FOUNDAMENTALS ON TOFD © Time of Flight Diffraction TechniqueControllo Ultragonoro delle saldature Principio della tecnica TOFD Time-of Flight Diffraction Technique (sees BOSiaenars Ricevitore PH altezza | del difetto Onde Difratte sferiche ldagli apici(TIP) del difetto. IMMAGINE DEL FENOMENO: DELLA DIFFRAZIONE NZ [ONDA ECHI DEGLI APICI LATERALE IDELLA CRICCA (ONDE PARETE lb! FONDO_ Foundamentals of-Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) FOUNDAMENTALS OF TOFD TECHNIQUE, (J. TOFD technique comes up in 4985. at Harwell Center (UK) pressed by request of sizing cracks in nuclear reactor welds. TOFD technique is actually the most promising technique for ultrasonic examination of welds. TOED is a fully computerized system able to scan, store, evaluate indications in terms of hight, lenght » Ro ition with a grade of accuracy never obtained with other ultrasonic techniques. : TOFD technique is based on diffraction of ultrasonic, waves on tips of discontinuities, instead of geometrical reflectién on the interface of the discontinuities. This phenomena make TOFD ideal for relieving craks, lacks of fusion located along the vertical axis ofithe weld or with any other orientations, because the detection is not influenced by the negative consequence of ultrasonic beam deviation from the receiver duc to unfavourable orientation Of the discontinuity. These features has extended the use of TOFD to replace Radiography, in all cases in which planar defects (cracks, lack of fusion ) are the main object of the examination,~ Foundamentals:of Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) PHYSICAL PRINCIPLE OF TOFD Imagine of incident longitudinal waves on artificial crack tip (right) and diffracted spherical waves (left) generated by the impact of ultrasound on the extremity of the crack.- Foundamentals of Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) MATHEMATIC MODEL OF TOFD L? = d? + (S - X)? M2 = d2 + (S + X)? i Pitagora principle based on the accuracy of time of flight measurement of geometric parameters of triangles involved in the different paths of , ultrasonic waves: - lateral waves ; ce - spherical waves from tips of defects ; = back wall echo ;- Foundamentals of Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) TOFD NORMS The experience achieved by TOFD application has largely demonstrated its reliability and detection capacity with respect to other methods. This has moved potential users to extabilish procedures for coding TOFD in recognized standarized norms. - BRITISH STANDARD has emitted the first draft : BSI N.°7706 - ASME CODE has included in Section V art.4 Appendix E the computerized ultrasonic system and TOFD technique for ultrasonic examination of weld. ‘An "ad hoc " Working Group has been nominated inside ASME Technical Committee, to prepare a document, which define the conditionns for using computerized system, as TOFD im replacing * Radiography examinations of welds, in the range over 4 inch. thickness (see code case) - CEN ( Committee European Normalisation ) has emitted the document CEN/TC/138/WG on pratical application of TOFD for ultrasonic examination of weld. -, “4 i- Foundamentals of Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Typical pattern of pulses from an internal flaw Transmitter Receiver Go Lateral wave : i Diffracted signal Back-wall echo Lateral wave Lower tip. Upper tip Back-wall 1 ‘The upper Figure shows how spherical waves are generated on the tips of the cracks. “ : The lower Figure shows a typical A-Scan representation of TOFD The First echo wich reach the transducer is the lateral wave, the Second is the upper tip of the crack, the Third echo is the lower tip of the crack , the Fourth echo is the back-wall reflection of longitudinal waves on the opposite side of the plate~ Foundamentals of.Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) PRATICAL REALISATION OF TOFD Transmitter Receiver (a Lateral wave Pu > Diffracted signal Schematic configuration of probes for TOFD Technique The transmitter send in the material longitudinal angled and surface lateral wave. The receiver catch the spherical waves generated by the two tips of the cracks, the lateral waves and the longitudinal waves on the opposite side of the plate- Foundamentals of Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) TOFD IMAGINE PRESENTATION FOR ACCURACY SIZING OF DEFECT In TOFD Technique the indications appears with two interference curved lines as indicated in the figure In this case the figure represents a cylindrical hole in a test block. The diameter of the hole is represented by the distance between the top and bottom curve.Using the cursor, the operator can easly read on the monitor the value of this distance.E, the computerized ultrasonic system and TOFD tech- nique for ultrasonic examination of welds (5) ‘An “ad hoc” Workgroup has been nominated from ‘pithin the ASME Technical Committee to prepare a do- ument establishing the conditions for using computeri~ ‘eed systems, such as TOFD, in replacing Radiography examinations of welds, in the over 4” thickness range (Gee Code Case) CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation) has issued the document CEN/138/WG on practical application of TOED for ultrasonic examination of welds (6). TOFD Applications (One of che major applications of TOFD is the ultrasonic examination of welds after final heat treatment and/or