Power Systems (Stability)

Power System Stability

Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Understand the dynamics of Synchronous Machines.
 Determine the steady state stability of a synchronous machine.
 Understand how to improve Steady State Stability.
 Determine Transient Stability of the machine.
 Understand how to improve the Transient Stability.

Introduction
A system is said to be stable if it can regain its original state even after experiencing a
disturbance. The disturbance in case of Synchronous Machine maybe due to sudden fault at
the terminals of a machine or change in mechanical input pf a machine.
There are three types of Stability in Power Systems:
 Voltage Stability: It refers to the voltage regulation at the terminals of machine as it
should be within 5% . If the voltage regulation exceeds that then system is said to be
Voltage unstable.
 Frequency Stability: The frequency of a machine must lie within 1% of rated value i.e.
50Hz. The speed of prime mover is controlled by means of speed governor to control the
frequency.
 Angular Stability: It refers to the stability of the rotor angle δ. The oscillations in the
rotor angle must be bounded in case of disturbance. It can be broadly divided into three
categories:
o Steady State Stability: It refers to the maximum power transfer capability of a
system. If maximum power transfer limit is exceeded then system loses synchronism.
It is studied by applying small disturbances to the machine.
o Transient Stability: It refers to the ability of a system to remain in synchronism even
after experiencing a large disturbance.
o Dynamic Stability: It refers to the stability of rotor oscillations when small but
continuous disturbance is applied.
The stability study has following objectives:
 The system must be secure i.e. it must be prepared to take a disturbance at present
operating point.
 The system must be reliable to maintain continuity of supply even after experiencing a
disturbance.

Dynamics of Synchronous Machine

1
J  sm 
2
Stored Kinetic Energy of Synchronous Machine is,
2
where, J=rotor moment of inertia
sm = synchronous speed rad (mech)/s

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 Power Systems (Stability)

We wish to express the Kinetic Energy in electrical terms. The relation between electrical and
mechanical angle is given by,
P 
e    m
2
P 
s    smrad(elec) / s
2
1 2 
2 2
1 2 1
KE  J   s   J   s  s  Ms
2 P  2  P   2

2
2
M  J   s MJ  sec/ elect  rad
P 
M is called as Inertia Constant
The stored kinetic energy can also be expressed as,
Kinetic Energy = GH
1
GH  MS
2
Here, G is MVA base of the machine
H is the inertia constant in MJ/MVA
2GH GH
M  MJ  s / elect  rad
s f
GH
M MJ  s / elect  deg
180f
Inertia Constant in pu is given by,
H H 2
M(pu)  s2 / elect  rad  s / elect  deg
f 180f
Swing Equation
The Torque balance equation is given by,
Ts  Tem  TJ  TB
TS  Shaft Torque
Tem = electromagnetic torque
TJ = torque required to overcome inertia
TB =torque required to overcome frictional force
If frictional torque is neglected then
d2 
J 2m  (Ts  Te )
dt
m  rotor angle rad(mech)/sec
Ts  shaft torque
d2 m
Jsm  (Ts  Te )sm
dt2

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 Power Systems (Stability)

d2 m
Jsm  (Ps  Pe )MW
dt2
  2 2  d2 
 J   sm  2e  (Ps  Pe )MW
  P   dt
e  rotor angle(elec)
Ps  Shaft Mechanical Input
Pe  Electrical Power Output
d2 e
M  (Ps  Pe )
dt2
e Position of rotor axis w.r.t fixed reference
(t) Position of rotor w.r.t rotating reference
From the figure,
(t)  e  s t
d  d e
  s
dt dt
d
   s
dt
d2 e (t) d2 
 2
dt2 dt
d2 e (t)
Substituting value of
dt2
d2
M  (Ps  Pe ) MW
dt2
GH d2 
 (Ps  Pe )MW
f dt2
H d2 
 (Ps  Pe )pu
f dt2
If  is in degrees
H d2 
 (Ps  Pe )pu
180f dt2
The above equation is valid for a single machine. For multiple machine system it must be
converted to Single Machine System and then stability must be analyzed.

