Climate change in the Philippines

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigation Jump to search

Both floods and droughts are predicted to increase

One of the most pressing environmental issues impacting the Philippines is climate change. As an island
country located in the Southeast Asia Pacific region, the Philippines is extremely vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change. Some of these impacts include increased frequency and severity of natural
disasters, sea level rise, extreme rainfall, resource shortages, and environmental degradation. [1] All of
these impacts together have greatly affected the Philippines' agriculture, water, infrastructure, human
health, and coastal ecosystems and they are projected to continue having devastating damages to the
economy and society of the Philippines. [1]
Greenhouse gas emissions
Philippines share of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is 0.31%.[2] Nevertheless, the country is
highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. [3] GHG emissions in the Philippines are rising.[2] Over
40% of the country's GHG emissions come from the burning of coal and fuel oil for electricity generation,
[2]
with many coal plants being technically unable to ramp down.[4] The Philippines, a signatory of the
Paris climate accord, aims to cut its emissions by 70% by 2030. [5] In 2021 youth climate activists
protested Standard Chartered's financing of coal companies.[6] Legislation to create an emissions trading
system is being considered.

Impacts
Climate history
Due to its geographical location, climate, and topography, the Philippines is ranked third on the World
Risk Index for highest disaster risk and exposure to natural disasters. [8] 16 of its provinces, including
Manila, Benguet, and Batanes, are included in the top 50 most vulnerable places in Southeast Asia, with
Manila being ranked 7th.[9] Four cities in the Philippines, Manila, San Jose, Roxas, and Cotabato, are
included in the top 10 cities most vulnerable to sea level rise in the East Asia and Pacific region. [10] The
country is consistently at risk from severe natural hazards including typhoons, floods, landslides, and
drought.[10] It is located within a region that experiences the highest rate of typhoons in the world,
averaging 20 typhoons annually, with about 7–9 that actually make landfall. [1] In 2009, the Philippines
had the third highest number of casualties from natural disasters with the second most victims. [11]
Climate change has had and will continue to have drastic effects on the climate of the Philippines. From
1951–2010, the Philippines saw its average temperature rise by 0.65°C, with fewer recorded cold nights
and more hot days.[1] Since the 1970s, the number of typhoons during the El Niño season has increased.
[1]
The Philippines has not only seen 0.15 meters of sea level rise since 1940, but also seen 0.6 to 1°C
increase in sea surface temperatures since 1910, and 0.09°C increase in ocean temperatures since 1950.
[1][10]
During the time period from 1990 to 2006, the Philippines experienced a number of record-breaking
weather events, including the strongest typhoon (wind speeds), the most destructive typhoons
(damages), the deadliest storm (casualties), and the typhoon with the highest 24 hour rainfall on record.

Super typhoon Haiyan

Main article: Typhoon Haiyan

At 04:40 on November 8, 2013, Super Typhoon Haiyan, also known locally as “Yolanda”, made landfall in
the Philippines in the Guiuan municipality. [11] The category 5 typhoon continued to travel west, making
landfall in several municipalities, and ultimately devastated enormous stretches of the Philippines
islands of Samar, Leyte, Cebu, and the Visaya archipelago. [8] Tied for being the strongest landfalling
tropical typhoon on record, Typhoon Haiyan had wind speeds of over 300 km/h (almost 190 mph) which
triggered major storm surges that wreaked havoc on many places in the country. [8] Leaving over 6,300
dead, 28,688 injured, and 1062 missing, Typhoon Haiyan is the deadliest typhoon on record in the
Philippines.[12] More than 16 million people were affected by the storm, suffering from the storm surge,
flash floods, landslides, and extreme winds and rainfall that took lives, destroyed homes, and devastated
many.[11][12] Typhoon Haiyan crucially damaged over 1.1 million houses across the country and displaced
over 4.1 million people.[11][12] According to the NDRRMC, the storm cost the Philippines about 3.64 billion
US dollars.[12]
Future projections
Future projections for the current trajectory of climate change predict that global warming is likely to
exceed 3°C, potentially 4°C, by 2060. [10] Specifically in the Philippines, average temperatures are
“virtually certain” to see an increase of 1.8 to 2.2°C. [10] This temperature increase will stratify the local
climate and cause the wet and dry seasons to be wetter and drier, respectively. [1] Most areas in the
Philippines will see reduced rainfall from March to May, while Luzon and Visayas will see increased
heavy rainfall.[1] There will also be an increase in: the number of days that exceed 35°C; that have less
than 2.5 mm of rainfall; and that have more than 300mm of rainfall. [1] Additionally, climate change will
continue to increase the intensity of typhoons and tropical storms. [10] Sea levels around the Philippines
are projected to rise 0.48 to 0.65 meters by 2100, which exceeds the global average for rates of sea level
rise.[13] Combined with sea level rise, this stratification into more extreme seasons and climates increases
the frequency and severity of storm surge, floods, landslides, and droughts. These exacerbate risks to
agriculture, energy, water, infrastructure, human health, and coastal ecosystems.

