EXPERIMENT 1:

UNCERTAINTY AND ERROR ANALYSIS

PART A: TIME MEASUREMENT AND PROPAGATION OF DATA UNCERTAINTY

OBJECTIVE
1. To measure time for 10 oscillations and record the absolute uncertainty.
2. To introduce to simple data tabulation.
3. To introduce to propagation of data uncertainty.

APPARATUS:

APPARATUS QTY
Stop watch 1
Spring 1
Mass 1

THEORY:

1. INTRODUCTION
In any measurement made, there are always uncertainties associated with the measured values due
to limited instrument accuracy and difficulty reading results. The uncertainties may exist because
or random errors, systematic errors or the combination of both random errors and systematic
errors.

Knowledge of the non-exactness of a measurement is important especially when trying to define

how “good” or useful a certain result is.

For physics experiments we need quantitative words to describe how close a result is to the
expected answer and how reliable or reproducible our results are.

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2. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Writing down the number of decimal places when we record a measurement indicates the precision
of the measurement made. The number on the last decimal place is an estimate. As for example,
if we write our measurement as 12.35cm, it means that we are sure that the measurement is
between 12.3 cm and 12.4 cm. The way we write the numbers is related to what is known as
significant figures.

The number of significant figures is the number of reliably known digits in a number. It is usually
possible to tell the number of significant figures by the way the number is written:

• 23.21 cm (4 significant figures)

• 0.062 cm (2 significant figures) (the initial zeroes don’t count).
• 80 km is ambiguous—it could have one or two significant figures. If it has three, it should
be written 80.0 km.

a) When adding or subtracting measurements, the number of decimal places in the result should
equal the smallest number of decimal places of any term in the sum or difference.

As an example of this rule, consider the sum

• 23.2+ 5.174 = 28.4

Notice that we do not report the answer as 28.374 because the lowest number of decimal places
is one, for 23.2.

• 122 + 5.35 = 127 and not 127.35.

• 1.0002 + 0.0002 = 1.0004

b) When multiplying or dividing measurements, the answer should contain the same number of
significant figures as the measurement that has the least number of significant figures.

Suppose that we would like to find the area of the rectangular plate by multiplying the two
measured values, 16.2 cm and 4.5 cm. The answer for the area is 73 cm2.

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 • Addition and Subtraction: When adding or subtracting, you line up the decimal points
before you add or subtract. This means that it's the absolute precision of the least
precise number that limits the precision of the sum or the difference.

• Multiplying and Dividing: When multiplying or dividing numbers, the relative

precision of the result cannot exceed that of the least precise number used.

• Only the final result at the end of your calculation should be rounded using the simple
rule. Intermediate results should never be rounded.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS
Errors are defined as the difference between an observation (either directly measured or calculated
from measurements) and the true value.

3.1 SYSTEMATIC ERROR

Errors associated with the instrument used in making the measurements and the person making
the measurements or the combination of both. The magnitude is usually consistent and always in
the same direction (either positive or negative). This can usually be detected from the graph.

The possible causes of systematic errors are:

i. The mistakes made by the person making the measurement, which may be due to reaction
time, long/short sighted) and reading errors.

ii. The measuring instrument used has been calibrated wrongly or not working properly
(imperfect equipment, calibration, or technique). An example would be a spring which has a
permanent extension from the original length.

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 3.2 RANDOM ERROR

Define as a measure of fluctuation in results during repeated experimentation. Two observers using
the same experimental set up do not obtained exactly the same result. Even the observations of a
single experimenter differ when it is repeated several times by him or her.

Such errors always occur in spite of the best and honest efforts on the part of the experimenter
and are known as random errors. Magnitude of random errors are usually inconsistent and not in
the same direction.

The random errors can be considered as unpredicted, unexpected and uncontrollable errors and
have nothing to do with the person conducting the experiment and collecting the data.

This error can be eliminated by repeating the experiment.

Some possible causes of random errors are:

i. random motion of air molecules, wind and changes in air density

ii. disturbance by waves, vibrations or noise
iii. parallax error (eye position)
iv. wrong count of the number of oscillations in vibrating
v. surrounding/ambient temperature
vi. quivering pointer

4. UNCERTAINTY (±)
a) ABSOLUTE UNCERTAINTY

If only one measurement was taken:

The absolute uncertainty of any measured quantities can be up to 1 or ½ of the smallest scale on
the instrument. For example in FIGURE I, we are measuring the length of an object against a
meter stick marked in cm, we can definitely say that our result is somewhere between 46.4 cm
and 46.6 cm. The smallest scale is 0.2 cm. We can assume our uncertainty, an amount equal to
half this width. The final result can be written as:

l = (46.5 ± 0.1) cm

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For example, a spring balance that has the smallest scale of 0.1 N, the absolute uncertainty should
be expressed in the same unit as the reading i.e. (7.3 ± 0.1) N.
Sometimes, most of our measuring devices in this lab have scales that are coarser than the ability
of our eyes to measure.

FIGURE I: Measuring Length

In choosing an uncertainty equal to half the smallest division on the ruler, we are accepting a
range of possible results equal to the size of the smallest division on the ruler.

A measurement of length is, in fact a measure of two positions and then a subtraction. Was
the end of the object exactly opposite the zero of the ruler?
This becomes more obvious if we consider the measurement again as shown
in FIGURE II.