Two alternators connected in parallel & swinging together

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 Power Systems (Stability)

If 1  2 , then both alternator are swinging together

In such a case due to equal power angles, there is no power exchange between the two
machines.
The swing equation for both machines is,
d2
Machine 1: M1 21  Ps1  Pe1
dt
d2
Machine 2: M2 22  Ps2  Pe2
dt
Since, 1  2  
Add both equations,

M1  M2  ddt2  Ps1  Ps2   Pe1  Pe2 

2

d2
Meq 2  Ps  Pe
dt
Where, Meq  M1  M2 , is the equivalent inertia of a single machine system
Ps  Ps1  Ps2 , is the total shaft input of both the machines
Pe  Pe1  Pe2 , is the total electrical output of both the machines

Assume MVA base of Machine 1 is G1

MVA base of Machine 2 is G2
We wish to calculate H of the system on system base G
From equivalent inertia constant,
Meq  M1  M2
GHeq G1H1 G2H2
 
f f f
G1H1 G2H2
Heq  
G G

Two machine system where machine are not swinging together

1  2 , not swinging together. There is a real power exchange between machines, the
equivalent single machine will be constructed w.r.t (1  2 ) or (2  1 ) because stability of
both the machine will be determined by this angle.

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Swing equations of both the machines are given as,

d2 
M1 21  Ps1  Pe1
dt
d2 
M2 2  Ps1  Pe2
dt
Multiply 1st equation by M1 and second equation by M2 and subtract both
d2
M M2 2 (1  2 )  (M2Ps1  MP
1 s2
)  (M2Pe2  MP
1 e2
)
1
dt
Assuming there are no losses in the power transfer between both the machines.
Thus, Pe2  Pe1
d2
M1M2 (1  2 )  M2Ps1  M1Ps2  Pe1(M1  M2 )
dt2
M1M2 d2  M P  M1Ps2 
(1  2 )   2 s1   Pe1
M  M2 dt 2
 M1  M2 
1

M  M2 JJ
Meq  orJeq  1 2
M1  M2 J1  J2

Solved Examples
Problem: A large synchronous generator is feeding power into an infinite bus at slightly
lagging power factor. If a total loss of field occurs and the system can supply sufficient
reactance power without a large terminal voltage drop, the unit will
(a) Continue to run as a synchronous generator and no tripping is necessary
(b) Get short circuited and it should be tripped instantaneously
(c) Run as an induction generator and it should be tripped after a time delay
(d) Run as a synchronous motor and it should be tripped after a time delay
Solution: If excitation is lost, Pe decreases
By swing equation
d2
M  Pm  Pe
dt2
Rotor accelerates & speed increases. So speed becomes more than synchronous speed.
Machine runs as induction generator but it draws magnetizing current from supply so
current increases & stator winding gets overheated. So it must be tripped after a delay.

Problem: In a system, there are two generators operating in parallel. One generator, of
rating 250 MVA, has an inertia constant of 6MJ/MVA while the other generator of 150 MVA
has an inertia constant of 4 MJ/MVA. The inertia constant for the combined system on 100
MVA common base is?
Solution: Equivalent inertia constant
GH G H 250  6 150  4
H 1 1  2 2    15  6  21 MJ / MVA
G G 100 100

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Steady State Stability

It is ability of a synchronous machine or power system to maintain synchronism with respect
to external connected network or external circuit connected to line for small disturbances.
In steady state stability, generator will be represented as a constant voltage source behind its
steady state x- axis reactance (Xd or Xs).
Machine is assumed to be lossless.
The real power of a cylindrical rotor machine is given by,
| V || E |
Pe  sin 
Xs
or Pe  Pe(max) sin 
| V || E |
Pe(max) 
Xs
Under steady state operating condition speed of the machine must be constant so
acceleration must be zero
From swing equation
  Pm  Pe 
where,  is the angular acceleration of the machine
Thus, for zero acceleration
Pm  Pe0  Pmax sin 0
where, 0 is the initial operating angle of the machine

Now, a small disturbance is applied to system which changes the operating angle to 0  
Thus, electrical output of machine now becomes,
Pe  Pmax sin  0    Pmax sin 0 cos   cos 0 sin  
For small disturbance,   0; sin   ; cos   1
Pe  Pmax sin 0  Pmax  cos 0
Pe  Pe0  Pmax cos 0  
Pe
Pe  Pe0  
 0

Pe
 Pmax cos 0  Psy is called as Synchronizing Power Coefficient
 0

To determine the variation in rotor angle we use swing equation,

d2  dP
M 2  Pm  Pe  Pm  Pe0  e 
dt d 
0

Since, Pm  Pe0
Swing Equation becomes,

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 Power Systems (Stability)

d2  dP
M  e 
dt 2
d 0

Since,   0  
d2  0    d2    dPe
M M  
dt 2
dt 2
d 0

The characteristic equation for this differential equation in  is,

 P 
 Mp2  e    0 ; where p  
    t
 0 

Roots of this characteristic equation is,

Pe

 0
p
M

Pe
Case-1:  0, the roots are real so the solution of differential equation is of the form

  c1ept  c2ept
Due to the exponential term the variation in rotor angle continuously increases with time and
thus the system is unstable.

