Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

OFFICE OF THE VICE PRESIDENT FOR BRANCHES AND CAMPUSES
SANTA ROSA CAMPUS
City of Santa Rosa, Laguna

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
(PSYC 20013)

COMPILED BY:

JONNA V. GRUEZO
Faculty

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 1 – NATURE AND SCOPE

Lesson 1 Definition of Psychology ……… 3
Lesson 2 Types of Behavior ……… 3-4
Lesson 3 Aims and Goals of Psychology ……… 4
Lesson 4 Development of Psychology ……… 4-6
Lesson 5 Psychology in the Philippines ……… 6
Lesson 6 School of Psychology ……… 6-7
Lesson 7 Major Branches of Psychology ……… 7
Lesson 8 Psychology and other Sciences ……… 7-8
Lesson 9 Theoretical Perspective ……… 8-9
Lesson 10 Scientific Approach to Research in Psychology ……… 9

UNIT 2 – HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 11 Definition of Terms ……… 10
Lesson 12 Principles/Laws of Heredity ……… 10-11
Lesson 13 Genetic/Biological Engineering ……… 11
Lesson 14 Stages/Periods of the Life-span Development ……… 11-12

UNIT 3 – PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

Lesson 15 The Neuron ……… 14
Lesson 16 The Nervous System ……… 14-16
Lesson 17 The Endocrine System ……… 17

UNIT 4 – SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Lesson 18 Definition of Terms ……… 19
Lesson 19 The sensory Systems ……… 19-21
Lesson 20 The Perceptual Process ……… 21-24

UNIT 5 – INTELLIGENCE
Lesson 21 Theories of Intelligence ……… 26-28
Lesson 22 Measurement of Intelligence ……… 28-29

UNIT 6 – LEARNING, MEMORY AND THINKING

Lesson 23 Learning ……… 30-32
Lesson 24 Memory ……… 32-33
Lesson 25 Thinking ……… 33

UNIT 7 – EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

Lesson 26 Emotion ……… 35-36
Lesson 27 Motivation ……… 36-38

UNIT 8 – PERSONALITY AND THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

Lesson 28 Theories of Personality ……… 39-41
Lesson 29 The Filipino Character ……… 41-42

UNIT 9 – SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Lesson 30 Intrapersonal Phenomena ……… 43-44
Lesson 31 Interpersonal Phenomena ……… 45-46

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UNIT 10 – INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Lesson 32 Major Areas of Industrial/Organizational Psychology ……… 47-48
Lesson 33 Theories on Workers Motivation ……… 48

UNIT 11 – HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY, STRESS ADJUSTMENT AND THERAPIES

(ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY)
Lesson 34 Nature of Stress ……… 50-52
Lesson 35 Neurotic Reactions ……… 52-53
Lesson 36 Maladaptive Reactions ……… 53
Lesson 37 Psychotic Reactions ……… 53-54
Lesson 38 Personality Disorders ……… 54
Lesson 39 Treatment of Abnormal Behavior ……… 54-55

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UNIT 1 – NATURE AND SCOPE

OVERVIEW:
As human beings, we tend to ask a lot of questions, such as why and how we think, feel
and behave the way we do. But could not get answers to our satisfaction. By understanding
psychology we may be able to describe, predict, understand and control our behavior.
In this lesson we will focus on the nature and scope of psychology. Its meaning, its goal
and the proponents of this what we call psychology. It will cover its areas of specialization
and its branches. The school of thoughts that are used as approaches to study the human
mind.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. Define what is psychology.
2. Enumerate the types of behavior.
3. Identify the goals of psychology.
4. Name the proponents of psychology.
5. List the different branches of psychology.

COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 1. DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology – came from the Greek words “psyche and logos”
- “psyche” means soul or mind
- “logos” means study of
- study of the mind or soul
- the scientific study and practical application of the observable behavior and
mental processes of organisms
- the science or scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Lesson 2. TYPES OF BEHAVIOR

Behavior – refers to the action and reactions of the individual when exposed or placed on a
certain situation or environment.
1. Overt and Covert
Overt – a behavior which is observable and can be manifested outwardly.

Covert – a behavior of which action is not directly visible.

2. Rational and Irrational

Rational – is manifested through an action which is in the realm of sanity and adequate
reason.

Irrational – pertains to action which are done without any apparent reason and
explanation.

3. Voluntary and Involuntary

Voluntary – is done with the person’s full will and discretion.

Involuntary – those actions done automatically.

4. Simple and Complex

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 - Simple behavior utilizes fewer neurons as compared to the amount of neurons used in
complex behavior.

5. Conscious, Unconscious and Non-conscious

Conscious – pertains to the actions that is within one’s awareness.

Unconscious – are those actions done by an individual yet is not aware of doing so.

Non conscious - bodily activities which may be detected by instruments or apparatus.

Lesson 3. AIMS AND GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1. Describe
2. Understand
3. Predict
4. Control
5. Explain

Lesson 4. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

 Ancient period
- The most common way of explaining behavior during the ancient times is the use
of animism. It is the gods and spirits who were attributed to be the direct cause of events
and activities of man.

 Greek period
Democritus theorized that the human mind is composed of atoms which
penetrates in and out of our systems.

Plato believed that the soul is distinct to man and it is God-given. It inhibits the
body as “knower, thinker and determiner” of the individual’s actions. He reiterated that
the human psyche consists of three elements; the element of reason, spirited element
and element of bodily appetites and desire.

Aristotle considered as the father of psychology. The first person to put into
writing his explanation pertaining to the behavior of man. He introduced the three
functions of the soul; appetitive, vegetative and rational. According to his belief the
brain is merely a gland and would perform minor functions.

Hippocrates, the father of medicine. First theorized that mental disorders arose
from natural cause. He was the first to classify different mental disorders during the
classical period.

Galen theorized the relation of temperament to physiological factors. The

temperament correspond as sanguine (red, bile), phlegmatic (green bile), melancholic
(black bile) and choleric (yellow bile).

 Medieval Period
St. Augustine of Hippo combined the Greek Platonic thought with Christian
thinking and introduced the method of introspection where the individual tries to describe
his own conscious processes.

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 St. Thomas Aquinas merged Aristotle’s idea that the mind is a living matter to
his idea of immortality.

 Pre-modern period
Rudolf Gockel is often attributed for the initial use of the term “psychology” in his
writing.

Francis Bacon proposed that psychology should separate from philosophy and
should be treated as a natural science.

Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism and the concept of reflex action
– which indicates that the mind and body interact.

John Locke introduced the idea that all experiences may be analyzed. He also
linked the idea on his concept of “tabula rasa” of which at birth the mind is like a blank
tablet the gathers its contents through the experiences that an individual will have in his
entire life.

Franz Anton Mesmer utilized the method of “animal magnetism” in curing

hysteria.

Immanuel Kant stated that the mind is not blank but rather the mind is capable
of acquiring knowledge through sensory experiences.

Johann Friedrich Herbart was responsible for making psychology as a science.

Francis Galton is recognized as the father of behavioral genetics and introduced

the idea of individual differences.

 Modern psychology
Wilhelm Wundt was regarded as the father of modern/scientific psychology. He
established the first psychological laboratory in Germany.

William James was the founder of American Psychology. The most renowned
proponent of the scientific basis in the study of human behavior.

Emil Kraeplin was the first to formally describe bipolar disorder and coined the
term “manic depressive”.

Edward Titchener developed the idea of structuralism.

 Contemporary Psychology
Sigmund Freud was the father of psychoanalysis and developed the
psychoanalytic process of free association.
Carl Jung developed his theory of the origin of neurosis. He gave emphasis on
the importance of the collective unconscious as the basis of affect to behavior.

Alfred Adler conceptualized the importance of superiority and inferiority as a

factor that affects man’s existence.

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 Charles Spearman is recognized as the first systematic psychometrician and
father of classical test theory.

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed the first Intelligence Quotient test.

Edward Thorndike is the father of educational psychology.

Lesson 5. PSYCHOLOY IN THE PHILIPPINES

Zeus Salazar identified four lines of history and filiations of Philippine psychology
namely:
1. Academic-scientific psychology
2. Academic-philosophical psychology
3. Ethnic or indigenous psychology
4. Psycho-medical psychology

Lesson 6. SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

A school of thought is an organized explanation of certain phenomena believed by
groups of people supporting the principle.
1. Structuralism
- The first school of thought; and introduced ideas associated with experiences. It
believes in the importance of the structure of the mind. The structuralists primarily used
the method called introspection.

2. Functionalism
- Studied how the mind affects what people do. It stressed the importance of
functional adjustment of an organism to his environment.

3. Behaviorism
- John B. Watson introduced behaviorism in 1913. The behaviorist stressed the
importance of the environment in shaping an individual’s behavior. They realized that
human behavior could also be changed by conditioning.

4. Gestalt
- Developed as a reaction against structuralism. Gestalt literally means to
configure or to form a pattern. Gestaltists believed that behavior should be studied as an
organized pattern rather than as separate incidents of stimulus and response. The
familiar saying “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” expresses an important
principle of the Gestalt movement.

5. Psychoanalysis
- Freud reiterated that not all people could be hypnotized but instead they could be
psycho-analyzed. Psychoanalysis was based on the theory that behavior is determined
by powerful inner forces. Freud developed psychoanalysis as a form of psychotherapy.

6. Cognitive Psychology
- A theoretical perspective that focuses on the realms of human perception, thought and
memory.

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 7. Humanistic
- Believed that an individual’s behavior is primarily determined by his perception
of the world around him. Individuals are not solely the product of their environment and
are internally motivated to fulfill their human potential.

Lesson 7. MAJOR BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

1. Abnormal Psychology
- The branch of psychology that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior.

2. Behavioral Psychology
- Also known as behaviorism.

3. Bio-psychology
- The branch of psychology that focused on the study of how the brain influences
behavior. Also called physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience and
psychobiology.

4. Cognitive Psychology
- The branch of psychology that focuses on internal states such as motivation,
problem solving, decision-making, thinking and attention.

5. Comparative Psychology
- The branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior.

6. Developmental Psychology
- The branch of psychology that looks at the development throughout the lifespan.

7. Educational Psychology
- The branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology,
educational issues and students concerns.

8. Experimental Psychology
- The branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to research of brain and
behavior.