FIGURE II: Object measured by a ruler

Notice that the left-hand end of the object is not exactly opposite the 4 cm mark of the ruler.
It is nearer to 4 cm than to 4.1 cm, but this measurement is subject to the same level of
uncertainty. Therefore, the length of the object is (12.0 ± 0.05) cm - (4.0 ± 0.05) cm.
So, the length can be between,
(12.0 + 0.05) cm - (4.0-0.05) cm
and
(12.0 - 0.05) cm - (4.0 + 0.05) cm

that is between 8.1 cm and 7.9 cm. We now see that the range of possible result is 0.2, so we
write
length = (8.0 ± 0.1) cm

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 In general, we state a result as,

Reading ± the smallest division on the measuring instrument.

Note:
Because of the smallest division on the ruler is 0.1 cm or 1 mm, then the reading and average
value should be recorded to one decimal place if in cm or no decimal place if in mm.
The reading of the decimal places must follows the decimal places belongs to the uncertainty.

Trial Measured Deviation,

b) Errors in repeated readings/standard deviation
number, i value, xi (s) di = xi − x (s)
Standard deviation is the most common way to
1 3.9 0.3
describe the spread of a data set. It is used because
2 3.5 -0.1
of its association with the normal distribution in
3 3.7 0.1
statistical analysis. Therefore, if the errors are
4 3.4 -0.2
obtained by calculating the standard deviation, σ
5 3.5 -0.1
as example, then the reading will be
Average,
1
𝑥̅ ± 𝜎𝑥 = (3.6𝑠 ± 0.2)𝑠 x = 
2
1 di =
N= 5
x=
N
x i N
It would be unreasonable to report as
0.179 s
= 3.6 s
𝑥̅ ± 𝜎𝑥 = (3.6𝑠 ± 0.179)𝑠 WRONG!

This wrong technique shows that the uncertainty value is more precise that the measured
values themselves. Therefore, uncertainty values should be stated to only one significant
figure and decimal places of the measured value will follow the decimal places similar
to the uncertainty.

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4.1 PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTY THROUGH CALCULATION
This section will focus on how to combine errors or uncertainties made during measurements.
When an error has been made in a measurement, the consequences of the quantities related
to the measured variable will also be affected. Therefore, we have to follow standard rules for
determining the errors contributed to the final result.

4.1.1 ADDING AND SUBTRACTING UNCERTAINTIES

When the operations involve adding or subtracting quantities, the errors incurred are obtained
by adding the absolute uncertainties of the individual quantity.

d =x+ y−z
d = x + y + z
 d  d

PROCEDURES:
1. Suspend vertically the spring with a mass hanger at the end of the spring.

2. Add 40 g mass to the hanger.

3. Pull the mass down to stretch the spring about 5 cm. Release the mass. Let it oscillates a few
times so the mass will move up-and-down without much side-to-side motion.

4. Begin recording the time for 10 oscillations by using the stop watch. Record it in TABLE 1.1.

5. Repeat for 6 times.

6. Record the unit and absolute uncertainty (±) of the time at the first row.
(Refer to page 4-6, Part 4a ABSOLUTE UNCERTAINTY)

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 Trial number (Time, t ± __) __ Deviation, di = xi − x (__)

1st trial
2nd trial
3rd trial
4th trial
5th trial
6th trial
Average = 𝜎 =

TABLE 1.1

TREATMENT OF RESULTS AND ERROR ANALYSIS

1. Calculate the average time. Show your calculation in TABLE 1.1.

2. Calculate the uncertainty, 𝜎 . Show your calculation in TABLE 1.1.

(Refer to page 6, Part 4b Errors in repeated readings for calculation of 𝜎 )

3. Give a title to your table. The title must be brief and self-explanatory.

4. Express the average time with its uncertainty, 𝜎 .

(Refer to page 6 Part b)

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PART B: DENSITY MEASUREMENT AND PROPAGATION OF DATA
UNCERTAINTY
OBJECTIVE
1. To measure mass and volume and record the uncertainty.
2. To introduce to propagation of data uncertainty.

THEORY:

4.2 PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTY

4.2.2 UNCERTAINTY IN MULTIPLYING, DIVIDING QUANTITIES AND SIMPLE FUNCTION

When the operations involve multiplying or dividing quantities, the errors are obtained by
adding the relative uncertainties of the individual quantity.

i. In multiplication or division

If f = x  y

𝜟𝒇 𝜟𝒙 𝜟𝒚
= +
𝒇 𝒙 𝒚

𝜟𝒙 𝜟𝒚
𝜟𝒇 = 𝒇 ( + )
𝒙 𝒚

 f  f

𝑥
If 𝑓 = 𝑦

∆𝑓 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
= +
𝑓 𝑥 𝑦

𝜟𝒙 𝜟𝒚
𝜟𝒇 = 𝒇 ( + )
𝒙 𝒚

 f  f

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ii. In simple function

5xy 2
p=
z

𝜟𝒑 𝜟𝒙 𝜟𝒚 𝜟𝒛
=( +𝟐 + )
𝒑 𝒙 𝒚 𝒛

 p  p

PROCEDURES:

1. Clean the beaker from any residue. Measure and record its mass by using the electronic
balance on the side bench. Record with its uncertainty.
(Measure only ONCE)
2. Pour 300 mL of water into the beaker. Record the volume of water used with its
uncertainty.
3. Measure and record the mass, M(water + beaker). Record with its instrument uncertainty.
(Measure only ONCE)
4. Calculate the mass of the water (Mwater+beaker – Mbeaker). Record with its uncertainty.
5. Record all the data and their uncertainties in a table.

TREATMENT OF RESULTS AND ERROR ANALYSIS

1. Use the mass and volume to calculate water density, where

mass
density =
volume

NOTE that 1 L = 10-3 m3

Show your calculation.

2. Calculate the density uncertainty. Show the equation used and its calculation.
(Refer to page 8 Propagation of Uncertainty)

3. Record the density with its uncertainty.

(Refer to page 6 Part b)

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