Pe
Case-2:  0, the roots are imaginary and the solution is of the form,

  c1 cos  t   c2 sin t 
Pe
 0
where,   is the frequency of rotor oscillations
M
Thus, rotor angle exhibits un-damped oscillations as shown below,

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Practically, system is damped due to resistance and damper winding of the machine so the
rotor oscillations damp out and rotor finally settles to a steady state angle of 0 . Thus, the
system is stable.
Thus, the condition for stability becomes,
Pe
0

Pmax cos 0  0
0  0  900

Pe
If,  0, system is marginally stable.

Thus, Pmax cos 0  0 , 0  900
So, when 0  900 system is on the verge on instability. Thus, it corresponds to stability limit.
Thus, Pe  Pmax sin90  Pmax is called as Steady State Stability Limit.

Methods to improve Steady State Stability

To increase the stability, we need to increase the Steady State Stability Limit. So, we need to
increase Pmax .
 Operating alternator at over excitation such that |E| is high value
 Reducing transfer reactance
 By placing series compensation
 By using double circuit line
 By using bundled conductors
 By using parallel Iine system
 By using SVC (static VAR compensation) at mid point of transmission line.

Improvement in SS stability by use of SVC

 SVC is assumed to be ideal
 No real power injected into system, only reactive power into system

Thevenin Equivalent across SVC

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 Power Systems (Stability)

E  E0
I
j(2x)
Vth  E  I( jx)
 E  E0  E  E0 E
Vth  E     cos   jsin   1
 2  2 2
E   
Vth  2 cos2  2 jsin cos 
2 2 2 2
 
Vth  E cos   
2 2
X
Z th  j
2

SVC will be modeled as a generator which only supplies reactive power and does not
exchange any active power with the Transmission Line.

Emf of the SVC is decided on the basis of assumption that SVC injects no Real Power.
Connecting SVC across the Thevenin Equivalent

The angle of SVC emf is same as Thevenin Voltage so that no Real Power exchange occurs.
The mid-point voltage when SVC is connected is given by,
   
 E cos   Es  
 
V  E cos    2 2 2 jx
2 2  X  2
j  jX s
 2 
  X X  X
E cos   j  jX s  j   Es   j 
2 2 2 2 2 2
V
X
j  jX s
2

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 Power Systems (Stability)

  X
  E cos  X s  Es 
2 2 
V   
 X  2
  Xs 
 2 

 2Xs    
V  Es  Ecos  Es   

 X  2Xs  2  2
The power transferred from sending end to midpoint after SVC is connected is given by,
EV 
Pe  sin
X 2
EV E  2X s   
Pmax   Es   Ecos  Es  
X X X  2X s  2 
E  2X s    2X s  
Pmax  Es 1    E cos  
X   X  2X s  2  X  2X s  
EEs E2 cos  / 2  2X s 
Pmax    
X  2X s X  X  2X s 
If internal reactance of SVC X s  0
EEs
Pmax 
X
If Es =E (internal emf of SVC)
E2 E2
Pmax  ;Pe  sin  / 2
X X
Before SVC was connected the power-angle equation is,
E2 E2
Pe  sin , Pmax 
2X 2X
After placing SVC, maximum power transfer capability will be doubled
The power angle curves before and after the connection of SVC have been shown below,

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Solved Examples
Problem: A synchronous generator of reactance 1.2pu is connected to infinite bus bar
(|V|=1.0) through transformer and transmission line of reactance 0.6pu & inertia constant H=
4 MW-s/MVA. The resistance & machine damping is negligible, System frequency is 50 Hz.
Calculate frequency of oscillation if system loaded to 50% of maximum limit?
Solution: for 50% loading
Pe  0.5Pmax
0.5Pmax  Pmax sin 
  30o
  Pe /  
1/2
 P /  
1/2
 P /  
1/2

  f 
pu
 e   e  f 
 M   GH  

H 

Pe 1.2  1
 Pmax cos   cos30  0.577pu
 1.8
1/2
 1  0.577 
f    f   0.758Hz
2 2  4 

Problem: An alternator is connected to an infinite bus as shown in figure. It delivers 1.0 p.u
current at 0.8 pf lagging at V=1.0 p.u. The reactance X d of the alternator is 1.2 p.u.
Determine the active power output and the steady state power limit. Keeping the active
power fixed, if the excitation is reduced, find the critical excitation corresponding to
operation at stability limit.
Solution: Electrical power output= VI cos   1  1  0.8  0.8pu
Armature current= 1  36.860 pu
Excitation emf= Vt  jIa X s  10  jX1  36.86  1.2  1.9729.170 pu
Ef Vt 1.97  1
Steady state limit=   1.64pu
Xa 1.2
Now, if machine operates at steady state limit
Pe  Pmax    90 0

E 1
0.8 
1.2
E  0.96pu

Transient Stability Analysis

 It is the ability of power network or synchronous machine to remain in synchronous with
respect to external connected tie line even after experiencing a large disturbance.