9. Personality Psychology
- This branch of psychology is focused on the patterns of thoughts, feelings and
behavior that makes a person unique.

10. Social Psychology

- Seeks to explain and understand social behavior.

Lesson 8. PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES

1. Bio-psychology
- The application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and
behavior.

2. Physiological Psychology

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 - The study of neural mechanism of perception and behavior through direct
manipulation of the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in controlled experiment.

3. Psychiatry
- A branch of medicine which exists to study, prevent and treat mental disorders in
humans.

4. Psychotherapy
- Pertains to the application of specialized psychological methods to the treatment of
diagnosed mental disorders or to the problems of a person’s daily adjustment.

5. Psychotropics
- A subfield of medicine that deals with the various pharmacological agents utilized to
affect behavior, mood and feelings.

6. Psychosurgery
- A branch of medicine which involves the surgical severing and chemical alterations
of brain fibers with the purpose of modifying psychological disturbances and other
behavior aberrations.

7. Social Psychology
- Merged the discipline of sociology and anthropology together with the basic
premise about the common concern of psychology.

8. Psycholinguistics or Psychology of Language

- The study of psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to
acquire, use and understand language.

Lesson 9. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

The theoretical perspective helps psychologists to organize their scientific findings to link
and connect them to theories as they seek for further research direction.
1. Evolutionary Perspective
- Comparative psychologist use the evolutionary perspective in their studies on
the behavior of different animal species to understand how the evolutionary past is
connected to what is going on in the modern man’s brain.

2. Psychodynamic Perspective
- Freud advanced that much of what a person thinks and does is motivated by
inner forces in the subconscious level of the mind over which the person has no control.
All forms of maladjustments and emotional conflicts in adult life are traceable to
traumatic psychic experiences in childhood which are outside the person’s conscious
awareness.

3. Behavioral Perspective
- Adheres to the belief that psychology should focus on overt observable
behavior and its relationship to an event that can be predicted and measured objectively.

4. Cognitive Perspective
- Grew from a combination of gestalt psychology and behavioral psychology. It
focuses on how a person knows, understands and thinks about the world around him.

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 5. Humanistic Perspective
- Considered as the third force because it is the first significant alterative to the
psychoanalytic and behavioral perspectives in understanding human behavior.

6. Psychobiological Perspective
- Psychologists study the brain and the hormonal system and their effects on
heredity and psychological functions.

7. Neuropsychological Perspective
- Focuses on how behavior and mental processes relate to changes in the brain
and nervous system.

Lesson 10. SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY

The scientific method employs three steps.
1. Formulating the problem or purpose of the study.
2. Developing a conceptual or theoretical framework and hypotheses on the specific
phenomenon to be studied.
3. Gathering pieces of evidence that either support or refute the research framework.

Methods of Research:
1. Controlled experiments
2. Animal studies
3. Qualitative and descriptive research
4. Survey questionnaires
5. Longitudinal studies
6. Neuropsychological methods
7. Computational modeling
8. Correlational method
9. Indigenous research method

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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
I. Identify the following. Write the word being described in each sentence.
PSYCHOLOGY1. It is the science or scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
ARISTOTLE 2. He was considered as the father of psychology.
OVERT 3. It is a behavior which is observable and can be manifested outwardly.
WLIHELM WUNDT4. He was regarded as the father of modern/scientific psychology.
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 5. It is a theoretical perspective that focuses on the realms of
human perception, thought and memory.
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY 6. The branch of psychology the looks at psychopathology and
abnormal behavior.
BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE7. The perspective which adheres to the belief that psychology
should focus on overt behavior and its relationship to an event that can be predicted and
measured objectively.
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY8. The branch of psychology that looks at development
throughout the lifespan.

GESTALT 9. A school of thought which was developed as a reaction against structuralism.

RATIONAL 10. A behavior that is manifested through an action which is in the realm of sanity and
adequate reason.

II. Enumerate the goals and aims of psychology and explain each by citing examples.

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UNIT 2 – HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

OVERVIEW:
This lesson is about you and me. The information and interesting story of each one of us
in every stages of our lifespan. It will discuss the process of human development from
conception to death with the interaction of heredity and the environment.

Developmental psychology is usually concerned with the changes in behavior over the
lifespan of an individual. Its concentration is on how an individual who is constantly changing
reacts to the many changes in his environment.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. Cite the stages of human development.
2. Discuss the different stages of human development.
3. Identify the principles of heredity.

COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 11. DEFINITION OF TERMS
Development is a process that continues from conception to death. Developmental
psychologist are usually concerned with the changes in behavior over the life span.

Physical Development includes changes in bodily appearance and structure.

Psychosocial Development includes changes in social and emotional aspects of

personality.

Cognitive Development includes changes in the thought processes that could affect
language, learning abilities and memory.

Qualitative Changes refer to a progressive series of change leading to improvement;

also referred to as development.

Quantitative Changes refer to the measurable changes in an individual, also referred to

as growth.

Heredity provides all the raw materials and hidden potentials of an individual. It is a
process whereby traits of parents are handed down to their offspring via the genes.

Environment determines the manner by which the raw materials are to be shaped. It
refers to all the forces that affect man like physical, natural and social forces.

Chromosomes are thread-like or rope-like bodies that contain the genes and usually
found in pairs.

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 Genes are the real bearers of hereditary traits. Dominant genes – are strong genes;
while Recessive genes – are weak genes.

Lesson 12. PRINCIPLES/LAWS OF HEREDITY

1. Principle of reproduction
2. Principle of variation
3. Principle of dominance and recessiveness
4. Principle of change
5. Principle of sex-linked characteristics

Lesson 13. GENETIC/BIOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

Techniques for achieving conception
1. In-vitro fertilization
2. Artificial insemination by donor
3. Surrogate motherhood
4. Cloning/mapping

Lesson 14. STAGES/PERIODS OF THE LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

Life-span development is referred to as the number of periods in the life cycle.
1. Pre-natal Period – starts from conception to birth.
Stages:
1.1. Period of the Ovum or Germinal Stage – starts from fertilization to two weeks.
1.2. Period of the Embryo or Embryonic Stage – begins from the second week to
eight weeks or two months.
1.3. Period of the Fetus or Fetus Stage – covers the eight weeks to birth.

Types of Birth:
1. Natural or spontaneous birth
2. Instrument birth
3. Breech birth
4. Transverse presentation birth
5. Cesarean-section birth

2. Infancy Period – from birth to two weeks.

Stages:
2.1. Period of the Partunate – covers the first 15 to 20 minutes after birth, once the
umbilical cord has been cut.
2.2. Period of the Neonate – covers the rest of the infancy period.

Four Major Adjustments in Infancy:

1. Adjustment to temperature change
2. Adjustment to breathing
3. Adjustment to taking nourishment
4. Adjustment to elimination

3. Babyhood Period – extends from the second week of infancy up to the second year
of life. Also known as the age of helplessness.
Reflexes:
 Sucking Reflex – newborn starts to suck things that touch their lips.

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  Rooting Reflex – babies would turn their head toward the source of something
that stimulates their cheek or mouth.
 Babinski Reflex – where there is fanning out of the baby’s toes when his sole is
touched.
 Darwinian Reflex – causes the baby to grasp tightly to objects placed in their
hands.
 Moro or Startle Reflex – displayed when the baby hears a loud noise.
 Papillary Reflex – wherein the baby closes his eyes when there is a bright ray
that hits his eyes.
 Swimming Reflex – where babies usually make well-coordinated movements
when they are put in water with face down.

4. Childhood Stage – starts from two years to the onset of puberty.

Stages:
4.1. Early Childhood – extends from two to six years. It is also called the age of
curiosity.
4.2. Late Childhood – extends from six years up to the onset of puberty, sometimes
between 11 to 12 years of age. It is labeled as the smart stage.

5. Puberty Stage – overlaps the end of childhood and it also touches the early part of
adolescence. It is the period in the development of man at which the individual is
physically capable of sexual reproduction.
Stages:
5.1. Pre-pubescence
5.2. Post-pubescence

6. Adolescence Stage – psychologists regard this period as beginning – when children

become sexually mature – and ending when they reach the age of maturity.
Stages:
6.1.Teenager or the Young Adolescent – extends from 13 to 17 years of age.
6.2. Youth – is the older adolescent. This is from 18 to 24 years of age.

7. Adulthood Stage – is studied as a series of stages.

Stages:
7.1. Early Adulthood - extends from 21 to 40 years of age.
7.2. Middle Adulthood (middle age) - extends from 40 to 60 years of age.
7.3. Late Adulthood (old age/senescence) - extends from 60 onwards.

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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
I. Write true if the sentence is correct, otherwise write false.
TRUE1. Heredity is a process whereby traits of parents are handed down to their offspring via
the genes.
TRUE2. Genes are the real bearers of hereditary traits.
TRUE3. Life-span development is referred to as the number of periods in the life cycle.
TRUE4. Period of the Fetus or Fetus Stage covers the eight weeks to birth.
TRUE5. Moro or Startle Reflex is displayed when the baby hears a loud noise.
FALSE 6. Old age extends from 40 to 60 years of age.
FALSE7. Childhood Stage overlaps the end of childhood and it also touches the early part of
adolescence.
FALSE 8. Early Childhood extends from six years up to the onset of puberty,
FALSE 9. Qualitative Changes refer to a progressive series of change leading to improvement;
also referred to as growth.
FALSE 10. Genes are thread-like or rope-like bodies that contain the genes and usually found in
pairs.

II. Choose and discuss 3 techniques for achieving conception.

III. Collect 3 pictures of you which represent each stage of human development and write a
short description of each picture.

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UNIT 3 – PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

OVERVIEW:
Human being are products of biological functions and processes and owes his ability for
complex behavior adjustments to his nervous system.

This lesson will discuss about the relationship of the nervous system, particularly the
brain, to a human being’s behavior. The endocrine system is another biological process in
determining the behavior of a human being.

The nervous system controls all our bodily activities and behavioral responses. It is
made up mainly of neurons or nerve cells which numbers to about one hundred billion.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. Name the parts and functions of the divisions of the nervous system.
2. Describe the nervous system.
3. Identify and explain the different endocrine glands.

COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 15. THE NEURON
The neuron or nerve cell is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
Parts:
1. Cell Body or Cyton – is the central portion with a nucleus, cytoplasm and a cell
membrane

2. Dendrites – are short branching processes whose function is to receive nerve

impulses and carry them toward the cell body.

3. Axon – is an elongated strand with one or several formations at the far end called
end brush.

Neuron are grouped into three:

1. Sensory or Afferent Neurons – carry messages or nerve impulses from the sense
organ toward the brain.

2. Motor or Efferent Neurons – carry messages or nerve impulses away from the
brain.

3. Inter-neurons, Connector Neurons or Association Neurons – carry messages or

nerve impulses within the brain.

Laws Governing the Neuron

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 1. All or Nothing Law – states that it is either that neuron reacts or not at all, but if it
does react, it reacts with fullest strength.

2. Law of Dynamic Polarity – states that impulses travel only in one direction from
neuron to neuron.

Lesson 16. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. The Central Nervous System (CNS) – consist of the brain and the spinal cord.

2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – compose of all the nerve fiber that connect
the receptors to the central nervous system and which further connects the central
nervous system to the effectors.

The Central Nervous System

- The central nervous system basically made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The
brain is house in the skull and the spinal cord is found in the vertebral column. The central
nervous system serves as the integrating mechanism of the entire human body.

 The Brain
- The brain is jelly-like and extra soft weighing about 1,400 grams. It is the master organ
and is the busiest part of the body. It controls and directs all activities in the nervous
system. As the master or the chief organ, it is responsible for the integration of the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

Three major divisions of the brain:

1. Forebrain – consists of the cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.

1.1. Cerebrum – is the most complex and largest part of the brain and considered as
the seat of consciousness. It consist of the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
Each of the cerebral hemisphere is subdivided into four lobes; frontal lobe,
temporal lobe, parietal lobe and occipital lobe.

1.2. Thalamus – is found right on top of the midbrain and serves as a relay center of
the impulses being sent to the brain areas.

1.3. Hypothalamus – keeps the balance of different body systems mainly because
of its close involvement with the endocrine system which releases hormones
inside the body. Hypothalamus is considered as the seat of emotion. It maintains
homeostasis by regulating some involuntary activities like body temperature,
thirst and sexual drive as well as our emotional behaviors.

2. Midbrain – serves as the bridge between the hindbrain and the forebrain. It is also
involved in auditory and visual activities.

3. Hindbrain – is composed of the pons, medulla oblongata and the cerebellum. It is

connected to the spinal cord.
3.1. Pons – is made up mostly of the nerve fibers running from one part of
the brain to the others.

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 3.2. Medulla Oblongata – regulates the involuntary muscles responsible for
our heartbeat, rate of breathing or respiration, swallowing and movements of
the stomach and intestine.

3.3. Cerebellum – or little brain. It enables us to learn and develop our habits
and skills. It regulates our tongue and jaw movements during speech.

 The Spinal Cord

- The spinal cord is a long and stem-like structure running down the vertebral
column. It is composed of nerves that lead to and from the brain. The two main
functions of the spinal cord are to provide connector mechanisms for reflex reactions
and to transmit messages to and from the brain. Like a pathway it receives sensory
information to the brain and transmit motor impulses from the brain to the muscles. It
is considered as the center of reflex reactions.

The Peripheral Nervous System

Two divisions:
1. Somatic Nervous System – covers the 12 pairs of cranial nerves, which are
distributed in the head region and 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which are distributed in
the body region. These nerves have sensory and motor function which make it
possible for the brain and spinal cord to communicate with the whole body. It is
responsible for the voluntary skeletal movements like sensing and movements of the
arm and legs and the whole body.

31 pairs of spinal nerves:

 Cervical (neck) – 8 pairs
 Thoracic region – 12 pairs
 Lumbar region – 5 pairs
 Sacral region – 5 pairs
 Coccygeal region – 1 pair

12 pairs of cranial nerves:

 Olfactory – nose
 Optic – eyes
 Oculo-motor – eyes
 Trochlear – eyes
 Trigeminal – eyes, jaw, cheek, tongue
 Abducent – eyes
 Facial – face and forehead
 Glossopharyngeal – tongue and pharynx
 Vagus – neck, thorax and abdomen
 Accessory – pharyngeal and laryngeal muscle
 Hypoglossal – tongue
 Vestibule-cochlear – ears

2. Autonomic or Visceral Nervous – is composed of the sympathetic and

parasympathetic systems. This division of the nervous system is responsible for all
involuntary movements within the body that keep us alive.
 Sympathetic

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 - covers the activities of the internal organs within the thoracic-lumbar
regions. It activates and speed up life activities. It leads to increase adrenaline
secretion by the adrenal gland that is needed for threatening or emergency
situations.

 Parasympathetic
- covers the cranial sacral regions. It slows down the life activities. It restores
the body-stored energy thus calming down the body after resolving a stressful and
emergency situations.

Lesson 17. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

- the endocrine system or ductless gland is involved with the process of maintaining the
biochemical equilibrium in the body or homeostasis. The ductless gland are located in the
different areas of the body. The glands secrete chemical excitatory substances called
hormones which go directly into the bloodstream.

The Endocrine Glands:

1. Pituitary Gland – also known as the master gland. It secretes a number of hormones
that affect the activities of almost all the endocrine glands.

2. Pineal Gland – also known as the gland of childhood. It controls the activity of the
reproductive organs. It secretes the hormone melatonin.

3. Thyroid Gland – is the butterfly-shaped gland. It secretes thyroxine and idothyroxine

which affect growth and metabolism.

4. Parathyroid Gland – are pea-shaped gland. It secretes parathormone which controls

the calcium level in the blood.

5. Thymus Gland – also called the gland of babyhood. It keeps an individual childish. It
secretes thymosin. This gland helps in building up the immune system of the body.

6. Adrenal Gland – has two division; the adrenal cortex – which secretes cortin or adrenal
androgens and adrenal medulla – which secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline.

7. Islets of Langerhans – are small bodies made up of clusters of special cells scattered
all over the pancreas.

8. Gonads/Sex Glands

18
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
I. Fill in the blanks with the correct word/s.
1. The NERVOUS system controls all our bodily activities and behavioral responses.
2. The neuron or nerve cell is the basic structural and functional unit of the NERVOUS system.
3. The central nervous system is basically made up of the BRAIN and the spinal cord.
4. The master organ and is the busiest part of the body is the BRAIN.
5. MIDBRAIN serves as the bridge between the hindbrain and the forebrain.
6. The SPINAL CORD is a long and stem-like structure running down the vertebral column.
7.the ENDOCRINE system or ductless gland is involved with the process of maintaining the
biochemical equilibrium in the body or homeostasis.
8. Thymus Gland is also called the gland of BABYHOOD.
9. PITUITARY GLAND secretes a number of hormones that affect the activities of almost all the
endocrine glands.
10. The HYPOTHALAMUS is considered as the seat of emotion.

II. Explain how the nervous system works.

19
UNIT 4 – SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

OVERVIEW:
This lesson focuses on sensation and perception. Every second of life, the senses are
functioning to connect internal or physiological body to the external world. The sense organs
gain information about the world through different sources of energy that can be sensed.
Stimulus is recognized by the sense organ, resulting to sensation, and perception is the
experience in the sensory world and interprets meaningful experiences. Human beings
select, organize and interpret sensation through the process of perception.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. Define sensation and perception.
2. Differentiate the sensory system.
3. Describe the types of perception.

COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 18. DEFINITION OF TERMS
Sensation – a process which detect physical energy from the environment and encode it
as a neural signals.

Perception – a process where we select, organize and interpret our sensation.

- The process by which we organize, interpret, or make sense of our sensory
experiences.

Threshold – divides the line between what energy can be detected or not.

Difference threshold – tells about the minimum difference in the magnitude of two
stimuli present.

Absolute threshold – is the minimal amount of energy that can produce a sensation.

Just noticeable difference – is the minimal amount by which a source of energy must
be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived.

Sensitization (positive adaptation) – the process of becoming more sensitive to

stimulation.

Desensitization (negative adaptation) – the process of becoming less sensitive to

stimulation.

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Lesson 19. THE SENSORY SYSTEMS
1. The Vision – the eye and its basic structure.
The eye is the receptor organ for vision.
1.1. Cornea – a transparent protective structure.

1.2. Pupil – a round opening in which size varies with lighting conditions.

1.3. Iris – the colored part of the eye.

1.4. Lens – a clear structure in which shape adjusts to permit us to focus on objects
at varying distances.

1.5. Retina – a postage-stamp-sized structure that contains two types of lights.

Visual problems:
1. Visual acuity – is sharpness of vision or the ability to discriminate usual details
which can be measured though a Snellen chart.

Nearsightedness (myopia) – is a condition where a person is capable of

seeing nearby objects with greater activity than distant objects.

Farsightedness (hyperopia) – is a condition where a person can see distant

object with greater activity than nearby objects.

2. Presbyopia – is a condition characterized by brittleness of the lens which usually

begins at about the age of 38 – 46.

3. Strabismus (cross-eyed) – is a visual disorder in which both eyes cannot focus

on the same point at the same time.

4. Astigmatism – is a visual disorder caused by abnormal curvature of the lens, so

that images are indistinct or distorted.

5. Color blindness – is a condition in which persons suffering from this are

monochromats and sensitive to light (dark only).

6. Partial color blindness – is more common than total color blind and it is a sex-
linked trait that strike mostly males. They are called dichromats.

2. The Hearing – the ear and its basic structure

The ear is suited for sensing auditory stimulation or hearing.
2.1. Outer Ear – is shaped to funnel sound waves to the eardrum, a thin membrane that
vibrates in response to sound waves and thereby transmits them to the middle and
inner ears.

2.2. Middle Ear – contains the eardrum and three small bones; the hammer, the anvil
and the stirrup, which transmit sound by vibrating. It functions as an amplifier, it
increases the magnitude of the air pressure.

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 2.3. Inner Ear – the oval window transmits vibrations into the inner ear, the bony tube
called cochlea, shaped like a snail.

Auditory problems:
1. Conduction Deafness – occurs because of damage to the structures of the middle
ear, either to the eardrum or to the three bones.

2. Sensory-neural Deafness – usually stems from damage to the structures of the

inner ear most often the loss of hair cells which will not regenerate.