hydraulic resting, to verify the absence of cracks not de- tectable by Radiography and to prove conformity with prior ultrasonic manval examination carried out during construction. In addition to higher sensitivity, the TOFD technique allows the full examination data to be recorded on hard disk, displaying all discontinuities in C/scan images. This enables “offline” evaluation of indications by com- puter using dedicated software. Very accurate siting of defects can be achieved and prin- ted for documentation, ; Another advantage and current application of TOFD is jts use in monitoring welds during the service life of components. Stored data acquired from initial examinations, made du- ring the final stage of construction, can be compared swith new data obtained from in-service inspection. ‘This allews the stability of existing indications to be de- termined with high accuracy and reliability The more accuracy guaranteed by TOFD in sizing th ruwall extention of flaws allows more reliable fracture mechanic calculation for the residual life evaluation. Companies like Exxon, Shell, Fluor Daniel, Texaco, Chevron ete. are using TOFD to replace radiography in examination of welds after PWHT ot hydraulic testing. ‘The main inspection agencies have approved procedures of the TOFD Technique and its validation. Physical principle of TOFD Tppiealpartera of uve nvolved in TOFD technique Four different types of waves are involved in th scruction of a TOFD image * longitudinal wave generated by the transmitter and partially transformed in spherical wave when the beam ross the cp of defect + che lateral wave that flows on the surface between the tivo transducers + che longitudinal wave reflected by the backwll «+ the shear waves generated by the mode conversion L/T on the interface of discontinuities In Figure 1 TOFD waves pattern and the corresponding A-SCAN image are represented. . “The Figure 2 shows how spherical waves are generated con the tips of the cracks when incident longitudinal wa- ves eross the tip. “The Figure 3 shows a typical TOFD image obtained du- ring calibration of equipement on two cylindrical holes. “The Figure 4 represents the mathematical and geometri- cal model on which TOFD software is based. Tranamiter Recelver bitrates Fig. 1 TOFD waves parern and corresponding A-Sean pre- Fig. 2 - Compressional waves (lef) crossing the dp of 2 tinuity generate a wide beam of spherical waves (Figh®) 35Fig. 3- TOFD map of the calibation on ASME test block of 195 mim (7-28 inch) with ehtee holes of 7.5 men (1/3 inch.) dia- meter. The TOFD map shows the three holes with simmetri- ‘cal mode conversion indication. The stright lines at lefe and ri- the of che TOFD map are respectively the later wave (scanning Surface) and the back-wall waves (opposite surface). The space benween these two line represents the thickness of the weld © MATHEMATIC MODEL OF TOFD eat e (5.x)? Mts a? + (S +X) Fig. 4 - On Bitagora principe is based the software co measure the ough thickness dimension in TOFD Technique. Configuration of system “The Figure 5 represents the block diagram of TOFD sy- stem for examination of weld “The system is composed by + computer with dedicated boards (P/R, A/D) and TOFD sofware + probes assembled on a special holder « parallel and transversal to the welds axis + Printer to prine the result allow scanning Probes need special characteristics to emit shore pulses €0 improve accuracy in Time Of Flight measurement. ln ease of ammall thicknesses high frequency can be used, #+8 MEz Computer's feasures Portable computer , Pentium , with minimum 3 slot te for installed the boards, color sereen ‘TFT, Window's 95. 36 SCANNER T | la BOARD fig 5 Block dng of TOFD voc computed Fig, Sa ~The TOFD system in its pratical aspect. Scanning plan » * Parameters affecting the application of TOFD technique are the following? * + PCS (Probe Center Spacing) + DZ Depth Zone) for each range of tckness an appro priate value shall be established and validated on test ) block + Probe centerline + Probe frequency + Probe angle + Crystal diameter + Test block [All the mentioned parameters, after validation, are re portéd in the relevant SCANNING PLAN, see an example on Figure 6. Scanning direction “The seanning directions for examination of welded joine has cattied out moving the holder parallel to the weld axis, see Figure 7a. * In case of flaws, in order to better characterize the shape ‘and its dimension an additional scanning perpendicular to the weld axis shall be performed (Figure 7b) When transversal cracks have to be investigated a scan in 90° orientation with respect to che primary scanning shall be applied le cee uCee 22 meee nnn PPPOE OP eee peer eee rere eeeeeeeee eee = ae A a ae — RC we} ea LL rt | perpendicular to the weld avis co Real time acquisition and records All data of examination are collected in real cime by the The image that appeats on the monitor is represented in Baclovall and lateral waves have to appear permanency fon the screen; this is a proof thar good contact and eor~ - Scan Plan indicating the main parameters value co use in relation of the thickness ex rect amplification have been applied and maintened du- ring the inspection. vs All data are recorded into the computer and can be tran- od in standard floppy. ig. #= BeSean image in eeal time cxeate and visualize ow PC during the scanning of | meter lenghe weld aiid 135 mm [5 inch.) oF thickness. Image evaluation When indications are detected the sofeware cam ey show the TOED image as indicated in Figure 9 0 whe | ch any kind of evaluation and sizing can be doneAuto UT (2) 48" cae Pe (2) 48470" FE TOFD 10 gle) Gl Sekine 0 10. 