Agriculture
Agriculture is one of the Philippines’ largest sectors and will continue to be adversely impacted by the
effects of climate change. The agriculture sector employs 35% of the working population and generated
13% of the country's GDP in 2009.[14] The two most important crops, rice and corn, account for 67% of
the land under cultivation and stand to see reduced yields from heat and water stress. [14] Rice, wheat,
and corn crops are expected to see a 10% decrease in yield for every 1°C increase over a 30°C average
annual temperature.[1]
Increases in extreme weather events will have devastating affects on agriculture. Typhoons (high winds)
and heavy rainfall contribute to the destruction of crops, reduced soil fertility, altered agricultural
productivity through severe flooding, increased runoff, and soil erosion. [1] Droughts and reduced rainfall
leads to increased pest infestations that damage crops as well as an increased need for irrigation. [1]
Rising sea levels increases salinity which leads to a loss of arable land and irrigation water. [1]
All of these factors contribute to higher prices of food and an increased demand for imports, which
hurts the general economy as well as individual livelihoods. [1] From 2006 to 2013, the Philippines
experienced a total of 75 disasters that cost the agricultural sector $3.8 billion in loss and damages. [1]
Typhoon Haiyan alone cost the Philippines' agricultural sector an estimated US$724 million after causing
1.1 million tonnes of crop loss and destroying 600,000 ha of farmland. [15] The agricultural sector is
expected to see an estimated annual GDP loss of 2.2% by 2100 due to climate impacts on agriculture.

Agricultural production and civil conflict

In the Philippines, there is a correlation between rainfall and civil conflict, and manifests through
agricultural production.[14] The increased rainfall during the wet season in the Philippines is proven to be
harmful to agriculture as it leads to flooding and/or water logging. [14] This above average rainfall is
associated with “more conflict related incidents and casualties”. [14] The rainfall has a negative effect on
rice which is an important crop that a majority of the country depends on as both a food sources and
employment. A poor rice crop can lead to large impacts on the wellbeing of poor Filipino and cause
widespread contempt for the government and more support for insurgent groups. [14] Climate change is
expected to amplify the seasonal variation of rainfall in the Philippines and exacerbate ongoing civil
conflict in the country.[14]
Gender disparities among farmers
Smallholder farmers in the Philippines are expected to be among the most vulnerable and impacted by
the effects of climate change in the region. However, there are differences in how men and women
experience these impacts and often lead to differences in farming patterns and coping strategies. [15]
Some of the problems caused by extreme climate events in agrarian areas that are prone to civil conflict
that disproportionately affect women include loss of customary rights to land, forced migration,
increased discrimination, resource poverty and food insecurity.[15]
The effect that the combination of severe climate events and civil conflict has on Filipino women is
further exacerbated by discriminatory policies, belief and practices, and restricted access to resources. [15]
For example, climate change is linked to increase civil conflict in the Mindanao region which increases
the number of casualties and deaths of young men in the area. [15] This effectively widows women
married to those men and leaves them on their own to take care of them and their children, even when
the society and government makes it difficult for single mothers to succeed. [15] Women are often
relegated to be the caretakers of children which increases the burden and stress placed on them as well
as inhibiting them from escaping from conflict ridden areas.