3. Stimulation Deafness - stems from exposure to very loud sounds.

3. Smell and Taste – the chemical senses.

Although smell and taste are separate senses, in everyday life, they are
intimately related. The nose is sensitive to various basic odors; flowery, misty, musky,
ethereal, pungent, putrid and burnt.

4. The Skin Senses

The skin which is the largest organ in our body discriminates five kinds of
sensation; touch, pressure, warmth, cold and pain. It has three layers; epidermis,
dermis and subcutaneous adipose tissue.

5. Kinesthesia, Vestibular Sense and Organic Sensation

Kinesthesia – is the sense that gives us information about the location of our
body parts and allows us to perform from a simple touching of nose to more
complex movements such as dancing, driving and gymnastics.

Vestibular Sense – gives information about body position, movement and

acceleration.

Organic Sensation – is found in the visceral organs such as stomach,

intestines, internal sex organs, lungs, throat and heart.

Lesson 20. THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

Types of Perception
1. Visual Perception
1.1. Perceptual organization
1.1.1. Form perception
1.1.1.1. Figure-ground perception
Figure – which has a definite shape and a location in space.
Ground – which has no shape and seems to continue behind the
figure and has no definite location.

1.1.1.2. Grouping
Gestaltist described certain principles or laws for grouping stimuli
together;
a. Proximity – we group nearby figures together.

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 b. Similarity – if figures are similar to each other, we group them
together.

c. Continuity – is the grouping of various elements organized to

create a form.

d. Closure – is completing the missing or unfinished form or

pattern to complete an element.

e. Connectedness – we perceive spots, lines, or areas as a

single unit when uniform and linked.

f. Orientation – is the grouping of like elements within a group

with different elements.

g. Simplicity – is the grouping of elements into feature easiest to

understand.

1.2. Perceptual Constancies

- This phenomenon allows us to perceive an object as unchanging
while the stimuli we receive from it changes. Thus we can identify things
regardless of viewing angle, distances and illumination.
1.2.1. Size Constancy – is the tendency to perceive the same object as being the
same size eventhough the size of its image on the retina varies as a function of
its distance.

1.2.2. Shape Constancy – allows us to perceive familiar objects as having a constant

form even when our retinal images of them change.

1.2.3. Color Constancy – makes us perceive objects as retaining their color

eventhough lighting conditions may alter their appearance.

1.2.4. Lightness Constancy – allows us to perceive an object as having constant

lightness even while its illumination varies.

2. Movement Perception
Real Movement – moving objects whether they are people, animals, cars or
trees of earth plummeting down a hillside.

Auto Kinetic Effect – is a tendency to perceive a stationary point of light as

moving in a dark room.

Stroboscopic Motion – makes motion picture possible which is done through

the presentation of a rapid progression of images of stationary objects.

Phi Phenomenon – occurs as a result of the on-off process of switching the row
of light as seen in an electronic scoreboard in a baseball or basketball stadium.

3. Depth Perception
3.1. Monocular Cues

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 3.1.1. Size – the larger the image of an object on the retina, the larger it perceived to
be. Likewise, if an object is larger than other objects, it is often perceived as
closer.

3.1.2. Linear Perspective – parallel lines appear to converge in the distance; the
greater this effect, the farther away an object appear to be.

3.1.3. Texture Gradient – the texture of a surface appears smoother as distance

increases.

3.1.4. Atmospheric Perspective – the farther away objects are the less distinctly they
are seen.

3.1.5. Overlap – if one object overlaps another, it is seen as being closer than the one
it covers.

3.1.6. Height Cues – below the horizon, objects lower down in our field of vision are
perceived as closer; above the horizon, objects higher up are seen as closer.

3.1.7. Motion Parallax – when we travel in a vehicle, objects far away appear to move
in the same direction as the observer, whereas close objects move in the
opposite direction.

3.2. Binocular Cues

3.2.1. Convergence – in order to see close objects, our eyes turn inward, toward one
another; the greater this movement, the closer such objects appear to be.

3.2.2. Retinal Disparity – our two eyes observe objects from slightly different positions
in space; the difference between those two images is interpreted by our brain to
provide another cue to depth.

4. Perceptual Illusion
- Perception can provide false interpretation of sensory information,
known as illusion; which refers to incorrect perception.
4.1. Illusion of Size
4.1.1. Muller-lyer Illusion – in which the bottom line looks longer than the top line.

4.1.2. Ponzo Illusion – wherein the top horizontal line looks longer.

4.1.3. Horizontal-vertical Illusion – in which the vertical line looks longer.

4.2. Illusions of Area or Shape

Poggnedorf Illusion – in this illusion, a line disappear at an angle
behind a solid figure, reappearing at the other side.

5. Sound Perception
- In perceiving distance and direction of sound, we are using our binaural
cues.
5.1. Time Difference – in which the sound waves are detected by one ear earlier than the
other.

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 5.2. Intensity Difference – in which sound stimulates the ear closer to the sound more
strongly.

5.3. Phase Difference – this tells the pressure of a sound wave at any part, place or
movement.

6. Olfactory and Gustatory Perception

- Our perception of odors is affected by our exposure to certain stimulation. Our
gustatory perception is also affected by our sensitivity to stimulus, temperature of the
substances and the taste qualities in our tongue.

7. Tactual Perception
- We would be able to identify with precision whether we were touched with a pin,
a feather or a flat surface.

8. Perception of Time
- Perception of time is made possible through our experience, conditioning and
some organic conditions which give us cues.

9. Perception of Persons
- Various factors affect our perception of person such as attitudes, physical
characteristics of the person being perceived, stereotypes and prejudices as well as
our interests and values.

10. Extrasensory Perception (ESP)

- Perceptions that are not based on input from our sensory receptors.
10.1. Precognition – which is the foretelling of future events.

10.2. Clairvoyance – is the ability to perceive objects or events that do not directly
stimulate your sense organs.

10.3. Telepathy – is the ability to send message to another person through the mind.

10.4. Psychokinesis or Telekinesis – is the ability to affect the physical world purely
through thought.

25
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
I. Write the letter of the correct answer on the blank provided.
_____1. The ability to send message to another person through the mind.
a. telepathy
b. telekinesis
c. precognition

_____2. The process by which we organize, interpret, or make sense of our sensory
experiences.
a. sensation
b. perception
c. clairvoyance

_____3. The process of becoming more sensitive to stimulation.

a. desensitization
b. sensitization
c. threshold

_____4. The colored part of the eye.

a. lens
b. iris
c. retina

_____5. It stems from exposure to very loud sounds.

a. Conduction Deafness
b. Sensory-neural Deafness
c. Stimulation Deafness

_____6. The largest organ in our body.

a. skin
b. nose
c. eyes

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_____7. the grouping of elements into feature easiest to understand.
a. similarity
b. simplicity
c. continuity

_____8. It allows us to perceive familiar objects as having a constant form even when our retinal
images of them change.
a. shape constancy
b. color constancy
c. size constancy

_____9. The sense that gives us information about the location of our body parts and allows us
to perform from a simple touching of nose to more complex movements.
a. Vestibular Sense
b. Kinesthesia
c. Organic Sensation

_____10. Perceptions that are not based on input from our sensory receptors.
a. sensation
b. perception
c. extra sensory perception

II. Differentiate sensation and perception.

27
UNIT 5 – INTELLIGENCE

OVERVIEW:
The intelligence level of an individual can affect his behavioral responses, his manner of
adjustment and even his state of mental well-being. Individual differences in intelligence may
somehow determine one’s success or failure in life. Some people tend to be more intelligent
than others on how they go about their daily activities. An intelligent person is one who is
able to learn from interaction and experiences. He is able to solve problems effectively and is
able to live harmoniously with the society.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. Define intelligence.
2. Compare the different theories of intelligence.
3. Identify the characteristics of a mentally retarded individual.

COURSE MATERIALS:
Intelligence – the ability to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively
with the environment.

Lesson 21. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

1. Spearman’s Two-factor Theory (Charles Spearman)
G Factor (General Intelligence) – which was believed to be an inherited
intellectual capacity that influences all-around performance.

S Factor (Specific Abilities) – which were thought to account the differences

between scores on different tasks.

2. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

He identified seven relatively distinct factors;
2.1. Word Fluency – the ability to think of words rapidly

2.2. Verbal Comprehension – the ability to understand and define words.

28
 2.3. Reasoning – the ability to find rules and conventions to justify and solve
issues.

2.4. Memory – the ability to recall and associate previous learned items.

2.5. Perceptual Speed – the ability to detect similarities and differences between
designs and objects.
2.6. Space – the ability to draw a design from memory to recognize a figure whose
position in the space has been distorted.

2.7. Number – the ability to deal with numbers speedily and accurately either
theoretically or practically.

3. J. P. Guilford Analysis
- According to Guilford, the factors separate factors are the result of the
interaction of operation (the ways one think), contents (what one thinks about) and
products (results of the application of an operation to a certain content, or our kind of
thinking towards a certain subject).

4. Cattell and Horn’s Concepts of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence (R. B. Cattell and
J. L. Horn)
Fluid Intelligence – is employed when you figure out the relationships between
two varying concepts, to abstract and reason out.

Crystallized Intelligence – refers to the ability to use an accumulated body of

general information in solving problems and making judgements.

5. Sternberg’s Information Processing Approach (Robert Sternberg)

This theory has identified a series of steps on what to do from time to time.
5.1. Encoding – trying to identify some important facts and to retrieve from one long
term memory whatever available information are important.

5.2. Inferring – drawing relationship between the pieces of facts and information.

5.3. Mapping – finding the relationship between the past situation and a present
one.

5.4. Application – applies the relationship between one situation with the others.

5.5. Justification – justify or providing some supporting evidences to your answer.

5.6. Response – identifying the best solution or answer which depends on accurate
thinking.

6. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory

Gardner views intelligence as the capacity to solve the problems or to fashion
products that are valued in one or more cultural setting. He formulated a list of seven
intelligences.
6.1. Linguistic Intelligence – is the ability to use language effectively either
poetically or theoretically.

29
 6.2. Logical – this entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think
logically.

6.3. Musical Intelligence – refers to the skills performance, in composition and

appreciation of patterns in music.