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Large disturbance may be due to:

 Due to SC faults
 Contingencies (removal of any apparatus)

The operating time of the protective circuit breaker is chosen such that after clearing the
fault system should remain in stable mode.
Operating time < Critical Clearing time
Top < tcr

Assumptions
 Generator will be modeled as constant voltage source behind transient reactance Xd.
 Saturation & saliency in alternator are neglected. Saliency tends to make machine more
stable by increasing maximum power and thus it is neglected.
 No damping force as damping force will reduce the oscillations to improve the stability of
the system.
 Resistance & shunt elements like Shunt Capacitance are neglected
 Speed variations & frequency variations are neglected.
 Speed governing action will be de-activated such that mechanical input will be
maintained as constant.
 AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) will be de-activated such that generated emf E is
maintained as constant.

Power Transfer
In Transient Stability Analysis, we generally consider three cases,
 Before the Fault Occurrence
 During the Fault
 After the Fault Clearance
We assume that the transfer reactance between the source and load changes under different
conditions which changes the power transfer between source and load or Infinite Bus.

Before fault occurrence

X1 = transfer reactance between Generator & infinite bus
Maximum Power Transfer capability is given by,
E V
Pmax1 
X1

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Electrical Power Output of Generator,

Pe  Pmax1 sin 
In steady state, Pe  PS

During the fault

X2 = transfer reactance between Generator & infinite bus
Maximum Power Transfer capability is given by,
E V
Pmax2 
X2
Electrical Power Output of Generator,
Pe  Pmax 2 sin 
Transient Stability Limit (TSL) is maximum power transfer in the system during disturbance.

After clearing the fault

X3 = transfer reactance between Generator & infinite bus
Maximum Power Transfer capability is given by,
E V
Pmax3 
X3
Electrical Power Output of Generator,
Pe  Pmax3 sin 
In steady state, Pe  PS

Equal Area Criterion

This is a special case of solution of swing equation which is only applicable for single
machine system. In case of two machines, we must first convert it to single machine system
and then apply this criteria.
For multi-machine system, Numerical Solution of swing equation is computed.
d2
Swing equation, M 2  Pm  Pe  Pa
dt
Pa is called as Accelerating Power as it is responsible for Rotor Acceleration.
d2 
M  Pa
dt 2
d2  Pa

dt 2 M
d
Multiply both sides by 2
dt
d d2  Pa  d 
2  2
dt dt2 M  dt 

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 Power Systems (Stability)

d   d  
2
P d
    2 a
dt  dt   M dt
 
Integrating both sides
2
d  d  2
 dt  dt  dt  M  Pad
d 2
M a
 P d
dt
d
   s
dt
  rotor speed
s  synchronous speed
The system will be stable if the amplitude of oscillations of rotor angle remains constant in
an un-damped system. In a practical system such a system will be stable as due to losses and
damping the oscillations will be damped out and rotor angle will settle to a steady state
value.

d
From above figure if  0 , rotor angle continuously increases and system is unstable.
dt
Thus, for stability
d
0
dt
From above equation, we can observe
d 2
M a
0 P d  0
dt
 Pad  0
Area under first swing (accelerating curve) should be zero.
Equal area criterion is called first swing stability study.

Increasing steam input of alternator

Initially, Ps  Pe
Speed of rotor,   S

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 Power Systems (Stability)

The electrical power output of alternator is given by, Pe  Pmax sin 

 P 
Initial Operating angle,   sin1  s 
 Pmax 
Assuming steam input increased to a value PS1

At point a: At the instant of input increment

  0 , rotor angle does not increase instantaneously
Pa  Ps1  Pe / 0
Pa  0
Rotor accelerates
d d2 d2 Pa
   0
dt dt2 dt2 M
 starts increasing from S
d
As  > S , = (  - S )>0
dt
 starts increasing.
From a to b:
Accelerating power,
Pa  Ps1  Pe  Ps1  Pmax sin   0
Rotor accelerates,  > S
d
And thus  0 &  increases
dt