Energy
Climate change could simultaneously reduce the Philippines’ supply of energy and increase its demand
for energy.[1] The increased chance of extreme weather events would reduce hydropower production,
which accounts for 20% of the country's energy supply, as well as cause widespread damage to energy
infrastructure and services.[1] There will be more power outages on average in addition to an increased
demand for power, specifically cooling.[1]
Water
Several factors of climate change are impacting the availability of water in the Philippines. The
increasing number of intense droughts are reducing water levels and river flows and thus creating a
shortage in water.[1] The floods and landslides caused by extreme rainfall degrade watershed health and
water quality by increasing runoff and erosion that increases sedimentation in reservoirs. [1] Many
freshwater coastal aquifers have seen saltwater intrusion which reduces the amount of freshwater
available for use. About 25% of coastal municipalities in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao are affected by
this and the issue is expected to get worse with sea level rise. [1]
Infrastructure
Rising sea levels, heavy rainfall and flooding, and strong typhoons pose an enormous risk to the
Philippines’ infrastructure. 45% of Philippines’ urban population lives in informal settlements with
already weak infrastructure and are extremely vulnerable to flooding and typhoons. A giant storm would
wreak havoc on these informal settlements and cause the deaths and displacement of millions of people
who inhabit 25 different coastline cities. [1] These natural disasters will also cause millions of dollars in
damages to urban infrastructure like bridges and roads. In 2009, Tropical Storm Ketsana cost the
Philippines $33 million to repair damaged roads and bridges.

Risk to "double exposure"

Large cities in the Philippines such as Manila, Quezon City, Cebu, and Davao City see an increased risk
from both climate change and globalization. [citation needed] Double exposure, infrastructure planning, and
urban climate resilience in coastal megacities. For example, in addition to being one of the world's most
vulnerable cities to climate change due to geographical location, Manila has also been shaped by
globalization and abides by many tenets of neoliberal urbanism, including "a strong focus on private
sector led development, attracting global capital, market oriented policies and decentralization". These
cities experience challenges to their own climate resilience due to this double exposure to climate
change and globalization, where many cities are most at risk to climate events in addition to having a
large percentage of the population live in informal settlements with weak infrastructure. Four million
people, or about a third of Manila's population, live in informal settlements that put them at higher risk
and danger from tropical storms and flooding, and they often have fewer resources available to recover
from damage caused by environmental hazards. [16]
Human health
Climate change, heavy rains, and increased temperatures are linked with the increased transmission of
vector and waterborne diseases, such as malaria, dengue, and diarrhea (WHO). The heavy rains and
increased temperatures lead to increased humidity which increases the chance of mosquito breeding
and survival.[1] Increased natural disasters not only directly contribute to the loss of human life, but also
indirectly through food insecurity and the destruction of health services. [1]
Coastal ecosystems and fisheries
Climate change and global warming and the rising amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere have contributed
to ocean warming and ocean acidification. The ocean has acted as a carbon sink for earth for millennia
and is currently slowing the rate of global warming through the sequestration of carbon. This comes at a
cost however as the oceans are becoming more and more acidic as they sequester more carbon dioxide.
Ocean acidification has dire consequences as it causes coral bleaching and ultimately leads to the
collapse of coral reefs (usaid). Rising sea levels cause increased salinity that can have damaging impacts
on the country's extensive system of mangroves.[1] Both coral reefs and mangroves help reduce coastal
erosion and support water quality.[1] Erosion from the loss of coral reefs and mangroves increase the
chance of coastal flooding and loss of land.[1] Coral reefs and mangroves also act as important feeding
and spawning areas for many fish species that many fisher folk depend on for survival. [10] Over 60% of
the coastal population depends on marine resources such as coral reefs or mangroves for their
contributions to fisheries, tourism, and storm protection.

Mitigation and adaptation

The government is making an adaptation plan. [19]
Mangrove forests has proved to be an efficient and environmentally-friendly solution to mitigate the
effects of coastal hazards.[20][21] Extensive mangrove rehabilitation projects has been undertaken in the
Philippines.[22][23]
Activism
Activist groups associated with the climate movement have called for government action and have
organized activities to raise public awareness on climate and related environmental, sociopolitical, and
economic issues. Philippine activists have, for example, taken part in the global climate strike, joining
demands for political leaders to urgently address the climate emergency. [24][25]
Below are some protest actions and social movements associated with climate change in the Philippines.