6.4. Bodily – entails the potential to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily
movements.

6.5. Spatial Intelligence – encompasses the potential to visualize and use patterns
of wide space and confined areas.

6.6. Interpersonal Intelligence – the ability to understand other’s motives, desires

and goals.

6.7. Intrapersonal Intelligence – concerned with the ability to understand oneself,

to appreciate one’s motives, desires, feelings and effective working model of oneself.

7. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg and Richard Wagner)

Componential Intelligence – which pertains to the meta components,
performance components and the knowledge acquisition components or simply one’s
academic problem-solving skills measured by intelligence test.

Experiential Intelligence – which pertains to the ability to deal with novelty and
to automatize processing or the practical intelligence needed for routine tasks.

Contextual Intelligence – which pertains to practical and social intelligence or

one’s creative intelligence like reacting to new situation.

Lesson 22. MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is measured through a standardized set of tasks or intelligence test.
Sequin and Esquirol – devised the first intelligence tests.

Sir Francis Galton – regarded as the father of mental test and individual differences.

James M. Cattell – coined the term mental test.

Alfred Binet and Theofil Simon – devised a test for educational purposes of classifying
normal from abnormal learners and for placement direction. The test measures abilities
of memory, reasoning and imagination.

The test results were interpreted in terms of mental age and intelligence quotient of the
individual. This measures how a person is rated as to performance compared to others of his
age group.

The term intelligence quotient (IQ) was later devised to convert mental age (MA) into a
number that could be used for all age groups. Intelligence quotient can be obtained with the
formula:

30
 IQ = MA / CA X 100

MA – is the degree of intelligence exhibited by a person compared to others of his age

group.
CA – refers to the chronological age or actual age from birth.
IQ – or intelligence quotient is an index of the rate of an individual’s mental progress.

Emotional Intelligence or Emotional Quotient (EQ) – this phrase was first introduced
by Peter Salovey and John Myer, to describe that certain qualities lie on the ability to
understand one’s own feelings and to have empathy for the feelings of others.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) – refers to the science and engineering of creating intelligent
machine like an intelligent computer program.

Characteristics of the Mentally Retarded

Mental retarded individuals have child-like mental capacity and thinking.
1. Morons (Mild Retardation) – are educable and can be trained to do some simple
routine work. Their mental capacity is compared to children between 8-12 years old.
They have normal physical development.

2. Imbeciles (Moderate Retardation) – are trainable and have mental capacity of

children between 3-8 years old. They have retarded physical development.

3. Idiots (Severe/Profound Retardation) – they have mental capacity of children

between 0-3 years old. They are life-time dependents and are also physically
retarded.

Causes of Mental Retardation

1. Inheritance
2. Socio-cultural deprivation
3. Brain-damage
4. Genetic defect

31
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
I. Identify the following. Write the word/s of the correct answer.
INTELLIGENCE 1. The ability to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with
the environment.
IDIOT 2. They have mental capacity of children between 0-3 years old.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 3. Refers to the science and engineering of creating intelligent
machine like an intelligent computer program.
CRYSTALIZED INTELLIGENCE 4. Refers to the ability to use an accumulated body of general
information in solving problems and making judgements.
INTERPERSONAL 5. The ability to understand other’s motives, desires and goals.
SIR FRANCIS GALTON 6. He was regarded as the father of mental test and individual
differences.
CHRONOLOGIAL AGE 7. It refers to actual age from birth.
SIR FRANCIS GOLTON 8. He coined the term mental test.
MORON 9. They are educable and can be trained to do some simple routine work.
SEQUIN AND ESQUIROL 10. He devised the first intelligence tests.

II. Name at least 5 theories of intelligence.

1. SPEARMAN TWO-FACTOR THEORY
2. HOWARD GARDNER’S THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
3. THURSTONE’S PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES
4. J.L GUILFORD ANALYSIS
5. TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

III. Elaborate on the causes of mental retardation

32
UNIT 6 – LEARNING, MEMORY AND THINKING

OVERVIEW:
Learning is involved not only in the mastery of a new skill or academic subject but also in
the development of emotions, social interaction and even personality. We learn to adjust,
love, fear, hate and so on.

Man continuously learns from the time he is born to the time he becomes old. Learning
just like education is a non-stop process and there is always something to learn. And one of
the most important characteristics of man is his ability to learn.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students must be able to:
1. Discuss what is learning, memory and thinking.
2. Distinguish the kinds of learning.
3. Differentiate the types of memory.

COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 23. LEARNING
Learning – defined as a complex process which brings about an enduring change in behavior
as a result of practice.

Kinds of Learning
1. Habituation
- is the simplest kind of learning.

2. Associative Learning
- is the next level of learning wherein we form new association between a stimulus and a
response (s – r theory).
2.1. Classical Conditioning – involves the transfer of response from one stimulus to
another stimulus through repeated pairings. This kind of learning was discovered by
Ivan Pavlov.

33
 Parameters of Classical Conditioning
1. Acquisition – the phase of classical conditioning whereby the stimulus association
is learned.

2. Reinforcement – refers to an event which may enhance or maintain the strength of

a response.

3. Extinction – refers to a decrease in the strength of a conditioned response

resulting from repeatedly eliciting the response in the absence of the reinforcement.

4. Spontaneous Recovery – is a partial recovery in the strength of an extinguished

conditioned response after a rest interval.

5. Generalization – is the tendency of the stimulus that is similar to the conditioned

stimulus to elicit the conditioned response.

6. Discrimination – is the opposite of generalization. It is the process of responding to

the variation or differences between stimuli.

7. Higher-order Conditioning – aids the individual to become flexible with his

responses to the environment.

2.2. Operant or Instrumental Conditioning – the learner is allowed to discover how his
behavioral response affects the environment and vice-versa. This kind of learning was
experimented extensively by B.F. Skinner. This learning involves increasing the
probability of similar responses due to the presence of reinforcement.

Phenomena of Interest in Operant Conditioning

1. Shaping – refers to a series of responses wherein each response leads to the next
response.

2. Extinction – is a progressive weakening of an instrumental learning due to the

withdrawal of reinforcement.

3. Stimulus Generalization – refers to the tendency of a stimulus, which is similar to

the one used in training to elicit the same response.

4. Discrimination Learning – the response made in one stimulus is not made

possible to the others.

5. Partial Reinforcement – the responses made by an individual are reinforced only

part of the time.

6. Secondary Reinforcement – these reinforcers are learned, they refer to a stimulus

that has gained a reinforcing property by having been paired with a primary
reinforcer.

3. Social Learning

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 - Albert Bandura is the most prominent social learning theorist who has engaged in
many experiments involving learning by observing which otherwise known as vicarious
learning or modeling, because a model is being imitated.

Four Steps in the Process of Modeling

1. Attention – sensing and perceiving the important aspects of the behavior to be
imitated.

2. Retention – remembering the behavior either through mental images or language.

3. Motoric Reproduction – converting the recalled observation into action.

4. Reinforcement – being encouraged and motivated to adopt the behavior.

4. Skill Learning
- Skill refers to the proficiency and competency in a certain kind of performance. Some
forms of skills are verbal, reading and writing.

Three Stages in Learning a Skill

1. Cognition
2. Fixation
3. Automation

5. Verbal Learning
- It involves the use of words either as stimuli or response. Some forms of linguistic
abilities such as speaking, reading writing and reciting are involved in verbal learning.

Kinds of Verbal Learning

1. Serial-anticipation learning
2. Free recall learning
3. Paired-associate learning

6. Cognitive Learning
- A process that we cannot observe. This involves cognitive learning like perceiving of
current happenings, recalling previous experiences, thinking, reasoning, evaluating and
abstracting. All activities fall under higher mental processes are categorized here. Insightful
problem solving, sign learning and concept learning are good examples of cognitive
learning.

Lesson 24. MEMORY

Memory – the extent to which original and previous learned information still persists.
Memory makes learning possible and without learning there is nothing to remember.
Learning is employed to build up memories for use in the future while memory is used to
store and retrieve this information.

Methods to Measure Memory or Remembering

1. Recall - is the process of reproducing past learning/experience without any clue.

2. Recognition – denotes the ability to identify learned items that are familiar.

35
 3. Reintegration – involves the recollection of past learning/experience with the presence
of cues.

4. Relearning – simply refers to reviewing previous learning, the easiest method.

Our Memory Usually Works in Four Basic Steps:

1. Perception
2. Encoding/acquisition
3. Storage
4. Retrieval

Stages of Memory
1. Sensory memory
2. Short-term memory
3. Long-term memory

Types of Memory
1. Episodic – this are memorable events in your life.

2. Semantic – is a type of memory for rules and concept.

3. Procedural – this is also called skill memory because it involves how to do things.

Forgetting
- Forgetting refers to the inability to recall a particular piece of information accurately. It
means failure to retain what was previously learned. It is the extent with which learned
information is lost.

Theories of Forgetting
1. Interference Theory – holds that the cause of forgetting is because of conflict
among information learned earlier of later.
1.1. Proactive interference
1.2. Retroactive interference

2. Decay Theory – suggests that lapse of time is the reason for forgetting.

3. Retrieval-based Forgetting – this is a form of cue-dependent forgetting. The

memory trace is present but one just cannot bring out the information.

4. Storage-based Forgetting – this is due to the distortion of learned information in the

long-term memory.

5. Motivated Forgetting – may take the form of suppression, a purposeful or voluntary

process of blocking the information learned. This is also called conscious forgetting.

Lesson 25. THINKING

Thinking is a kind of covert behavior and it is an internal process. May be regarded as a
sequence of symbolic processes to implicitly manipulate ideas or objects that are physically
absent to the senses.

36
Kinds of Thinking
1. Realistic Thinking – is one where you direct your thinking towards problem solving and
decision-making.

2. Autistic Thinking – is one where you engage in thinking just for pleasure of it like in the
case of daydreaming and wishful thinking.

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
I. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.
1. LEARNING is a complex process which brings about an enduring change in behavior as a
result of practice.
2. THINKING is a kind of covert behavior and it is an internal process.
3. The extent to which original and previous learned information still persists is known as
MEMORY.
4. Habituation is the SIMPLEST kind of learning.
5. ALBERT BANDURA is the most prominent social learning theorist.
6. FORGETTING refers to the inability to recall a particular piece of information accurately.
7. Procedural memory is also called SKILL memory because it involves how to do things.
8. Decay Theory suggests that lapse of time is the reason for FORGETTING.
9.Classical CONDITIONING was discovered by Ivan Pavlov.
10. Relearning simply refers to reviewing _____________ learning.