20 «480 M0: SO O70: 80 “1: Teenlce AT a site serstitta Tig Ron ele pa rice tc age ioe : (P50 PRO BAB LI ate JAPAN “h Traaditore © 42,7 mm SOM - Cure OAC 25% ° Probabilita di rivelazione (%) alin | Cay) OF DETECTION 43 1 CENTERFig, §- TOFD map of a eladded est block of 170 min (6.7 inch) thickness wich overlay weld. The TOFD map shows on the lefta strong lateral waves, chrough the thickness the cree holes and before the backwall an “interference” image like a rasparency which represents the clade layer. TOFD and new images / cladding During the examination of cladded reactors we have been surprised about the good visibility on the TOFD images of the cladded layer (see Figure 14). ‘This is a really new possibility to examine and re the thickness and discover cracks or disbon flaws (1). Conclusions + The experience so far has demonstrated that the TOFD technique is a new powerfull tool to improve results of NDE examination of welds. TOED technique is able to derect defects which are normally visible either by radiographic examination oF traditional ultrasonic testing (pulse echo). Images obtained by TOFD guarantee that the exa- mination is reliable and complete in terms of covera- € of the zone co be inspected. They also illustrate he overall quality of welds in a compact and rational form. ves andl com- Rewieving the multicwle of TOFD imy pearing with A-scan,presentation from p appears with great evidenee the reachness of TOFD The number of information obcamsble simultaneously, observing a TOFD image ive us an ina close to the eeality . This give to Ulerasunic examinicnn the powerfull of of the Haws tional ail to taniarization with NDE Juetion workers not specialised! on NDE techni ques, + Tr can be applie enween protic and quality results Fig. 16- Pierre on PC monitor showing the thee ASME Ste Bibliography 1) ASME Code Case no. 2235 Approval date 23/12/96 2) TOFD the Time OF Flight Diffraction technique. Theoretical aspects and practical applications, Harwell laboratory Mr. Silk TOFD Ultrasonic technique applied to inservice in- spection,co evaluate dameges andl life extension - L-H Besbee Strcpural Integrigy = USA +) BSI 7706 ASME Code Sec. art+ App. 6) Esperienza con la tecnica, TOED nel controllo ulera~ sonoro di saldanure, analist'e prospettive. P Nardoni D. Nardoni - [8 , Laery Nottingham Steuerural Ine tegrity - USAAe eRe ee eee — Bee Accuracy Capability of TOFD Technique in Ultrasonic Examination of Welds F, Betti, G. Zappavigna, C. Pedrinzani ‘Nuovo Pignone - Massa, Italy Table of Contents G. Nardoni, P. Nardoni Methods ang instrumentation 1&T Nardoni Institute - Brescia, Italy INDEX Fundamentals of TOED technique 2. Experimental tests on artificial reflectors to verify detection capability and sizing through thickness dimensions 3, Validation tests carried out on natural welding defects 4, Conclusions Abstract Improved detection capability, improved sizing accuracy, permanent record of results, ess of contact and full coverage effectiveness, made TOFD technique a successfully and promising method in ultrasonic examination of welds. The paper presents data acquired through experiences on artificial and natural defects. Comparison is made for Probability Of Detection (POD) relevant to ultrasonic pulse echo technique and radiographic method 4 - Fundamentals of TOFD technique ‘TOFD technique is based on diffraction of ultrasonic wave on tips of discontinuities, instead of geometrical reflection from the surface of the discontinuities. This behavior makes TOFD ideal for detecting cracks, lack of fusion located along the vertical axis of the welds and with any other orientation. The detection is only slightly influenced by the unfavorable orientation of the discontinuity. Four different types of wave are involved in the constitution of a TOFD image: « Longitudinal wave generated by the transmitter and partially transformed into spherical wave when the beam strike the tip/tips of discontinuities = Lateral wave that propagates on the surface between the two transducers = Longitudinal wave reflected by the backwall = Shear wave generated by the mode conversion L/S on the interface of disccntinuities the figure 1 shows SCHLIEREN presentation of compression wave and generated spherical wave at a crack type defect and TOFD geometrical pattern with corresponding A- SCAN image.PerHiee ALE DMRPUDELEB Oy SOA Reteceet Coton eer Ope eet reer reat reeaee eee reer Seer te ‘anckwail eene Laterat wave Lower tio Ueer tia Backwa Fig 1: Presentation of compression wave and generated spherical wave at a crack type defect and TOFD geometrical pattem with corresponding A-SCAN image. 