 In 2021, activists stood outside the Standard Chartered office to protest the bank's funding of
the coal industry. Standard Chartered is the biggest funder of the coal industry in the
Philippines.[26]
 As part of its policy advocacy, Greenpeace Philippines released an open letter in 2019 urging
President Rodrigo Duterte to declare a climate change emergency to make climate change and
its impacts a top government priority. [27]

The Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines issued a pastoral letter in 2019 instructing dioceses
to make caring for the environment a special concern in the face of the climate emergency. [28]

 Fisherfolk organization Pambansang Lakas ng Kilusang Mamamalakaya ng Pilipinas (Pamalakaya)

protested in Mendiola in 2020 to urge the Philippine government to address the impacts of
climate change on fisherfolk. The group also called for an end to reclamation projects to
preserve the marine ecosystem and protect millions of people from flooding and dislocation. [29]
 Kalikasan People’s Network for the Environment joined the 2015 International Human Rights
Day protests to raise concern over the plight of climate refugees.[30]
 Peasants, fisherfolk, Indigenous peoples, and other grassroots communities organized various
protests in 2015 calling on government to end large-scale mining projects and address the root
causes of the climate crisis.

Climate Change Impacts

Philippines is the third most vulnerable country to climate change according to the 2017 world risk
report. Impacts of climate change in the Philippines are immense, including: annual losses in GDP,
changes in rainfall patterns and distribution, droughts, threats to biodiversity and food security, sea level
rise, public health risks, and endangerment of vulnerable groups such as women and indigenous people.

Philippines to lose 6% GDP anually by 2100 

The latest IPCC Assessment Report concluded that climate change will create new poor between now
and 2100. Poverty breeds disaster vulnerability, and those who have least in life risk like most.

Based on a study by the Asian Development Bank on the economics of climate change, the country
stands to lose 6% of its GDP annually by 2100 if it disregards climate change risks. This same study found
that if the Philippines invests 0.5% of its GDP by 2020 in climate change adaptation, it can avert losses of
up to 4% of its GDP by 2100—clearly a short-term investment with a long-term eight-fold gain.

Major rainfall changes in patterns and distributions 

A 2011 PAGASA report suggests a decrease in rainfall by 2020 in most parts of the country except Luzon.
As far as extreme rainfall is concerned, however, the number of days with heavy rainfall (e.g., greater
than 200 mm) is expected to increase with global warming by the year 2020 and 2050.

Threats to natural ecosystems

Approximately 1 million hectares of grasslands in the Philippines are highly vulnerable to climate change
in the future. Most grasslands in the uplands are prone to fires particularly during extended periods of
dryness and lack of rainfall during summer.

Coral Loss
The 2016 Low Carbon Monitor Report foresees that 98 percent of coral reefs in Southeast Asia will die
by 2050, practically an extinction by the end of the century if current global warming trends will
continue. The IPCC projects that by years 2051 to 2060, the maximum fish catch potential of Philippine
seas will decrease by as much as 50% compared to 2001-2010 levels.

Declining rice yields

An analysis of temperature trends and irrigated field experiments at the International Rice Research
Institute shows that grain yield decreased by at least 10% for each 1°C increase in growing-season
minimum temperature in the dry season.
More intense droughts
Global warming exacerbates the effects of El Niño the most recent of which was experienced in the
country from 2015 to 2016. The Department of Agriculture estimated that 413,456 farmers have been
directly affected by El Niño-associated drought and dry spells during the last El Niño period.
Higher sea level rise
Observed sea level rise is remarkably highest at 60 centimeters in the Philippines, about three times that
of the global average of 19 centimeters. This puts at risk 60% of LGUs covering 64 coastal provinces, 822
coastal municipalities, 25 major coastal cities, and an estimated 13.6 million Filipinos that would need
relocation.

Water scarcity
Climate change, rapid urbanization, and population growth drives water scarcity worldwide. A study
conducted by the World Resources Institute predicts that Philippines will experience a 'high' degree of
water shortage by the year 2040. The country ranked 57th likely most water stressed country in 2040
out of 167 countries. The sector that will bear the brunt of water shortage by that year is agriculture, a
major component of the country’s economy and which currently employs x% of the country's workforce.