II. Differentiate realistic thinking and autistic thinking.

37
UNIT 7 – EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

OVERVIEW:
Emotion give life its feeling and meaning, they enrich life. It can be positive or negative
feelings generally in reaction to stimuli that are accompanied by physical, psychological
arousal and related behavior. It cannot be observed or measured directly. Human emotion is
a feeling that is private and subjective. Some psychologist identify three basic emotions: love,
fear and anger.

Everybody is motivated. Everyone is motivated but we are not at all motivated by the
same things. Motivation can depend on the event, the time, the place and the person.
Motivation is always present in order to compel action, to set a goal and to drive the
individual to try and attain that goal.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the nature of emotion and motivation.
2. Enumerate the theories of emotion and motivation.
3. Compare the different motives.

COURSE MATERIAL
Lesson 26. EMOTION
Emotion – is a state involving pattern of facial and bodily changes, cognitive appraisals,
subjective feelings and tendencies toward action.
- Is a distinct feeling or quality of consciousness which reflects the personal
significance of an emotion-arousing event.

Theories of Emotion

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 1. James-Lange Theory
- The theory argued that emotional feelings follow bodily arousal.

2. Cannon-Bard Theory
- The theory proposed that emotional feelings and bodily arousal are both
organized by the brain.

3. Schachter’s Cognitive Theory

- The theory assumes that when and individual is aroused he has a need to
interpret his feelings. Emotion occurs when a particular label is applied.

Classification of Emotions
1. Primary Emotions – are considered basic emotions because the emotions may blend
in together to form other forms of emotions or reactions on different situations.

Robert Plutchik’s 8 Primary/Basic Emotions

1.1. Fear
1.2. Anger
1.3. Joy
1.4. Sadness
1.5. Acceptance
1.6. Disgust
1.7. Anticipation
1.8. Surprise

2. Mixed Emotions – Plutchik felt that adjacent emotions can be mixed to yield a third
more complex emotion.

Mixture of Emotions
2.1. Awe – fear and surprise
2.2. Love – joy and acceptance
2.3. Aggression – anger and anticipation
2.4. Submission – acceptance and fear
2.5. Optimism – anticipation and joy.

Functions of Emotion
1. Emotions are used in order to communicate and influence others
2. Emotions can be utilized to organize and motivate action
3. Emotions can be self-validating

Lesson 27. MOTIVATION

Motivation - refers to an internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it
direction.
- Can be defined as an internal state or condition, sometimes described as
a need, desire or want that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction.

Need – are based on some deficit within the person.

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 Drive – are based on needs and have the added feature of an observable change in
behavior.

Motive – refers to a drive that is directed toward or away from the goal.

Goals – refers to a substance or object capable of satisfying a need.

Functions of Motives
1. It energize the person
2. Have directing function
3. Have selecting function

Classification of Motives
1. Physiological Motives - these are motives essential for the survival of man for its
existence.
1.1. Need for hunger
1.2. Need for thirst
1.3. Need for sleep and rest
1.4. Need for proper elimination of waste
1.5. Need for maintaining proper body temperature
1.6. Sex urges

2. Psychological Motives - are motives essential for man to function appropriately as a

social being.
2.1. Affection
2.2. Security and safety
2.3. Affiliation
2.4. Status
2.5. Dependency
2.6. Social approval

3. Ego-integrative Motives - are motives that enhance the individual’s self-concept.

3.1. Recognition
3.2. Power drive
3.3. Achievement

Theories of Motivation
1. Instinct Theory
- The assumption of the theory is that there is an innate biological force causing
and organism to act in a certain way. These forces are perceived to be automatic,
involuntary and unlearned behavior patterns or reflexive behavior that are elicited when
certain stimuli are present.

2. Homeostatic Theory
- The assumptions of the homeostatic theory are that organisms attempt to
maintain homeostasis, the balance of physiological state or equilibrium by constantly
adjusting themselves to the demands of the environment.

3. Arousal Theory

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 - The arousal theory states that rather than all organisms being motivated to
seek to reduce arousal they seek to maintain an optimal level of arousal and this optimal
level varies from organism to organism.

4. Incentive Theory
- According to the theory people and animals are likely to be activated because
they have the tendency to be pulled toward a specific goal.

5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

- Maslow made a hypothesis that our needs are prioritized from physiological to
biological to social and up to spiritual.

6. Freudian Concept of Motivation

- According to the theory sexual or libidinal and aggressive wishes are the
primary motivating forces in human life.

7. Needs Theory
- This is based on the belief that all behaviors are motivated by unsatisfied
needs.

8. Alderfer’s ERG Theory

- Alderfer categorized the needs for Existence, Relatedness and Growth.

9. McClelland’s Needs
- According to David McClelland the three most important need are achievement,
affiliation and power.

10. Herzberg’s Two-factor Model

- Motivators – are factors that really motivate people
- Hygiene – are dissatisfiers

11. Expectancy Theory

- Victor Vroom’s theory explained why individuals choose to follow certain
courses of action in organizations.

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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
I. Write true if the statement is correct and write false if the statement is incorrect.
_______1. Emotion is a distinct feeling or quality of consciousness which reflects the personal
significance of an emotion-arousing event.
_______2. Motivation can be defined as an internal state or condition, sometimes described as
a need, desire or want that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction.
_______3.Primary Emotions are considered basic emotions because the emotions may blend in
together to form other forms of emotions or reactions on different situations.
_______4. Motivators are factors that really motivate people.
_______5. Psychological Motives are motives essential for man to function appropriately as a
social being.
_______6. Need theory is based on the belief that all behaviors are motivated by unsatisfied
needs.
_______7. Cannon-Bard theory proposed that emotional feelings and bodily arousal are both
organized by the brain.
_______8. Needs are based on some deficit within the person.
_______9. According to David Alderfer, the three most important needs are achievement,
affiliation and power.
_______10. Ego-integrative Motives are motives that enhance the individual’s self-concept.

II. State and explain different emotions that one may feel while going through this pandemic
called COVID-19.

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UNIT 8 – PERSONALITY AND THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

OVERVIEW:
Do you make your first impression to be your best impression? Do you believe in the
saying, “first impression lasts”?

Personality is the person’s complete “package” which consists of the individual’s

physical makeup and thoughts, memories, feelings, motives, reactions and experiences. The
personality of each individual is unique. His characteristics would never have a duplicate
making the person to be unique human being, from the inherited character traits and from the
way the individual reacts to situations presented upon him.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the meaning and nature of personality.
2. Name the theories of personality.
3. Compare the different theories of personality.
4. Cite the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character.
5. Enumerate the roots of the Filipino character.

COURSE MATERIALS:

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 Personality is derived from the ancient latin “persona” and the medieval latin
“personalitas” meaning “mask”.

Traits – are enduring dimensions of personality characteristics along which people

differ.
- refers to the readiness to think or act in a similar fashion in response to a
variety of different stimuli or situations.

State – is considered as a temporary alteration of one’s personality.

Lesson 28. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Theories of personality are explored in order to have a better understanding about the
different personalities that people exhibit.
1. Psychoanalytic Theory – describes development as primarily unconscious and heavily
colored by emotions. The emphasis is given to the early experiences that the child had
with his parents.
Sigmund Freud – the father of Psychoanalysis.
Conscious

Unconscious – constitutes the powerful drives that stay totally outside of awareness.

Preconscious – contains thoughts, perception and memories that have minimal and
emotional significance and can be brought into consciousness when they are made the
focus of attention.

The Structure of Personality

 Id – is considered to be the savage desires and raw urges. It is contained
completely in the unconscious level and is present at birth. Pleasure seeking
principle is the motivating factor behind the structure.
 Ego – is the reality-testing structure that helps the id in expressing itself. It
emerges in order to realistically meet the wishes and demands of the id in
accordance with the outside world. It operates according to the reality principle. It
mediates between the id and the superego.

 Superego – considered as the moral arm of personality, exercises moral

judgment and societal rules in keeping the ego and id in check.

The Psychosexual Stages of Development

 Oral Stage (birth-1 year) – pleasure is located in the mouth.

 Anal Stage (2 years old) – pleasure is primarily in the anus.

 Phallic Stage (3-6 years old) – manipulation of the phallus is prominent. Oedipus
and electra complex is present.

 Latency (7 years old-puberty) – there is repression of sexual interests, instead

social and intellectual skills are developed.

 Genital Stage (puberty-onwards) – a time of sexual reawakening and the source

of sexual pleasure becomes with someone who is outside the family.

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2. Trait Theories
- Personality traits are enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to and thinking
about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and
personal contexts. Traits are relatively stable over time, traits differ among individuals
and traits influence behavior.
2.1. Gordon Allport
 Central traits – the basis to an individual’s personality.

 Common traits – are those recognized within a culture.

 Cardinal traits – are those by which an individual may be strongly recognized.

2.2. Raymond Cattell

 Common Traits – which describe a group of individuals.

 Unique Traits – which are pattern of traits possessed by specific individuals.

 Source Traits – are the underlying causes of overt behaviors.

 Surface Traits – are sets of apparently interrelated behaviors which appear

superficially like traits but they lack consistency overtime.

2.3. Hans Eysenck

 Extraversion – sociable, lively, active and assertive.

 Neuroticism – anxious, depressed, guilt feelings, and low self-esteem.

 Psychoticism – aggressive, cold, egocentric and impulsive.

2.4. Lewis Goldberg
 Openness to Experience – open to new ideas and change.

 Conscientiousness – dutiful, organized and orderly.

 Extraversion – outgoing and stimulation-oriented.

 Agreeableness- affable, friendly, conciliatory.

 Neuroticism – emotionally reactive, prone to negative emotions.

3. Type Theory
- Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of
people. Carl Jung started this idea of psychological types based on his theoretical work.

4. Social Learning Theory/Cognitive Theory

- Social learning approaches emphasize the importance of environmental or
situational determinants of behavior. Behavior is explained as guided by cognition or
expectations about the world. It emphasize cognitive processes such as thinking and
judging.