2 - Experimental tests on artificial reflectors to verify detection capability and sizing through thickness dimensions To verify the capability of TOFD technique to detect and size (through thickness dimension) surface and sub-surface defects a set of 3 calibration blocks according to. ASME Code Case 2235 table 1, has been prepared. Artificial reflectors in the form of notches was made by EDM (Electro Discharge Machining), some of them have been embedded by TIG welding. Block 1 is representative of embedded defects of 6, 10, 20 mm depth from the surface (see fig. 2)HANES eee eee eee eee eee BLOCK 2 ‘FACE “8 BLOCK 3 SUFACE “8 Fig 2 Representation of test blocks forthe experimental tests with artificial reflectors. The reflectors no. 3 and no. 4 have been embedded with different ligaments of 10 and 20 mim in order to prove the capability of TOFD to resolve the indication of defect from the lateral wave line. Block 2 is representative of sub-surface defects with a depth of 3 and 4 mm (see fig. 2). Block 3 is representative of surface defects (see fig. 2). Blocks have been examined according a scanning plan suitable for the examination of a weld having a thickness of 180 mm (see table 1 in figure 3). Weld thick. | Probe angle a |@ mm| [pz1]Dz2|Pcs 178 60° 178) 45° 25 128 [170 ‘Table 1: D-SCAN PLANAccuracy Capability of TOFD Technique in Ultrasonic Examinaios 0 nt re EDM notches Tig 3: Scanning plan forthe examination ofa 178 mm weld thickness Results are summarized on the table 2 in figure 4 Surface reflectors lock No. [No ee Ree Measurement paar anean Measurement welding | YTOFP | welding by TOFD T x 14.6 14 8.6 6 2 A 14.6 14 8.6 72 Bloek n. 1 [3 A 22 27 17.3 16.8 (internal) [1 B 14.6 13.7 86 | 88 2 B 146 13 86 88 4 B 272 27. 1 7 1 A 10.2 8 72 74 2 A 10.2 8 72 8.0 ena 3 A 128 12 8.6 9.5 ‘ 0 B 10.2 10 72. 72 surface) 2 B 10.2 9 72 72 3 B 12.8 12 $6 | 93 1 A 3.6 . N. A. N. A feo A 36 * ae oni Block n. 3 |_3 A 4.3 bd Pee eae (surface) [1 B 3.6 32 em er 2 B 3.6 3 ie tie eeae 5 7 a 3 oo aa iabie Trwiirresuls of detection capabiliy and through thiekness dimension sizing of surface and sub-surface reflectors ITC een Tor he aio of aia waves Bs atl To evane ERE, Figures from 5 to 10 shows some typical TOFD maps relative to blocks 1, 2, and 3.ee ee eee eee ee Fig 5: block no.1 Setting | Fig 6: blockno.1 Setting | Fig 7: block no.2 Setting datas: PCS=87mm f=5MHz] datas: PCS= 270mm datas: PCS= 87mm_ crystal 1/2", angle 60°, | f2MHz crystal 1", angle | | =3.5SMHz crystal 1/2", scanning surface A 45°, scanning surface B- | angle 60° scanning, surface A Fig 8: block no.2 Setting Fig 9: block no. gkrblockoa2 sexing | POSURE en | Mie eSé Tom peas FCS 2700 | Sten 2%, | eli cow al as) regartun surge B. [rele 60% scanning surface | 45°, scanning surface B : A Comments to experimental data: For surface defects Detection capability is satisfactory from both scanning surfaces (A and B). Sizing very accurate for dimensions above 5 mm, accurate below this dimension when scanning from opposite surface of reflector, qualitative when scanning from the surface of reflector. For sub-surface defects Detection capability is satisfactory from both scanning surfaces (A and B). Sizing very accurate from both scanning surfaces (A and B). 3 - Validation tests carried out on natural welding defects In addition to the experience on artificial reflectors, TOFD has been applied on natural defects for validation of the inspection procedure. In this aim test coupons with natural defects type lack of fusion was inspected. Figure no. 11 shows block no. 9 with thickness of 220 mm.PCPPEE PREP PRR eee eee ee ee ee eee eee eee eee SONGS Block with natural defects Fig 1 OO Welding has been performed with submerged arc, narrow gap tandem technique, then followed by stress relieve heat treatment. ‘Three types of nondestructive examination were used to inspect the weld: + Radiographic according to ASME Code sect. V art. 2, using 6 MeV linear accelerator type LINATRON. « Ultrasonic with traditional pulse-echo technique according to ASME Code sect. V art, 5, performed from both side and both surfaces. Calibration with 9 mm diameter side drilled hole. Probes frequency 2,25 MHz, dimension of crystal 20x22 mm, angles 45° and 60°. » TOFD technique using an instrument UT-TOFD PITAGORA 3, probes SIGMA diameter 1/2", angle 52°, frequency 3,5 MHz. according to Nuovo Pignone procedure (based on BS 7706 and ENV 583-6 pre standard code). Figure 12 is map of defects detected by the three examination techniques: RT, UT pulse echo, TOFD a 2 Oo Hoe ir bem One bas Flava cateced wih Ry] Flava detected vith TOF] «with radiography, ultrasonic PE and ultrasonic TOFD Table 3 in figure 13, summarizes results indicated in figure 12. Fig 12: Comparison among results of examinations made on block no. 9, Defeats | Length measured by | Length measured by UT pulse |” Length measured by RT echo TOFD A Not detected | 5mm (indication 10% DAC) 30mm B 40mm 35 mm (indication 15% DAC) 150 mm c 25 mm 25 mm (indication 25% DAC) 60mm Dd. 53mm 200 mm (indication 30% DAC), 200 mm. AxB+C+D| 118 mm 265 mm, 440 mm. Table 5; Detection capability among RT, UI Figure 14 and 15 shows maps of the TOFD results. Tpulse echo, TOFD. Estimated length of defectsfone IU WPT SEE nce BO ete ee eee EEE EE ee Pee ea Fig 15: Particular of defect D, in block 9 after cutting of end part Setting datas: PCS= 270 mm f=2MHz crystal 1", angle 45° big 14: BLOCK N° 9.Setting datas: PCS 270 mm f=2MHz crystal 1", angle 45° Fig 16-17: Macrograp! appearance of weld section crossed by the defect D. right: enlarged defect D. Destructive testing was made on two interesting locations as indicated in figure 14. Figure 16 shows macrographic appearance of weld section crossed by the defect D ina position where RT doesn't show any indication of defect. Radiographic sensitivity measured by wire IQL is 0.5%. Figure 17 shows micrographic appearance on defect D as indicated in figure 16. Measured maximum dimension of indication is 0.7 mm consequently, related to the RT sensitivity, this dimension is less than the minimum detectable (0.5% x 220 = 1.1 mm). 