Labor productivity declined

According to a 2016 United Nations study, climate change-induced heat in the workplace is projected to
render 1% loss in working hours by 2025, 2% by 2050, and 4% by 2085.

More public health emergencies

Higher temperatures also trigger the surge of diseases such as dengue, malaria, cholera, and typhoid. In
1998, when the Philippines experienced the strongest El Nino phenomenon to-date, almost 40,000
dengue cases, 1,200 cholera cases, and nearly 1,000 typhoid fever cases, were recorded nationwide.
More women endangered and killed
A paper released by the World Health Organization (WHO) examining gender, climate change, and
health, stated that the impacts of natural hazards such as droughts, floods and storms affect more
women than men, and tend to affect women at a younger age. Climate-sensitive and gender-specific
health impacts affect women disproportionately than men.

How Is Climate Change Affecting the Philippines?

Five of the 10 deadliest typhoons to hit the Philippines have come since 2006. Find out what’s
happening and what you can do about it.

Haiyan, Thelma, Ike, Fengshen, Washi, Durian, Bopha, Trix, Amy, Nina.

These are the ten deadliest typhoons of the Philippines between 1947 and 2014. What’s alarming is that
five of the 10 have occurred since 2006, affecting and displacing thousands of citizens every time. Seven
of these 10 deadly storms each resulted in more than 1,000 casualties. But the deadliest storm on
record in the Philippines is Typhoon Haiyan, known locally as Typhoon Yolanda, which was responsible
for more than 6,300 lost lives, over four million displaced citizens, and $2 billion in damages in 2013.

So what’s going on – is the Philippines simply unlucky? Not exactly.

The Philippines has long been particularly vulnerable to extreme weather. But in recent years the nation
has suffered from even more violent storms like Typhoon Haiyan. On average, about 20 tropical cyclones
enter Philippine waters each year, with eight or nine making landfall. And over the past decade, these
tropical storms have struck the nation more often and more severely, scientists believe, because of
climate change. In addition, two factors unique to the Philippines – its geography and development –
have combined to exacerbate both this threat and its devastating consequences.
Here's a deeper look at how climate change affects the Philippines and the role geography and
development play in making a tremendous challenge even greater.

Geography

The Global Climate Risk Index 2015 listed the Philippines as the number one most affected country by
climate change, using 2013’s data. This is thanks, in part, to its geography. The Philippines is located in
the western Pacific Ocean, surrounded by naturally warm waters that will likely get even warmer as
average sea-surface temperatures continue to rise.

To some extent, this is a normal pattern: the ocean surface warms as it absorbs sunlight. The
ocean then releases some of its heat into the atmosphere, creating wind and rain clouds.
However, as the ocean’s surface temperature increases over time from the effects of climate
change, more and more heat is released into the atmosphere. This additional heat in the ocean
and air can lead to stronger and more frequent storms – which is exactly what we’ve seen in the
Philippines over the last decade.

The Philippines also lacks natural barriers; as a collection of over 7,000 islands there is almost
nothing standing between them and the sea. In addition to their coral reefs, one of the best
buffers against typhoons are the Philippine mangrove ecosystems. These mangroves help
mitigate the impact of storm surge and stabilize soil but have disappeared by almost half since
1918 due to deforestation (an issue for another day).

Other natural factors, like regional wind patterns or currents, can also increase the risk of tropical
storms. Geography again plays a role here, as these factors affect different areas of the country
differently, due to their unique circumstances. The graphic below from a report by the Philippine
Department of Environment and Natural Resources shows how the various regions in the
Philippines can face a range of climate threats, based on where they sit on the map.
The map also shows the region’s most vulnerable to sea-level rise, another detrimental effect of
climate change that can be exacerbated by the storm surge from tropical storms. Sea levels in the
Philippines are rising at about twice the global average. And when especially strong storms like
Typhoon Haiyan make landfall, this higher sea level contributes to storm surge that can rise
upwards of 15–20 feet, displacing thousands or even millions of citizens in coastal communities.
Which brings us to our next topic: development in the Philippines.