At ‘b’ (  1 )
Accelerating power,
Pa  Ps1  Pmax sin 1  0
P 
1  sin1  s1 
 Pmax 

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 Power Systems (Stability)

d
 0 , speed   max  S
dt
d
 0 ,  increases
dt
From ‘b’ to ‘c’:
Accelerating power, Pa  Ps1  Pmax sin   0
d
Rotor decelerates, speed  decreases from S but still   S ,    S  0 ,  increases
dt
At ‘c’:
Accelerating power Pa  0
d
Speed,   S , 0
dt
d
Now, since Pa  0 , rotor speed further reduces & becomes less than S , such that 0 &
dt
 reduces operating point moves towards ‘B’

Second Swing
From ‘c’ to ‘b’
Pa  Ps1  Pmax sin   0
Rotor decelerates, speed   S
d
   S  0
dt
At ‘b’
  1
Pa  Ps1  Pmax sin   0
Neither accelerates nor deceleration speed   min
d
   S  0 ,  decreases
dt
From ‘b’ to ‘a’
Pa  Ps1  Pmax sin   0
Rotor accelerates, speed increases
d
   S  0 ,  decreases
dt
At point ‘a’
Pa  Ps1  Pmax sin   0
Rotor accelerates, speed   S
d
=0,  neither decreases nor increases
dt
As Pa is positive, rotor accelerates and operating point moves towards ‘b’.

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Rotor angle is swinging between ‘a’ & ‘c’ with respect to ‘b’ & finally settles down at ’b’.
d 2
M a
 P d
dt
2
0
Pad  0
1 2
0
Pad   Pad  0
1

1
Accelerating area, A1= 0
Pad
2
Accelerating area, A2= 1
Pad

A1 is accelerating as Pm  Pe , so rotor accelerates.

A2 is decelerating as Pe  Pm , so rotor decelerates.
System is stable if A1+A2=0

If speed does not reach S even after reaching max then  enters accelerating area & rotor
accelerates so  increases further & system is unstable.
max    1
1 max

 Pad 
0
 P d  0
1
a

1 max

 P
0
s1
 Pmax sin   d   P
1
s1
 Pmax sin   d  0

1 max

 P
0
s1
 Pmax sin   d    P
1
s1
 Pmax sin   d

Fault occurs on Transmission Line very near to bus

Before fault, Pe1 = Pmax,1 sin 

During fault, Pe2 = Pmax,2 sin 
After fault, Pe3 = Pmax,3 sin 

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Before fault, Ps  Pe0 , angle 0

 P 
0  sin1  s 
 Pmax 

At the instant of fault occurrence, point ‘a’ on swing curve will be shifted to point ‘b’ on
swing curve 2. Suddenly without changing angle & speed.

At point ‘b’   0 ,   S
Accelerating power, Pa  Ps  Pe2  Ps  0  0
Rotor accelerates,  starts increasing from S ,   S
d
 0,  starts increasing
dt
Assume that at ‘c’ CB clears the fault.
From b to c
Accelerating power, Pa  Ps  Pe2  0
Rotor accelerates,  increases ,   S
d
 0,  increases.
dt
As fault is cleared, at point ‘c’ operating point shifts, to ‘d’ without changing angle c

At point d
Speed starts reducing from max , still   S
d
 0,  increases further
dt
d
At point ‘e’ speed   S or = 0.
dt
From d to e
Pa  Ps  Pmax sin   ve
Rotor decelerates,  reduces but still   S

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 Power Systems (Stability)

d
 0,  increases further
dt
2
d
At ‘e’,
dt
 0 or  P d  0
0
a

C 2

 Pad   Pad  0
0 c

Second Swing

From e to f
Pa  PS  Pmax sin   0 , rotor decelerates speed decreases from S
d
   s  0 ,  reduces
dt

At point f  = 0
Pa  Ps  Pmax sin   0
Neither acceleration nor deceleration
d
  min  s  0 ,  reduces
dt
From F to G
Pa  Ps  Pmax sin   0 , rotor accelerates
So, speed increases but still   S
d
   S  0
dt
 decreases & at point G,   S
So, rotor angle will rotate between e & g with respect to final steady state ‘f’’.

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Variation of Speed with time

Variation of  with time

In first swing, if speed is not becoming S even point max  (   0 ) the angle further
increases & system will be unstable.
Critical Clearing Angle
It is maximum rotor angle at which CB has to clear the fault to maintain stability.
By Equal Area Criterion

max

 P d  0
0
a

cr max

 P d   P d  0
0
a
cr
a

cr max

 Ps  Pmax sin  d 

0
 P
cr
s
 Pmax sin   d  0

Ps (cr  0 )  Pmax cos 0  cos cr   Ps (max  cr )  Pmax cos cr  cos max   0

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Ps max  0   Pmax cos max Ps (   20 )  Pmax cos 0

cos cr  
Pmax Pmax
Note: The angles appearing in the equation should be used in radians.