4-Conclusions In consideration of results obtained the following statements can be made: = TOED has demonstrated high accuracy in measurement of the through thickness dimension of defects not comparable with any other NDT method. = TOFD has detected 100% of defects detected by RT = TOED has detected 100% of defects detected by UT pulse echo at DAC level of amplitude, To achieve TOFD detection capability using UT pulse echo the sensitivity has to be increased of an average value of 16 dB with respect to ASME calibration. The experimental research done is part of a program that Nuovo Pignone has set up in parallel to the continuos application of TOFD in the examination of pressure vessel welds up to 280 mm in thickness, during construction after hydraulic test or whichever requested, The aim of the program is to achieve a more wide knowledge on the real capability and limits of TOFD technique. From the experience gained so far in testing more than 30 reactors in 4 years (see figure 18), TOFD technique fully reply to the requirements of Code Case 2235 and appears to be a powerful tool to improve results of nondestructive examination of welds.Accuracy Capability of TOFD Technique in Ultrasonic Examination of Welds Pagina 6 c1S Fig 18: typical reactor fabricated at Nuovo Pignone MASSA plant Images obtained by TOFD guarantees that the examination is reliable and complete in terms of coverage of the zone to be inspected. They also illustrate the overall quality of welds in a compact and understandable form. This allows more reliable residual life calculation on components submitted to fatigue during service. Also calculations of fracture mechanies becomes more reliable. ‘A further improvement that TOFD has determined is a more confidence to Ultrasonic results in personnel not specialist in NDE techniques. ‘TOFD can be applied with reasonable investment during construction and in service, obtaining good compromise between profit and quality results.DEFINITIONS | | “Contents 0.0 Definitions | 1.0 Introduction ‘kground to NDE 3.0 TOED Technique | 40. Data Collection 5.0 Design of TOFD Inspection | 6.0 Eerors 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software | 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting | 11.0. Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Checks~ Contents 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Background to NDE 3.0 TOED Technique 4.0 Data Collection 5.0 Design of TOFD. Inspection 6.0 ‘Ecrors: 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting 11.0 Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Checks DEFINITIONs | PCS Probe Centre Separation Ss t half of the probe centre Separation time of flight signal from a reflector 2ty probe delay) t, time of flight of lateral wave time of flight of back-wall signal angle of beam centre with respect beam cone half angle timing error depth error error in velocity error in probe separation error in change in couplant thickness error in variation of surface height 3ca Contents 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 10.0 11.0 Definitions Introduction Background to NDE ‘TOED Technique Data Collection Design of TOFD. Inspection Exons Data Assessment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equioment Checks c A d D parallel non-parallel - DEFINITIONS | velocity of sound wavelength of sound depth of reflector below scanning surface thickness of sample being examined scan in which direction of beam is parallel to direction of scan scan in which direction of beam is normal to direction of scan: — : ‘| “ 7 : Scope Contents : Pe | 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Backoround to NDE 3.0 TOFD Technique 4.0 Data Collection 5.0 Design of TOFD Inspection 6.0 Errors 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting 11.0 Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Checks __ Chapter 1e | «Contents Definitions ntroduct ackground to NDE TOED Technique ata Colection — Design of TOFD inspection Exrors Data Assessment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equipment Checks Chapter 1 Scope | Levell Set up & Calibrate Equipment Perform Supervision interpret & Evaluate results Define limitations Write procedures Supervise & Train Level I Organise and report Level IT Set up TOFD Equipment Collect TOFD DATA Record and Classify Results report the results Introductionee eg rs = Backgrounu | Contents 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction 2.0 ‘Background to NDE 3.0 ‘TOED Technique 4.0 Data Collection 5.0 Design of TOFD Inspection 6.0 Errors 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 — Reporting 110 Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Checks Chapter 2 ACKGROUND TO NDE g- Background to NDEwe Contents 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 Definitions Introduction Backoround to NDE TOED Technique | Data Collection Inspection Errors Data Assessment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equipment Checks ~~ Surface opening Flaws py] Chapter 2 magnetic particle dye penetrant eddy current magnetic techniques ultrasonics Background to NDE“contents ~__And Embedded Flaws vy 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction fe