Development
Developmental factors have made it difficult for the Philippines to prepare and respond to disasters.
Evacuation plans, early-warning systems, and shelters are critical to dealing with extreme weather
events. Warning and relocating thousands or millions of citizens when a storm is approaching would be
a massive hurdle for any country – and in the case of a developing nation like the Philippines with nearly
100 million citizens spread out across thousands of islands, the hurdle becomes bigger still.

Then there’s what these storms mean for the Philippines’ economy. According to a 2013 statement from
government officials, a destructive typhoon season costs the nation two percent of its gross domestic
product (GDP). It costs another two percent to rebuild the infrastructure lost, putting the Philippines at
least four percent in the hole each year from tropical storms. And when you’re a nation aspiring to grow
and create better lives for your citizens, this regular hit to the economy is the last thing you can afford.

This is not an easy problem to fix, but we need to try. The first step is educating citizens both in the
Philippines and around the world about what the nation is facing, and about the practical clean-energy
solutions available that can begin to address the harmful effects of climate change in the Philippines and
beyond.

The Seven Environmental Principles*

1. Everything is connected to everything else. (Ang lahat ng bagay ay magkakaugnay.)
The intricate relationships of various elements of the ecosystem bind the components together into
one functional unit. The trees in the forest are home to ferns, orchids, birds, insects and mammals.
When these plants and animals die, their products of decomposition contribute to soil fertility. Plants
provide oxygen to animals for aerobic respiration while animals furnish carbon dioxide to plants for
photosynthesis. The quality of the soil determines the type of vegetation that exists while vegetation
contributes to the minerals of the soil when they die. The living component of the ecosystem affects
and is affected by the abiotic components, such as air, temperature, land. Inter-specific relationships
create a dependency with each other so that they both have to co-exist to live. All these relationships
provide dependencies, check and balances that compose the details of our life-support systems.
Human interaction with nature oftentimes alters the ecosystems. The waste we improperly dispose
of brings about the deterioration of land and water quality. This may in turn reduce their capacity to
provide life for other organisms. Deforestation causes soil erosion and the earth deposited on the water
bodies covers the coral reefs resulting to fishery loss. Suspended particulates from vehicular and
stationary sources may cause lung problems among city residents. War causes destruction of wildlife
and habitats. There is a cause and effect chain, even when it is neither always visible nor observable.

Global economic systems affect the distribution of biological goods worldwide. Through the Galleon
trade, spices reached different parts of the world. Today, oranges and apples from China have become
easily accessible to the Filipino market. Developing countries argue that globalization promotes the
introduction of species detrimental to the recipient habitat and market.
2. All forms of life are important.(Ang lahat na may buhay ay mahalaga.)
All living organisms were created for a purpose in relation to humans, other species on earth and
global ecosystem in general. Thus, when a species becomes extinct, it is like removing a piece of a
jigsaw puzzle from the web of life. The variety of life forms, manifested by the different levels of
biological diversity – community, species and genes – contributes to the stability of the environment.
Food webs, food chains and ecological relationships link plants and animals together in the web of life.
Even bacteria, insects, snakes and rats have ecological functions even though humans perceive them as
parasites or pests.
The Philippines ranks high among the biodiversity hotspots – the richest but the most threatened of
terrestrial ecosystems in the world. The Philippines has rich flora and fauna: an estimated 13,500 plant
species, 80 amphibians, 240 reptiles, 556 birds, 174 mammals, 300 corals, 27 mangrove species. Of
these, approximately 75% are endemic. Some of the threatened species are the Philippine eagle
(Pythecophaga jefferyi), Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis), and Tamaraw (Bubalus
mindorensis).
The composition of biological diversity naturally changes slowly but the rate of transition has
become faster due to factors such as habitat destruction. Deforestation may diminish forest species
such as birds that are vulnerable to modification of their home. Pollution of waters reduces the quantity
of fishes, shells, algae and other aquatic life. Over harvesting of natural products likewise contributes to
the unsustainable use of food and material resources.
To maintain ecological balance, therefore, the conservation of genes, species and ecosystems
becomes essential to keep life together. Biodiversity conservation strategies commence with the
protection of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Land uses, such as protected areas, ensure that
the natural state of these habitats continue to exist in designated areas. Community-based approaches
in conservation maximize citizens’ participation in protected areas. Integrity of natural ecosystems can
likewise be guarded through the preservation of indigenous species.
Strategies outside of the protected areas can be adopted. Cities and human settlements can still
keep trees, patches of forests and garden as home for wildlife like birds, butterflies, and insects.
Agricultural ecosystems sustain the variety of plants and animals through inter-cropping, multi-cropping
and crop rotation. Plant and animal breeding can increase the population of commercially important
species without directly harvesting from the wild. The captive breeding of Pag-asa, the Philippine eagle,
provided a solution to the diminishing eagle population. Although it is still recommended that habitat
protection must be the first step to species protection.