Critical Clearing Time (tcr)

It is the maximum time at which a CB must clear the fault for the system to remain stable.
According to Swing Equation
d2 
M  Pa
dt2
During the fault Pe  0 ; Pa  PS  Pe  PS
d PS
 t
dt M
1 PS 2
(t)  t K
2M
Initial condition at t=0,  = 0 => K= 0
1 PS 2
(t)  t  0
2M
At instant of CB clearing i.e tcr,  = csr
1 PS 2
cr  t  0
2 M cr
(cr  0 ) 2M  PS tcr 2
2M(cr  0 )
tcr 
PS
In terms of H,
2GH (cr  0 ) 2H (cr  0 )
tcr  
f  PS f  PS pu

Fault occurs in middle of one of the Parallel Lines

In this case the reactance to ground is comparable
to reactance between source and load.
Thus, power transfer during fault is
non-zero.
Assume reactance of each line is X
Assume generator reactance is X d ''
We assume the rest of system is modeled as emf in series with
a reactance Xm ''

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Before Fault
X
Transfer Reactance before fault = X1  X d ''  Xm ''
2
Eg Em
Maximum Power capability = Pmax1 
X1
Electrical Power Output = Pe  Pmax1 sin 
 P 
Initial Operating Angle = 0  sin1  S 
P 
 max1 
During Fault
The circuit during the fault looks like as shown below,

We can convert Delta to Star as shown below,

X(X / 2) X
Xa    Xb
2X 4
X 2
X
Xc  
4(X  X) 8

Then to find transfer reactance during the fault, we again convert Star to Delta as shown
above,

X2 
 Xd '' Xa  Xm '' Xb    Xd '' Xa  Xc   Xm '' Xb  Xc
Xc
Maximum Power during the fault is,
Eg Em
Pmax,2  =Transient Stability Limit
X2
Electrical Power Output = Pe  Pmax 2 sin 

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 Power Systems (Stability)

After clearing the fault

The circuit breakers at both ends of the faulty line are tripped to disconnect it from the
system.
Transfer Reactance = X3  X d '' X  Xm ''
Eg Em
Maximum Power capability = Pmax3 
X3
Electrical Power Output = Pe  Pmax3 sin 
Comparing the three cases, Pmax1  Pmax3  Pmax2
The power angle curves for all three cases are shown below,

By Equal Area Criterion

2

 P d  0
0
a

c 2

 Pad   Pad  0
0 c

A1  A2  0
For critical clearing angle or marginal stability the
power angle curve is shown,
 P 
max    sin1  S 
 Pmax3 
By Equal Area Criteria,
max cr max


0
Pad  0   Pad 
0
 P d  0
cr
a

cr max

 (P
0
s
 Pmax2 sin )d  
cr
(Ps  Pmax3 sin )d  0

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Solving above equation gives,

P (  0 )  Pmax3 cos max  Pmax 2 cos 0
cos cr  s max
Pmax3  Pmax 2
This is the most general case and other cases can derived on the basis of this case.
Like for previous case, Pmax2  0; Pmax3  Pmax1  Pmax ; max    0
Ps (   20 )  Pmax cos(   0 ) Ps (   20 )  Pmax cos 0
Thus, cos cr  
Pmax Pmax

Fault occurs on one of parallel lines very close to bus

Before Fault
X
Transfer Reactance before fault = X1  X g 
2
Eg Em
Maximum Power capability = Pmax1 
X1
Electrical Power Output = Pe  Pmax1 sin 
 P 
Initial Operating Angle = 0  sin1  S 
P 
 max1 
During Fault
Since, the fault is close to bus we will assume that during fault no power is transferred from
generator to infinite bus.
Maximum Power capability = Pmax2  0

After clearing the Fault

The circuit breakers at both ends of faulty line are tripped to disconnect the faulty line.
Transfer Reactance before fault = X3  Xg  X
Eg Em
Maximum Power capability = Pmax3 
X3
Electrical Power Output = Pe  Pmax3 sin 
 P 
Initial Operating Angle = max    sin1  S 
P 
 max3 

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 Power Systems (Stability)

In this case, Pmax3  Pmax1

The power angle curve is shown below,

To find Critical Clearing angle, we can directly use previous result,

P (  0 )  Pmax3 cos max
cos cr  s max
Pmax3
Here, during the fault Pe  0 . Thus, critical clearing time is
2M(cr  0 )
tcr 
PS
In terms of H,
2GH (cr  0 ) 2H (cr  0 )
tcr  
f  PS f  PS pu

