of concept models and functional
test parts quickly and inexpensively. The system is ideal for an office environment or
educational institution, providing product developers easy access to a 3D Printer.
 Practical-10
Aim:- To assemble a PC.
The main components required to assemble a PC are as follows:

 Mains Power
 Floppy Drive
 SMPS
 Motherboard
 Hard Disk
 RAM
 Processor
 Display Card
 Mouse and Keyboard cables
 Monitor cables

 
 Practical-11
Aim: To study Floppy Disk Drive.
The floppy disk drive (FDD) was the primary means of adding data to a computer until the CD-
ROM drive became popular. In fact, FDDs have been a key component of most personal
computers for more than 20 years. Basically, a floppy disk drive reads and writes data to a small,
circular piece of metal-coated plastic similar to audio cassette tape.

Procedure:

1. Switch off the main power supply.

2. Take out the data bus & the power supply from the FDD, gently.

3. Unscrew the FDD & take it out with extreme care.

4. Now put the FDD back in & screw up.

5. Plug in the data bus & power supply & make sure that the connections are precise

Parts of a Floppy Disk Drive:

The Disk

A floppy disk is a lot like a cassette tape:

 Both use a thin plastic base material coated with iron oxide. This oxide is
a ferromagnetic material, meaning that if you expose it to a magnetic field it is
permanently magnetized by the field.
 Both can record information instantly.
 Both can be erased and reused many times.
 Both are very inexpensive and easy to use.
FIG: The DiskFloppy drive

The major parts of a FDD include:

Read/Write Heads: Located on both sides of a diskette, they move together on the same
assembly

Drive Motor: A very small spindle motor engages the metal hub at the center of the diskette,
spinning it at either 300 or 360 rotations per minute (RPM).

Stepper Motor: This motor makes a precise number of stepped revolutions to move the
read/write head assembly to the proper track position. The read/write head assembly is fastened
to the stepper motor shaft.

Mechanical Frame: A system of levers that opens the little protective window on the diskette
to allow the read/write heads to touch the dual-sided diskette media. An external button allows
the diskette to be ejected, at which point the spring-loaded protective window on the diskette
closes.

Circuit Board: Contains all of the electronics to handle the data read from or written to the
diskette. It also controls the stepper-motor control circuits used to move the read/write heads to
each track, as well as the movement of the read/write heads toward the diskette surface.

Writing Data on a Floppy Disk

The following is an overview of how a floppy disk drive writes data to a floppy disk. Reading
data is very similar. Here's what happens:
1. The computer program passes an instruction to the computer hardware to write a data
file on a floppy disk, which is very similar to a single platter in a hard disk drive except
that it is spinning much slower, with far less capacity and slower access time.
2. The computer hardware and the floppy-disk-drive controller start the motor in the
diskette drive to spin the floppy disk.

The disk has many concentric tracks on each side. Each track is divided into smaller
segments called sectors, like slices of a pie.

3. A second motor, called a stepper motor, rotates a worm-gear shaft (a miniature

version of the worm gear in a bench-top vise) in minute increments that match the
spacing between tracks.

The time it takes to get to the correct track is called "access time." This stepping action
(partial revolutions) of the stepper motor moves the read/write heads like the jaws of a
bench-top vise. The floppy-disk-drive electronics know how many steps the motor has to
turn to move the read/write heads to the correct track.

4. The read/write heads stop at the track. The read head checks the prewritten
address on the formatted diskette to be sure it is using the correct side of the diskette and
is at the proper track. This operation is very similar to the way a record player
automatically goes to a certain groove on a vinyl record.
5. Before the data from the program is written to the diskette, an erase coil (on the same
read/write head assembly) is energized to "clear" a wide, "clean slate" sector prior to
writing the sector data with the write head. The erased sector is wider than the written
sector -- this way, no signals from sectors in adjacent tracks will interfere with the sector
in the track being written.
6. The energized write head puts data on the diskette by magnetizing minute, iron, bar-
magnet particles embedded in the diskette surface, very similar to the technology used in
the mag stripe on the back of a credit card. The magnetized particles have their north and
south poles oriented in such a way that their pattern may be detected and read on a
subsequent read operation.
7. The diskette stops spinning. The floppy disk drive waits for the next command.
 FIG: (Open Circuit of floppy Derive)

Applications:

Floppy disks, while rarely used to distribute software (as in the past), are still used in these
applications:

1. In some Sony digital cameras

2. For software recovery after a system crash or a virus attack

3. When data from one computer is needed on a second computer and the two computers are not
networked.
4. In bootable diskettes used for updating the BIOS on a personal computer
5. In high-density form, used in the popular Zip drive.

.