ae eee radiography 3.0 TOFD Technique 4,0 Data Collection 5.0 Design of TOFD. Inspection It : 60 no ultrasonics 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting 11.0 Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Checks Chapter 2 | Background to NDE0.9 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 Introduction Background to NDE TED Technique _ Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equipment Checks Chapter 2 os Ultrasonic Inspection | If an electric potential is applied to a piezoelectric type material it oscillates and if it is of the right thickness will produce waves of ultrasound of the frequencies most useful for inspecting metal components. This material is the basis of ultrasonic probes, which produce longitudinal waves, generally called compression waves Background to NDE: Contents 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 Definitions Introduction Backoround to NDE ‘TOFD Technique Data Collection Design of TOFD Inspection Errors Data Assessme! Analysis Software Complex Geometry Procedure Writing Equipment Checks Chapter 2 | Ultrasonic Inspectiun | If an electric potential is applied to a piezoelectric type material it oscillates and if it is of the right thickness will produce waves of ultrasound of the frequencies most useful for inspecting metal components. This material is the basis of ultrasonic probes, which produce longitudinal waves, generally called compression waves. Background to NDE____ Chapter 2 | Contents 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 Definitions Introduction Background to NDE ‘TOED Techniave Data Collection Design of TOFD. Inspection Errors Data Ass ment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equipment Checks Ultrasonic Inspectiun | If the longitudinal waves enter metal at an angle then they refract in the metal and produce both longitudinal and shear waves, the angles of the two types of waves depending on the velocity of shear and longitudinal waves in the metal and the velocity of the longitudinal waves in the probe shoe material. For normal ultrasonic inspection of metals ultrasonic frequencies of between 2 and 5MHz are used. The corresponding wavelength of the waves are found from the formula, velocity (c) = wavelength (1) x frequency () 12 Background to NDE“Contents | 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Background to NDE 3.0 ‘TOFD Technique 4.0 Data Collection 5.0 Design of TOFD. Inspection __ Chapter 2 | An ultrasonic inspection is carried out by scanning the metal with a beam of ultrasound. Any reflectors in the metal are detected if the sound is reflected back from the discontinuity and returns to the crystal element of the probe. In order to reflect the waves back the beam must ideally be at right angles to the reflector surface. This is the so-called "specular" reflection. If the surface is tilted with respect to the direction of the beam of ultrasound then the reflected waves may miss the probe crystal altogether and the discontinuity will remain undetected Background to NDE0.9 1.0 10.0 11.0 * 12.0 Chapter 2 | Contents Definitions Introduction Background to NDE TOED Technique Data Collectioy Design of TOFD. Inspection rulse-Echo detection of flaws | For normal pulse-echo inspections with angled shear waves it is important to scan the metal with a range of probe angles chosen to give the best chance of detecting the expected orientations of the cracks of main interest. In general a practical compromise has to be made. Vertical cracks are difficult to detect because of the difficulty of getting an ultrasonic beam at right angles to the crack surface Background to NDEL_ Contents 0.0 Definitions Introduction Backoround to NDE TOED Technique Data Collection Design of TOFD. Inspection Errors Data Assessment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equipment Checks _ Chapter 2 | Flaw sizing wich the Pulse-Echo Technique | The method of flaw sizing used in pulse echo techniques depends upon the size of the flaw with respect to the beam spread of the probe The basic assumption in determining the size of the flaws that are smaller than the beam spread is that the amplitude of the reflected signal wili be proportional to the area of the flaw in the beam of ultrasound. Background to NDE“Contents a Flaw sizing with the Pulse-Echo Technique | ] 0.0 Definitions | 1.0 Introduction . | 2.0 Background to NDE Probe 3.0 TOFD Technique 4.0 Data Collection | 5.0 Design of TOFD. Inspection | 60 Flaw | 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software & | ae 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting 11.0 Procedure Writing | 12.0 Equipment Chec beam spread __ Chapter 2 Background to NDE“Contents 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Background to NDE 3.0 TTOED Technique 4.0 Data Collection Design of TOFD Inspection 6.0 Errors 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting 11.0 Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Checks a Chapter 2 | Background to NDE For flaw sizes larger than the beam spread increasing the size of flaw will have no effect on the amplitude of the signal since the area outside the beam will not contribute to the reflected signal. The flaw size has to be obtained therefore by scanning the probe over the flaw and noting the position where a certain change in amplitude takes place. The through wall height of the flaw (the