Removal of one of parallel lines (Contingency Analysis)

Initially both lines are in operation, Electrical power output

Pe0  Ps
Pe1  Pmax1 sin 
 P 
0  sin1  s 
 Pmax1 
After removing the line Pe2  Pmax2 sin  , Pmax 2  Pmax1
Rotor swings between b & d with respect to c & finally settles down at ’c’ & angle
 P 
1  sin1  s 
 Pmax2 

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 Power Systems (Stability)

The Power Angle curve for this case looks like as shown,

Swing Equation of synchronous motor

Torque balance equation is given by,
Te  Tm  TJ  TB
Tm  Motor Shaft Torque
Te = electromagnetic torque
TJ = torque required to overcome inertia
TB =torque required to overcome frictional force
d
Te  Tm  J  B
dt
d
J  B  Te  Tm
dt
Neglecting Friction
d
J  Te  Tm
dt
d2 
J 2m  Te  Tm
dt
 2  d2 
Jsm   2e   Te  Tm  sm
 P  dt
2
sm    s
P 
  2   d2 
2

 Js    2e  Pe  PS 
  P   dt
Swing equation
d2
M 2  Pe  PS
dt
From the figure,
s t  (t)  (t)
d(t) d(t)
s  
dt dt

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 Power Systems (Stability)

d2 (t) d2 (t)

dt2 dt
d2 Pa
Rotor acceleration= 
dt2 M
where, Pa  Pe  PS is the Accelerating Power

Change in mechanical load on synchronous motor

Initial Mechanical Output = PS0

Assuming Maximum Power Capability remains
same.
Mechanical load on motor increased from PS0 to PS1
At point ‘a’,   0 ,   S
Pa  Pmax sin 0  Ps1  0 , rotor decelerates and speed reduces,   S
d
 s    0
dt
Thus,  increases and operating point moves from ‘a’ to ‘b’
From ‘a’ to ‘b’
Pa  Pmax sin   PS1  0 rotor decelerates so   S
d
 0 ,  increases
dt
At ‘b’
 P 
Pa  0,   1 , 1  sin1  s1 
 Pmax 
 d 
Neither acceleration nor deceleration   min ,   >0,  increases further
 dt 

From ‘b’ to ‘c’

Pa  Pmax sin   Ps1  0
Rotor accelerates, speed increases but still   S
d
 0 ,  increases
dt

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 Power Systems (Stability)

At ‘c’
  2 ,   s
Since, Pa  0 rotor accelerates, speed increases and thus   s
d
Hence,  0 So,  reduces
dt
So now rotor angle falls back & rotor makes oscillations between c & a with respect to ‘b’

Methods to improve Transient Stability

Swing Equation for Alternator is,
d2
M 2  Pa  Ps  Pmax sin 
dt
By improving Transient Stability we mean to reduce the rotor acceleration. This can be done
by following methods,
 Design alternator with high capability rating with large inertia (J).
 By connecting a flywheel to the shaft of rotor we can reduce the variation in speed and
thus improve Transient Stability.

 The original swing equation with damping included is,

d
M  D  Pa
dt
Thus, the rotor acceleration is,
d  Pa  D 
 
dt  M 
Thus, acceleration reduces with introduction of damping term. This can be introduced by
means of damper winding in the alternator.

 If steam input is reduced when the fault occurs then the accelerating power is reduced
which reduces the acceleration of the machine. This can be done by use of Speed Governing
Mechanism.
 By using AVR if we increase excitation, then Pe increases and accelerating power reduces
which reduces the acceleration of the machine.
 Reducing reactance of system by using larger air gap between stator & rotor increases Pe
and reduces acceleration of the machine.
 By using Resistance Grounding,
Net Electrical Output becomes Pe  If 2Rn
This is taken for faults where zero sequence currents exist so that current flows through the

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 Power Systems (Stability)

neutral resistance. Thus, electrical output increases and acceleration of machine reduces.

 If we use 3-pole CB then all lines are isolated in case of an LG fault on a single line so Pe
=0 & Pa is high

But is we use single pole circuit breaker then supply can be maintained through other two
lines and electrical output increases due to which acceleration of machine decreases and
stability is improved.