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 5. Humanistic Theory
- It emphasized that people have a free will and that they play an active role in
determining how they behave. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow emphasize the
person’s self-concept and striving for growth and self-actualization.

6. Psychosocial theory
- Erik H. Erikson’s theory believed that personality develops in a series of stages
and it implies that each stage concerns with becoming competent in an area of life. If the
stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery. If the stage is managed
poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
Stages
1. Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 18 months)
2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (2-3 years)
3. Initiative vs. guilt (3-5 years)
4. Industry vs. inferiority (6-11 years)
5. Identity vs. role confusion (12-18 years)
6. Intimacy vs. isolation (19-40 years)
7. Generativity vs. stagnation (40-65 years)
8. Ego integrity vs. despair (65 onwards)

Lesson 29. THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

1. Strengths
1.1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
1.2. Family orientation
1.3. Joy and humor
1.4. Flexibility, adaptability and creativity
1.5. Hardwork and industry
1.6. Faith and religiosity
1.7. Ability to survive

2. Weaknesses
2.1. Extreme personalism
2.2. Extreme family centeredness
2.3. Lack of discipline
2.4. Passivity and lack of initiative
2.5. Colonial mentality
2.6. Kanya-kanya syndrome
2.7. Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection

Roots of the Filipino Character

1. The home environment
2. The social environment
3. Culture and language
4. History
5. The educational system
6. Religion
7. The economic environment

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 8. The political environment
9. Mass media
10. Leadership and role model

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
I. Write the letter of the correct answer on the blank provided.
_____1. It is derived from the ancient Latin “persona” and the medieval latin “personalitas”
meaning “mask”.
a. personality
b. traits
c. state

_____2. They are enduring dimensions of personality characteristics along which people differ.
a. personality
b. traits
c. state

_____3. It is considered as a temporary alteration of one’s personality.

a. personality

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 b. traits
c. state

_____4. He is considered as the father of Psychoanalysis.

a. Erik Erikson
b. Carl Jung
c. Sigmund Freud

_____5. It is considered to be the savage desires and raw urges.

a. ego
b. id
c. superego

II. Draw and discuss, a thing that will best represent your personality.

UNIT 9 – SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

OVERVIEW:
“NO MAN IS AN ISLAND”

We are social beings and our lives are intertwined. We are affected by others and it is
natural that we influence others too. It is believe that we can be happy or feel a sense of
achievement only when we are able to live harmoniously with others.

Social psychologist explain human behavior as a result of the interaction between

mental states and immediate social situations. Interaction with others add meaning to one’s
life. Inside every individual is an interaction. His personal characteristics are manifested in his
behavior which others in the group experience as he relates with them.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

48
 1. Describe intrapersonal and interpersonal phenomena.
2. Discuss what is social psychology.
3. Name the father of Social Psychology.

COURSE MATERIALS:
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior are
influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others.
Kurt Lewin – considered as the father of Social psychology.

Lesson 30. INTRAPERSONAL PHENOMENA

1. Attitudes
- Are defined as learned, global evaluations of a person, object, place or issue that
influence thoughts or actions. It could be a basic expression of approval or disapproval,
favorability or unfavorability.

Attitudes are Formed in Three Ways

 Conditioning – which plays a role in acquiring attitudes.

 Observational learning – which we acquire attitude from friends and mass media.

 Cognitive appraisal – whereby we tend to scrutinize our attitudes if we know that

people may not accept us.

2. Persuasion
- Is an active method of influence that attempts to guide people toward the adoption of
an attitude, idea or behavior by rational or emotive means. It relies on appeal rather than
strong pressure or coercion.

Factors Influencing the Persuasion Process

 Communicator – which includes credibility, expertise, trustworthiness and
attractiveness.

 Message – which consists varying degrees of reason, emotion, one-sided or two-sided

arguments and other informational content.
 Audience – which includes a variety of demographics, personality traits and
preferences.

 Channel – includes printed word, radio, television, internet or face to face interaction.

3. Social Cognition
- Pertains to how people perceive, think about and remember information about others.
 Schemas – are generalized mental representations that organize knowledge and guide
information processing.

 Stereotype – a generalized set of beliefs about a particular group of people.

 Prejudice

 Discrimination

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  Attributions – are the explanations we make for people’s behavior, either our own or of
other’s behavior.
Internal – or dispositional attributions assign the cause within the person.

External – or situational attributions assign the cause to an outside factor.

Biases in Attribution
 Fundamental Attribution Error – is the tendency to make dispositional attiribution
for behavior.

 Just Word Effect – is the tendency to blame victims for their suffering.

 Self-serving Bias – is the tendency to take credit for successes and blame others
for failure.

4. Heuristics
- These are cognitive short cuts. It occurs when people estimate the probability of an
outcome based on how easy it can be imagined.

5. Self-concept
- Is a person’s understanding of himself. It consist of the self-schema which is the
cognitive component and the self-esteem which is the evaluative component.
Self-efficacy – refers to an individual’s expectation that performance on some task will be
effective and successful.

Self-perception – is a specialized form of attribution that involves making inferences about

oneself after observing one’s own behavior.

6. Cognitive Dissonance
- Is a feeling of unpleasant arousal caused by noting and inconsistency among one’s
cognition. It leads to a change in attitude, a change in behavior, a self-affirmation or a
rationalization of behavior.

Lesson 31. INTERPERSONAL PHENOMENA

1. Social Influence
- This refers to the way people affect the thoughts, feelings and behavior of others.

Types of Social Influence

 Conformity – is the tendency to act or think like other members of the group.

 Compliance – is agreeing with a request or following a group standard. It is the

result of following social norms, roles or expectations.

 Obedience – is performing a behavior even when the person does not want to
because someone else ordered the person to do so.

2. Group Dynamics

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 Group – is two or more people that interact, influence each other and share a common
identity.

 Norms – are implicit rules and expectations for group members to follow.

 Roles – are implicit rules and expectations for specific members within the group.

 Relations – are patterns of liking within the group and also differences in prestige or status.

 Group Polarization – occurs when people polarize their views in a more extreme direction
after group discussion.

 Groupthink – is a collective thinking defect that is characterized by a premature consensus.

 Social Facilitation – is a tendency to work harder and faster in the presence of others.

 Social Loafing – is the tendency of individuals to slack when working in a group.

 Deindividuation – is a reduced state of self-awareness that can be caused by feelings of

anonymity.

3. Relations with Others

 Prosocial –helping, liking or loving.

 Altruism – is helping other people without expecting any return.

 Antisocial – hostility, aggression or prejudice against others.

 Aggression – is defined as any behavior that is intended to harm other people.

 Hostile Aggression – is accompanied by strong emotions.

 Instrumental Aggresson – is the way a person manifests his aggression.

4. Interpersonal Attraction
- This refers to all of the forces that lead people to like each other, establish relationship
and fall in love.
Principles
 Proximity
 Familiarity
 Similarity

5. Interpersonal Perception
- Examines the belief that interacting people have about each other.
 Accuracy
 Self-other agreement
 Similarity
 Projection/assumed similarity

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  Reciprocity
 Meta-accuracy
 Assumed projection

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
I. Discuss the importance of the field “social psychology” in our society.

II. In your own words explain the concept of interpersonal and intrapersonal phenomena.

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UNIT 10 – INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

OVERVIEW:
Industrial and organizational psychology is a specialized field within the larger discipline
of psychology the focuses on the workplace. It studies how individual behavior affects and is
affected by the physical environment and the organizational culture of the workplace. Its aim
is to increase our understanding of how people relate to work settings for the ultimate
purpose of bringing about improvements.

53
 The unit will discuss and describe the three major areas of industrial and organizational
psychology, namely: human factor psychology, personnel psychology and organizational
psychology.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. Describe industrial and organizational psychology.
2. Identify the major areas of industrial and organizational psychology.
3. Discuss the selection procedure.

COURSE MATERIALS:
Industrial and organizational psychology is a specialized field of psychology that focuses
on the workplace. It studies how individual behavior affects and is affected by the physical
environment and the organizational culture of the workplace.

Lesson 32. MAJOR AREAS OF INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. Human Factor Psychology
- Studies ways to improve the design and function of machines and the work
environment to better meet the needs of human users.

Human-machine System – is an arrangement of people and machines, tools

and other devices that produce a product or service.

2. Personnel Psychology
- Plays an important role in finding the right person to a particular job. It involves
recruitment and selection, employee training and developing objective criteria for
evaluating employee performance.

 Job Analysis – a detailed description of the skills, knowledge and activities required
by a particular job.

 Critical Incidents – are situations with which competent employees must be able to
cope in a particular situation.

 Performance Evaluation – is the formal procedure used by organization to assess

the job performance of employess.

 Halo Effect – is the tendency to rate individuals either too high or too low on the
basis of one outstanding trait.

Selection Procedure
 Bio-data – is a detailed biographical information about an applicant particularly
containing useful items.

 Interview – are done on a one-on-one or panel interview, basis to gauge the

suitability of the applicant to the job.

 Psychological Testing

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  Work Samples – is an assessment device that requires a person to demonstrate
how well he can perform the task involved in the job under standardized
conditions.

 Assessment Centers – are designed to measure how well a person is able to

perform task of a specific job.

3. Organizational Psychology
- Are interested on how interpersonal relations in the work setting affect
productivity. It focuses on managerial style, worker motivation and job satisfaction.

Theory X and Theory Y

 Theory X – managers believe that employees dislike work, are lazy, avoid
responsibility, resistant to change, gullible and not very bright. And must be
prodded or manipulated into being productive.

 Theory Y – managers believe that employees like work, are industrious, seek
responsibility and can exercise self-direction.

Lesson 33. THEORIES ON WORKERS MOTIVATION

 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 Erg theory
 Expectancy theory
 Equity theory
 Goal-setting theory
 Reinforcement theory

Job Satisfaction – is an emotional, affective orientation towards one’s work. It can be

measured in terms of a worker’s overall satisfaction with his job or alternatively in terms of the
workers’ satisfaction with different facets of a job.

Group Effectiveness
 Reward system
 External pressure and stress
 Cohesiveness
 Multifaceted area

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT:
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What is industrial/organizational psychology?
2. What are the 3 major areas of industrial/organizational psychology? Explain.
3. Differentiate Theory X and Theory Y managerial style.