3. Everything must go somewhere. (Ang lahat ng bagay ay may patutunguhan.)

By-products of consumption go back to the environment. Everything that we throw away – pieces
of paper, left-over food, peelings of fruits, plastic wrappers, used containers – have to go somewhere.
Even plants and animals have their own wastes – feces, urine, dead leaves and branches. It is the law of
nature that the by-products of metabolism return to the soil, acted upon first by worms, bacteria and
fungi, and then converted into minerals, to be again absorbed by plants and eaten by animals. In short,
they enter into a material cycle that is an integral part of the ecosystem. But what happens if what we
throw is an artificial product such as plastic? Then natural bacteria can not recognize them and may not
be capable of breaking them apart. These non-biodegradable products must enter another material
cycle – the one that goes to the factory to be manufactured into a new product. Thus the retrieval,
collection and recycling of these materials become necessary so that they do not pollute land and water
habitats.
In our present consumer-oriented, setting up an ecological solid waste management system
becomes necessary for maximizing the use of resources. Ecological solid waste management
recommends that solid wastes be reduced, segregated, re-used and recycled. Biodegradable materials
are either to be eaten again or composted. Non-biodegradable materials have to be segregated and
collected for recycling.
Industries have their own responsibility in reducing their effluents. End-of-the-pipeline
technologies are augmented by clean technologies in raw product extraction and manufacturing. The
“polluters pay” principle adopted by governments intensifies the campaign for clean land, water and air.
Waste exchange programs by industry turn wastes of one industry into raw products of another. In that
way, habitats for organisms are not destroyed or deteriorate.
4. Ours is a finite earth. (Ang kalikasan ay may hangganan.)
Everything that we need is provided by nature in abundance – food, water, energy, minerals and air.
However, some resources that we depend upon nowadays are extracted excessively but are slow to
replace. These non-renewable resources experience limits of supply. For instance, fossil fuels produced
over thousands of years may be exhausted in a hundred years. Some energy sources like water, and
wood may be replaced easier but have become inaccessible due to pollution and excessive extraction.
Diminishing forest cover have resulted from logging, ineffective reforestation and continued land
conversion. However, food scarcity and poverty may have resulted from failed distribution systems
rather than inability of the land and water bodies to yield food.
It can be argued that increasing population decreases the amount of resources available to each
person. Carrying capacity, or the ability of the ecosystem to support a number of people, may be
influenced by limit of resources due to an increasing population. Competition increases as the carrying
capacity is reached. Per capita consumption must also be taken into account because people in
Northern countries generally consume more food, energy and resources than people in the developing
Southern countries. Carrying capacity may be addressed two ways: increase resources and reduce
population growth. Agricultural productivity for instance may be increased with better availability of
water and farm inputs.
Pollution reduces the absorbing capacity of air and water. Pollution likewise reduces the
availability of land and water to produce food for human consumption. A river classified a Class IV
means that it becomes fit only for only for navigation and can no longer sustain life forms. Likewise, oil
spills from accidents or war destroy bays and rivers. Waterways that have become cesspool of domestic
wastes cannot contain fishes and shells or if they do might transmit toxins and harmful bacteria to
consumers.
Several solutions have been suggested to solve this problem: reduction of consumption,
increased use of renewable energy, emissions trading, and pollution control. The conservation ethic and
technological solutions have become viable strategies to address finiteness of resources. Biodiversity
conservation is anchored on the principle that lost species are irreplaceable. Thus, extinct species have
acquired a greater value – more effort has to be exerted to protect and save endangered species. The
conservation ethic supports the belief that we should tread lightly on the earth by using only what we
need. The philosophy of “sapat”, meaning “enough” suggests that we should buy and consume only
what we need and leave some for the less privileged and the next generation.