Solved Examples
Problem: Inertia constant of a 100MVA, 50Hz, 4-pole generator is, 10MJ/MVA. If mechanical
input to the machine is suddenly raised from 50MW to 75 MW, the rotor acceleration will be
equal to?
Solution: Swing equation in electrical degrees
H 2
 Pm  Pe 
180f t2
In steady state Pm  Pe  50MW
Now Pm changes to 75MW
25
Pa  Pm  Pe  25MW   0.25pu
100
10 2
 2  0.25
180  50 t
2
 225 elect  deg/ s2
t 2

Problem: A synchronous generator is connected to an infinite bus through a lossless double

circuit transmission line. The generator is delivering 1.0 per unit power at a load angle of 300
when a sudden fault reduces the peak power that can be transmitted to 0.5 per unit. After
clearance of fault, the peak power that can be transmitted becomes 1.5 per unit. Find the
critical clearing angle?
Solution: Critical Clearing Angle is,
 Pm  max  0   Pmax II cos 0  Pmax 
cr  cos1  
 Pmax III  Pmax II 

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Before fault
Pm  Pe  1.0pu; 0  300
Pe  PmaxI sin 0

1  PmaxI  sin30

PmaxI  2pu
During fault Pmax II
 0.5pu
After fault Pmax III
 1.5pu

 P   P   1 
max    sin1  m   180  sin1  m   180  sin1    138.19
0
 Pmax III   Pmax III   1.5 
   
1138.19  30     0.5cos30  1.5cos138.19 
cr  cos 
1 180 
 1.5  0.5 
 

cr  70.290

Problem: A generator delivers power of 1.0 p.u to an infinite bus through a purely reactive
network. The maximum power that could be delivered by the generator is 2.0 p.u. A three
phase fault occurs at the terminals of the generator which reduces the generator output to
zero. The fault, is cleared after t c second. The original network is then restored. The
maximum swing of the rotor angle is found to be max  110 electrical degree at t  t c is?
Solution: Before fault
Pmax I  2.0pu

Pm  Pe  1.0pu

Pe  Pmax 0

1  2sin 0  0  300
During fault Pmax II
 0pu
After fault Pmax III
 Pmax I  2pu
  
 1110  30    0  cos30  2  cos110 
cr  cos1  180   69.14
0

 2  0 
 
This is not the case for critical clearing, still we can use the same expression with suitable
value of max .

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 Power Systems (Stability)

Problem: A generator feeds power to an infinite bus through a double circuit transmission
line. A 3 phase fault occurs at the middle point of one of the lines. The infinite bus voltage is
1pu, the transient internal voltage of the generator is 1.1 pu and the equivalent transfer
admittance during fault is 0.8 pu. The 100MVA generator has an inertial constant of
5MJ/MVA and it was delivering 1.0 pu power prior if the fault with rotor power angle of 30 0.
The system frequency is 50Hz. The initial accelerating power (in pu will be)?
Solution: During fault
E  1.1pu V  1pu

Y  0.8pu

Pmax,2  E V Y  1.1  1  0.8  0.88pu

Before fault 0  300 ; Pm  Pe  1pu
When fault occurs
Pe  Pmax,2 sin   0.88 sin30  0.44pu
Accelerating power
Pa  Pm  Pe  1  0.44  0.56pu

Problem: A generator feeds power to an infinite bus through a double circuit transmission
line. A3 phase fault occurs at the middle point of one of the lines. The infinite bus voltage is
1pu, the transient internal voltage of the generator is 1.1 pu and the equivalent transfer
admittance during fault is 0.8 pu. The 100MVA generator has an inertial constant of
5MJ/MVA and it was delivering 1.0 pu power prior if the fault with rotor power angle of 30 0.
The system frequency is 50Hz. If the initial accelerating power is X pu, the initial acceleration
in elect deg/sec, and the inertial constant in MJ-sec/elect deg respectively will be?
Solution: According to swing equation
H 2
 Pa
f t 2
5 2
X
180  50 t2
2
 1800X elect deg/ sec2
t 2
GH 100  5 1
Inertia constant     0.056
180f 180  50 18

Problem: Consider a synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus by two identical

parallel transmission lines. The transient reactance x of the generator 0.1 pu. Due to some
previous disturbance, the rotor angle (d) is undergoing an undamped oscillation, with the

maximum value of  t equal to 1300. One of the parallel lines trip due to relay maloperation

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 Power Systems (Stability)


at an instant when  t  1300 as shown in the figure. The maximum value of the per unit
line reactance, x such that the system does not lose synchronism subsequent to this tripping
is?

Solution: The system will not lose synchronism if

max  1300

 P 
180  sin1  m   130
0

 Pmax 
 P 
sin1  m   50
0

 Pmax 
1 1
Pmax 
 0.1  X 
Pm
 sin50  0.766
 10.1  X 
0.1  X  0.766
X  0.66pu

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