critical measurement), h, is then h = xcos(6)sin(8). ee ing wich the Pulse-Echo Technique |3.1 Background to TOro | 4.0 Data Collection 5.0 Design of TOFD. Inspection | | eee | 6.0 Errors: | 7.0 Data Assessment | | 8.0 Analysis Software | 9.0 Complex Geometry } 10.0 Reporting 11.0 Procedure writing | | 12.0 Equinment Checks | | L Chapter 3 | TOFD Technique“contents 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction | 2.0 Background 10 NOE | ~ 3.0 TOFD Technique | 4.0 Data Collection i 5.0 Design of TOFD. Inspection 6.0 Errors: 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software | 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting | 120. Procedure Waiting 12.0 Equioment Checks Chapter 2 Flaw sizing with the Puise-Echo Technique | A) Scanning across the flaw successive probe points po aro 8) Plot of maximum observed amplitude as a function of position Amplitude A f peak height 68 t half peak height probe movement (x) Position of Probe Background to ae| 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting 11.0 Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Checks __ Chapter 3 | ae 34 Eackaround to TORO | _The Time of Flight Diffraction Technique (TOFD) was developed by the UK AEA’s Harwell Laboratory in the mid seventies as a method of accurately sizing and monitoring the through wall height of in service flaws in the nuclear industry. In order to measure the growth rate of cracks, accurate through wall sizing is required. The inadequacy of conventional pulse-echo techniques is illustrated the next figure. The two plots show the predicted lifetime curve for a particular defect and it is predicted to reach the critical size after about 1.5 years. TOFD Technique .0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 “10.0 11.0 12.0 “Contents Definitions Introduction Background to. NDE ‘TOED Technique Data Collection Design of TOFD. Inspection Errors Data Assessment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equipment Checks |___Chapter 3 SS ~ 3.4. Background to Tory | The top illustration will show the results of pulse- echo measurements of the crack height at the yearly plant shutdowns. Because of the large error on the measurements indicated by the error bar the measurements can not influence the conservative predicted lifetime. The bottom plot illustrates the results of measurements with TOFD. Since the errors are now much smaller it is apparent that the actual growth is less than the predicted growth and the actual plant lifetime can be extended. 21 TOFD Technique\ : ‘i 3.1 Background to Toro | Contents l 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction t Citicot Sze 2.0 Background to NDE predicled Hetime ‘TOED Technique | Hetght | orev 30 ' 3" | Save : 4.0 Data Collection aa x : : PULSE-ECHO 5.0 Design of TOED_ t MEASUREMENTS Inspection 6.0 Errors x 7.0 Data Assessment time (years) ; : 7 ae 8.0 Analysis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting Critical Size. predicied 11.0 Procedure Writing ee Height | growth 12.0 Equipment Checks cote | x it roe ‘ x a Xx TOFD, af | MEASUREMENTS time (years) 1 2 3 ———- 22 Chapter 3 | TOFD Technique| Contents [ia | 0.0 Definitions | 1.0 Introduction | 20 Background to. NDE | 30 OED Technique | 4.0 Data Collection 5.0 Design of TOFD. Inspection | 6.0 Errors | 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software | 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting | 11.0 Procedure Writing | 12.0 Equipment Checks | Chapter 3 For weld inspection, it was quickly recognised that the method was equally effective for the detection of flaws, irrespective of type or orientation as TOFD does not rely on the reflectivity of the flaw but uses the diffracted sound initiating from the flaw tips. Because the digital systems available up to 1982 were relatively large it was difficult to carry out inspections in the field. Thus the National NDT Centre developed a more portable system for collecting and analysing the data. 23 TOFD TechniqueEquipment Checks __ Chapter 3 | 43,2. History of TOrd | _ The system was known as ZIPSCAN and was licensed by Sonomatic in 1983 and sold throughout the world. Sonomatic is now part of AEA Technology. Nowadays there are a number of commercial digital ultrasonic systems available for carrying out TOFD inspections. As TOFD became more accepted and used during the later half of the 1980's, especially by the oil and gas industry, both offshore and onshore, its economic advantages for detection as well as sizing became apparent, and these days TOFD is used in many applications for both detection and sizing. TOFD Technique a3.0 TOED Technique ‘llection | 9.0 Complex Geometry | 10.0 Reporting | 11.0 Procedure Writing | 12.0 Equipment Checks Z _ Chapter 3 3.2 History of TOre | Very often one scan with a pair of TOFD probes alone a weld will reveal all the defects in the weld volume. The ability to collect an image of the inspection data (B or D-scans) also affords advantages in difficult geometrical situations or for weld roots since it is often easier to recognise new patterns in an image than to characterise signals in a signal A-scan. A good example of this is major use of TOFD in the offshore oil industry for detecting weld root erosion. 25 TOFD Technique“Contents | Et 3.3 Principles of TOFD | 0.0 Definitions oe eae The basic principles of TOFD are simple; 2.0 Background to NDE 3.0 TorD Technique _ QA transmitting probe emits a short burst of 4.0 Data Collection sound into a material. 