5. Nature knows best. (Ang kalikasan ang mas nakakaalam.)

Nature manifests certain processes that enable it to maintain balance and remain in a state of
equilibrium. The nutrient cycling of nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorous in the air, water and land
indicates that minerals are utilized within the confines of the earth. The flow of energy from the sun
enables light to be converted into sugar in plants through photosynthesis, and later for consumer
organisms to obtain energy from plant starch. Food chains and food webs allow transfer of energy from
producers and consumers and provide the means for all living organisms to acquire nutrition.
Population control also occurs naturally through predator – prey relationships.
The equilibrium in the ecosystem is maintained, thus if humans intervene, unforeseen negative
impacts known as ecological backlash, may arise. Floods are often times backlashes of excessive felling
of trees. The importation of golden kuhol, that became a pest, reminds us that biological organisms may
not acclimatize in a new environment or may cause harm to indigenous species.
The environmental ethics promote that we conform to ecological principles and stay close to natural
products and processes. We should patronize natural food and consumable materials. Organically
grown vegetables provide healthy food without the side effects that may arise from pesticides.
Ecological technology offers an option for us to choose, that which is closest to nature. The extent to
which Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) affect health remains debatable and the formidable task
of providing adequate safe food for a growing population continues to challenge agricultural scientists
and environmental managers worldwide.

6. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation. (Ang kalikasan ay maganda at tayo
ang tagapangasiwa ng lahat na nilikha ng Diyos.)
Creation presupposes the existence of a Creator. The beautiful nature around us, perfect by itself, has
deteriorated due to the negative impacts of human use. This principle suggests how a Human-Creator
relationship is translated in our attitude towards creation. Theologians explain that there are different
levels of this relationship. First is a relationship determined by dominion of humans over creation, that
humans can do as they wish because this was given by God. The book of Genesis says “have dominion
over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air...” The second level is one of stewardship, that of a
caretaker where humans are not owners but guardians of the integrity of nature. The third level
promotes a kinship relationship postulated by St. Francis de Assisi in the famous verse “Bother sun,
Sister moon”, where humans are no higher than the birds and fishes of the sea. Fourth is one of
sacrament, where nature becomes a testimony of God’s love. Fifth is a covenant relationship, where
protection of the earth is a life mission manifested in the things that we do and say.
Different religions from Islam to Buddhism to Judeo-Christian to indigenous people’s animism
express the belief of caring for the earth, including all creatures. Thus it is the goal of environmental
education and biodiversity conservation education to motivate target audiences towards developing an
eco-spirituality that moves them into a more meaningful relationship with nature and a greater
participation in the biophysical economic processes that make this world a better place to live in.

7. Everything changes. (Ang lahat ay nagbabago.)

Changes in the biophysical world occur naturally. As they say, there is nothing more permanent in
this world than change. Consider the following examples. Metamorphosis of caterpillars to butterflies
illustrates morphological changes that occur in living forms. The increase of vegetation on earth
augmented the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere through time. Seasons are cyclic changes that
contribute to the diversity of flowers, fruits, vegetables and other crops during the year. Random
changes manifested by natural catastrophe such as typhoons destroy forests, coral reefs and
mangroves. Volcanic eruptions annihilate surface flora and submerge rivers.
Human-induced alteration such as climate change may cause more massive repercussions. Land use
change – from forests to agricultural land to human settlements – change the composition of vegetation
and animals. Human-induced changes can be managed so that the negative impacts are minimized and
positive changes accentuated. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) provides a tool for the
projection, planning and management of change brought about by industrialization and human
settlement expansion. Effluents can be managed through policy and pollution control techniques by
both industry and government to achieve clean air and water.
Sustainable development presents a paradigm of change for the 21st Century. Sustainable
development promotes ecological integrity, equitable sharing of resources and people empowerment as
pillars of growth. Biodiversity conservation contributes to ecological integrity, through both in-situ and
ex-situ techniques. Biodiversity conservation becomes successful only if coupled with poverty
alleviation, improving equity of access to resources and instituting social change. Environmental
education facilitates social transformation by modifying attitudes and behavior of people towards an
ecological ethic.
*Adapted from Barry Commoner, as compiled by Miriam College