55
UNIT 11 – HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY, STRESS ADJUSTMENT AND THERAPIES
(ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY)

OVERVIEW:
The difference between normal and abnormal behavior depends on the amount of stress
the person feels and his ability to handle such amount of stress, which are both affected by
biological, psychological and environmental influences.

56
 Researches have pointed out the interplay between health and illnesses. Health and
illness are product of a combination of factors such as biological characteristics, behavioral
factor and social conditions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. Define and describe health psychology, mental health and stress.
2. Identify the types and sources of stress.
3. Differentiate frustration, conflict and pressure.

COURSE MATERIALS:
Health Psychology - is the study of psychological or behavioral factors affecting physical
health and illnesses.

Mental Health – is a psychological state of well-being, characterized by continuing personal

growth, a sense of purpose in life, self-acceptance and positive relations with others. A person
who is mentally healthy is said to be free from mental illness.

Lesson 34. NATURE OF STRESS

Stress- is a physical and mental response to an unacceptable disparity between real or
imagined personal experience and expectation.
 Eustress - positive stress
 Distress – negative stress
 Neustress – neutral stress

1. Types of Stressors
Stressors – are psychologically or physically demanding events or
circumstances.
Categories
 Catastrophic Events – a catastrophe is a sudden often life threatening calamity
or disaster that pushes people to the outer limits of their coping capability.
Catastrophe often continue to affect their victim’s mental health even the event
has already ended.

 Major Life Changes – the most stressful events for adults.

 Daily Hassles – much of the stress in our lives involves our daily hassles
pertaining to our jobs, personal relationships and everyday living circumstances.

2. Internal Sources of Stress

 Frustration – occurs when an individual is blocked or thwarted in reaching a goal. It can
be personal frustration – in which stress may occur if the person cannot accept his
limitations and weaknesses. Or environmental frustration – which may result when
environmental situation blocks a person’s attainment of a goal.

Abnormal Reactions to Frustrations

1. Neurosis – is a mild mental disorder, more common and usually involves some kind
of peculiarity with undue level of concern.

57
 2. Psychosis – is a severe mental disorder that needs hospitalization, relatively rare
and involves loss of contact with reality.

 Pressure – occurs when a person feels compelled to behave in a particular way

because of his self-expectations from others.

 Conflict – occurs when two incompatible goals or possible behavioral responses are
simultaneously present.

Types of Conflict
1. Approach-approach
- Occurs when a person tries to choose between two desirable options. The least
stressful.

2. Approach-avoidance
- Occurs when people must decide whether to do something that has both
positive and negative aspect. Typically more stressful and quite common.

3. Avoidance-avoidance
- Occurs when people have to choose between two undesirable options.

4. Double approach-avoidance
- The individual is frequently faced with having to choose between two or more
goals, each of which has both attracting and repelling aspects.

Effects of Stress
1. The Stress Response
1.1. Stage 1 – alarm stage
1.2. Stage 2 – resistance or adaptation stage
1.3. Stage 3 – exhaustion stage

2. Disease
3. Decreased Immune Response
4. Mental Illness

Coping with Stress

Coping with stress means using thoughts and actions to deal with stressful situations
and lower our stress level.

Adjustment – refers to any attempt we make to cope with stressful situation, balancing
our needs and desires against the demands of the environment and the realistic possibilities
available to us.
1. Coping Strategies
- The conscious attempt of coping with stressful situations is considered as well-
adjusted or coping mechanism while unconscious attempt of overcoming frustration
is called defense mechanism.

1.1. Problem-focused Coping

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 - A person tries to short-circuit negative emotions by taking some
actions to modify, avoid or minimize the threatening situation. They
change their behavior to deal with the stressful situation.
- Problem-focused coping is the most effective strategy when
people have realistic opportunities to change aspects of their
situation thereby reducing stress.

1.2. Emotion-focused Coping

- A person tries to directly moderate or eliminate unpleasant emotions. It
includes rethinking the situation in a positive way, relaxation, denial and wishful
thinking.
- Emotion-focused coping is a short-term strategy which can help reduce
arousal while engaging in problem-solving action to deal with stressful situation.

People may resort to direct coping which is an action taken by a person to

change an uncomfortable situation.
1. Confrontation
2. Compromise
3. Withdrawal

2. Social Support
- Support from family members, friends and others who care for us can
help buffer stress.

3. Biofeedback
- Biofeedback is a technique in which people learn voluntary control of
stress-related physiological responses.

4. Relaxation
4.1.Progressive muscular relaxation
4.2.Meditation

5. Aerobic exercises

Lesson 35. NEUROTIC REACTIONS

1. Anxiety Neurosis
- This is characterized by excessive feelings of apprehension, helplessness and
indecision without apparent reasons. Usually afraid of committing mistakes.

2. Phobia
- This is an irrational fear of a specific object, situations or even person.

3. Obsessive-compulsive
- This is characterize by persistent unreasonable ideas and actions.
 Obsession – is a condition in which useless and irrational ideas seem to persist
in a person’s consciousness.

 Compulsion – is a useless and irrational act which the person is compelled to

perform a stereotyped action.

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  Mania – an extreme obsessive-compulsive reaction

4. Conversion Reactions
- Also known as conversion hysteria. This is a condition wherein psychological
conflicts are converted into physical symptoms.

5. Hypochondria
- A condition whereby a person has an unusual preoccupation of his health.

6. Dissociative Reactions
- These are neurotic reactions in which important episodes in the life of an
individual are repressed in response to extreme stress.
6.1. Amnesia
6.2. Fugue
6.3. Multiple personality

Lesson 36. MALADAPTIVE REACTIONS

1. Alcoholism
- It is a personality disorder characterized by excessive and compulsive drinking.

2. Drug Addiction

3. Sexual Deviations
- This is a condition brought by underlying conflict and needs at the unconscious level, early
exposure to sex and other causes.
3.1. Voyeurism
3.2. Exhibitionism
3.3. Sadism
3.4. Masochism
3.5. Frotteurism
3.6. Pedophilia
3.7. Fetishism
3.8. Transvestic fetishism

Lesson 37. PSYCHOTIC REACTIONS

1. Schizophrenia
- Is characterized by withdrawal from reality and a severe disturbance of his intellectual
and emotional functioning and continues for at least six months coupled with deterioration of
social and occupational functioning.

2. Manic-depressive Psychosis
- Also known as bipolar disorder, is characterized by emotional distortion consisting of
recurrent episodes of depression and elation occurring simultaneously.

3. Schizoaffective Disorder
- Has both psychotic and mood disturbances.

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4. Schizophreniform Disorder
- Has the same symptoms with schizophrenia but the episodes lasts from 1-6 months
and there is no deterioration of status.

5. Brief Psychotic Disorder

- Has psychotic symptoms that last between 1 and 30 days.

Some of the characteristics associated with psychotic disorders are delusions,

hallucinations, bizarre behavior, incoherent or disorganized speech and disorganized behavior.
Hallucination
Are internal sensory perception such as sight or sound that are not actually present.
1. Visual hallucinations
2. Auditory hallucinations

Delusions
Are described as false, inaccurate beliefs that the person holds into himself.
1. Grandiose delusion
2. Persecutory delusion

Lesson 38. PERSONALITY DISORDERS

1. Antisocial
2. Avoidant
3. Borderline
4. Dependent
5. Histrionic
6. Narcissistic
7. Obsessive-compulsive
8. Paranoid
9. Schizoid
10. Schizotypal

Lesson 39. TREATMENT OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

1. Psychological Treatment – is known as psychotherapy which is a treatment of individuals
with emotional problems, behavior problems or mental illness primarily through verbal
communication.
 Individual Therapy – a patient or client meets regularly with a therapist over a period of
time (weeks or months)

 Group Therapy – a small group of people meet regularly to discuss individual issues
and help each other with problems with the guidance of a trained therapist.

 Family Therapy or Couples Therapy – there is a discussion and problem-solving

sessions with every member of the family. It is helpful when one of the family member’s
physical or mental health is directly affecting family dynamics or the well-being of
significant relationship.

Common Types of Psychotherapy

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 1. Art therapy
2. Behavior therapy
3. Cognitive therapy
4. Cognitive-behavior therapy
5. Dialectical behavior therapy
6. Existential therapy
7. Exposure therapy
8. Gestalt
9. Interpersonal therapy
10. Person-centered therapy
11. Photo therapy
12. Play therapy
13. Psychoanalysis
14. Psychodynamic therapy
15. Rational-emotive behavior therapy
16. Reality therapy
17. Transactional therapy
18. Eclectic therapy.

2. Medicaly-based Therapy
 Pharmacotherapy – is a therapy which uses drugs such as tranquilizers and energizers
for treating emotionally disturbed and mentally ill persons.

 Electroconvulsive or Electroshock Therapy – is a treatment for depression in which

the patient receives powerful electric shocks to the head.

 Psychosurgery – involves cutting neuronal tracts between the frontal lobe and a part of
the limbic system. This is known as lobotomy.

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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
I. Identify the following. Write the word/s of the correct answer.
_______________1. It is a therapy which uses drugs such as tranquilizers and energizers for
treating emotionally disturbed and mentally ill persons.
_______________2. It is known as psychotherapy which is a treatment of individuals with
emotional problems, behavior problems or mental illness primarily through verbal
communication.
_______________3. It is the study of psychological or behavioral factors affecting physical
health and illnesses.
_______________4. It is a physical and mental response to an unacceptable disparity between
real or imagined personal experience and expectation.
_______________5. It is described as false, inaccurate beliefs that the person holds into
himself.
_______________6. These are psychologically or physically demanding events or
circumstances.
_______________7. This is an irrational fear of a specific object, situations or even person.
_______________8. It is a mild mental disorder, more common and usually involves some kind
of peculiarity with undue level of concern.
_______________9. It occurs when a person feels compelled to behave in a particular way
because of his self-expectations from others.
_______________10. It is a technique in which people learn voluntary control of stress-related
physiological responses.

II. Answer the question:

Have you experienced stress recently, how did you deal with it?

READINGS/REFERENCES:
Aguirre, F. et al. (2012). Introduction to Psychology.Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

Dizon, P. et al.(2003) General Psychology.Rex Book Store.

Stangor, C. et al. (2018) Introduction to Psychology. !st Canadian Edition.

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