5.0 Design of TOFD. This energy spreads out and propagates in ae an angular beam. 6.0 Errors: Some of the energy is reflected from the flaw. Some of the energy is incident to the flaw and is diffracted away from the flaw. A fraction of this diffracted sound travels toward a receiving probe. The signals are time resolved using simple geometry calculations and are graphically displayed in a grey scale form. 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analvsis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting 11.0 Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Checks Be ee eee 26 Chapter 3, TOFD Technique| “Contents 0.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 Definitions Introduction Background to NDE ‘TOED Technique Data Collection Design of TOFD. Inspection Exrors _ Chapter 3 | TOFD Technique ee 33 “Principles of TOFD When an ultrasonic wave interacts with a long crack-like flaw it results in the production of diffracted waves from the crack tips, in addition to any ultrasonic waves reflected from the surface of the crack. The diffracted waves are much weaker than specularly reflected waves used for conventional ultrasonic inspection, but they radiate from the tips in all directions along the same plane as the incident ultrasonic waves 27QS Cont ents Definitions Introduction Background to NDE OED Technique Data Collection Design of TOFD. Inspection Errors: Data Assessment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equipment Checks _ Chapter 3 | TOFD Technique ~~ 3,3 Principles of TOro | a ——_ Diffracted i> Incident Waves Beam — Fla zp] : WwW \o Ww Reflected Waves 280.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 “Contents Definitions Introduction Background to NDE ‘TOFD Technique ata Collection Design of TOFD. Inspection Data Assessment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Chapter 3 | "3.3 Principles of TOFD | Tlustration of Diffraction Incident plane wave wave \\ G Reflecting G Surface G Gr Each point on the, surface acts as a source of waves —— _. 29 TOFD Technique|e Contents 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction | Pee Background to NDE | 30 TogD Technique 40 Data-Collaction ” 5.0 Design of TOFD. | Inspection | 6.0 ‘Errors 7.0 Data Assessment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equipment Checks 3 Principles of TOrd piffraction - to make it simpler If a stone is thrown into this pond, it will be seen that when the ripples reach the log, diffracted waves will be produced at each end of the log 30 Chapter 3 | TOFD TechniqueJX | Contents | 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Background to NDE TOFD Technique Data Collection Design of TOD. Inspection 6.0 Ewors 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry 10.0 Reporting 11.0 Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Checks Chapter 3 3.3 Principles of Tor | Cross-section of TOFD Probe cable connector couplan! : squeezed ce belween __| probe probe and shoe shoe (perspex shoe or similar} holder angle chosen to give desired beam angel in melal i 31 TOFD TechniqueContents 0.0 Definitions 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Background to NDE 3.0 TOFD Technique 4.0 Data Collection i 5.0 Design of TOFD. Inspection 6.0 Errors 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Checks > i 3.3 Principles of TOFD | Wave paths for the TOFD Arrangement es | <— 28 Transmitter Receiver \\ Lateral wave Diffracted waves Shear waves Reflection from BW v Lateral Wave - Generally a weak signal running between the two probes along the shortest distance Back-wall Signal - A much larger signal reflected from the rear surface Defect Signals - If a defect is present beneath the probes diffraction signals will occur from the upper and lower extremities Shear Wave Component - After the compression wave back-wall signal a shear wave reflected signal occurs. It takes longer to reach the receiving probe 32 Chapter 3 | TOFD TechniqueEs a t ‘ 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 40 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 | 120 | ‘contents Definitions Introduction Background to NDE TOFD Technique Data Collection Design of TOFD. Inspection Errors Data Assessment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equipment Checks __ Chapter 3 | ~ / 3.3 Principles of TOrw | Energy fills the material Rx Lateral wave ‘Signal returned from back-wall Energy is transmitted into the Material in short bursts Shortest time path - Lateral wave The energy also spreads out into an angular beam 33 TOFD Technique“Contents 5.0 Design of TOFD. 6.0 Eros 7.0 Data Assessment 8.0 Analysis Software 9.0 Complex Geometry 11.0 Procedure Writing 12.0 Equipment Chec E Chapter 3 3.3 “Principles of Torw | A-Scan with no defect present Transmitter Lateral wave Reflection from BW afl Lateral Back-wall wave echo : 34 TOFD Technique2.0 3.0 4.0 Background to NDE ‘TOED Technique Pata Collection Design of TOED. Inspection Errors Data Assessment Analysis Software Complex Geometry Reporting Procedure Writing Equipment Checks Chapter 3 3.3 Principles of TOre | A-Scan with defect present Transmitter Receiver Diffracted signals Reflection from BW Lateral waves, \ Back-wall ve \ echo Tip diffraction Tip diffraction from top of from bottom crack of crack : 35 TOFD Technique