FOCUS

Paraesthesia and peripheral

neuropathy
Roy Beran

P
Background eripheral neuropathy is such a broad subject that it is
impossible to do it justice in a brief overview such as
Paraesthesia reflects an abnormality affecting the sensory this. The topic, for the preparation of this review, was to
pathways anywhere between the peripheral sensory nervous explore ‘paraesthesia and peripheral neuropathy’ with a focus
system and the sensory cortex. As with all neurology, the on the needs of the general practitioner 9GP). It follows that this
fundamental diagnostic tool is a concise history, devoid of
paper will, of necessity, be somewhat superficial, the goal being
potentially ambiguous jargon, which properly reflects the
to assist GPs in their approach to patients with pareasthesia.
true nature of what the patient is experiencing, provocateurs,
Some of the investigations and management will be touched on
precipitating and relieving factors, concomitant illnesses, such
but further consideration is reserved for the consultant. To offer
as diabetes, and any treatments that could evoke neuropathies.
maximal value and focus, the style adopted will be pragmatic,
Objective trying to offer some pearls, rather than offer a comprehensive
treatise as is available in any standard text.
Some localised neuropathies, such as carpal tunnel syndrome
(CTS) or ulnar neuropathy, produce classical features, such as History
weakness of the ‘LOAF’ (lateral two lumbricals, opponens As is the case with all neurology, the most important diagnostic
pollicis, abductor pollicis brevis and flexor pollicis brevis) tool is a detailed comprehensive history that reflects what
median innervated muscles, thereby obviating need for further the patient is trying to convey. Patients will often volunteer
neurophysiology. Nerve conduction studies may be necessary vague terms, such as ‘numb’, and need help to tease out what
to diagnose peripheral neuropathy, but they may also be normal
they are describing. The term ‘numb’ may mean abnormal
with small fibre neuropathy. Even with a diagnosis of peripheral
sensation, including loss of feeling, tingling, pins and needles,
neuropathy, definition of the underlying cause may remain
electric shock-like sensations, a feeling of heaviness or loss
elusive in a significant proportion of cases, despite involvement
of function, a loss of dexterity, or a host of other possibilities,
of consultants.
depending on the individual patient. Patients do not present
Discussion with the complaint of ‘paraesthesia’ but will often complain
of ‘numbness’ and it is imperative to determine if this means
Treatment is based on the relevant diagnosis and mechanism paraesthesia, before embarking on a diagnostic paradigm.1
to address the cause. This includes better glycaemic control Paraesthesia is a technical term used to reflect a perception
for diabetes, night splint for CTS or elbow padding for ulnar of abnormal sensation, including feelings of pins and needles,
neuropathy, modifying lifestyle with reduced alcohol consumption tingling, pricking or a feeling as if ants are crawling over/under
or replacing dietary deficiencies or changing medications where the skin and patients should be encouraged to fully describe
appropriate and practical. Should such intervention fail to relieve
what they are feeling. Patients should be encouraged to use
symptoms, consideration of intervention to relieve symptoms of
their own language, rather than trying to inject jargon, which
neuropathic pain may be required.
may be ambiguous and fail to really convey what the patient is
trying to describe. Paresthesia suggests abnormality affecting
Keywords
the sensory nervous system and may arise anywhere from the
peripheral nervous system diseases peripheral nerve to the sensory cortex. It is one of the terms

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attached to peripheral neuropathy for which there is a lexicon including levodopa.3 This may necessitate special consideration,
(Table 1). Patients should describe what they are feeling and especially in vegans.
the distribution of the abnormal sensation, what provokes it, Other dietary deficiencies may be associated with peripheral
when it started, what, if anything, they can do to relieve it and neuropathy. For example, toxic levels of homocysteine are
any associated features.1 associated with vitamin B6 and B12 deficiencies.2 Medications
When taking a history from the patient, it is important such as metformin cause B12 deficiency 5 as do other
to explore other features, such as concomitant illnesses, medications, such as phenytoin, which reduces folate needed
medications and/or drugs used, other treatments provided, for B12.6 There has been a push to offer dietary supplements,
past medical history and family history, system review and including vitamins B6, B12, D and E, and magnesium to address
exposure to chemicals. Perhaps the most common diagnosis problems with peripheral neuropathy.2,7 Patients who are
associated with peripheral neuropathy is diabetes2 and alcohol-dependent often have a variety of causes for peripheral
paraesthesia is often accepted as the hallmark symptom neuropathy, which include both direct toxic effects of excess
for neuropathic pain.1 It is important to differentiate the alcohol as well as poor diet, particularly deficient in thiamine
discomfort of paraesthesia from other sources of pain, such as (vitamin B1).8 It follows that the history obtained should include
musculoskeletal pain, as may occur with osteoarthritis. the usual causes of nerve damage being explored but doctors
often ignore taking an adequate dietary history and nutritional
Focus on aetiology neuropathies may be overlooked.9
Clinicians will often overlook the potential for iatrogenically
induced peripheral neuropathy, as may occur with Diagnosis
frequently used medications, including amiodarone, If a detailed history is taken, the diagnosis of peripheral
statins, antiretrovirals, tacrolimus or even agents not often neuropathy should be straightforward. The suspicion should
considereed to be associated with peripheral neuropathy, such have been established and features such as a ‘glove and
as levodopa, which is commonly used to treat Parkinson’s stocking’ abnormal sensation should be a giveaway to suggest
disease.3 It is widely accepted that various chemotherapies peripheral neuropathy.
for malignancy can cause peripheral neuropathy, including What has not been addressed, thus far, are some of the very
taxanes, platinum compounds, vinca alkaloids, proteasome localised peripheral neuropathies that may present with very
inhibitors and antiangiogenic/immunomodulatory agents.4 localised paraesthesia. These include carpal tunnel syndrome10
Deficiencies of vitamins, such as B6 or B12, may evoke or ulnar neuropathy,11 which relate to direct pressure or vascular
peripheral neuropathies and may be associated with therapies, supply to the nerve.11

Table 1. Glossary of pain terms

Term Meaning

Allodynia Pain perceived following non-noxious, innocuous stimulus (eg light touch causes burning pain)

Antalgia (antalgic) Pain perception (noun), pain provoked action (adjective) (eg antalgic gait – altered gait due to the influence of pain)

Dysaesthesia An altered perception of sensation with abnormal (often unpleasant) feeling associated with stimulation, such as
touching over the affected area causes ‘strange feeling’

Hypaesthesia/hypoaesthesia Reduced perception of stimulus (both words are interchangeable)

Decreased sensation

Hyperalgesia Increased perception of pain

Hyperaesthesia Increased perception of stimulus (need not be pain)

Hyperpathia Decreased sensation to one or more modalities while concurrently having increased perception of pain (hyperalgia)
or pain with innocuous stimulation (allodynia)

Hypoalgia Reduced perception of pain

Paraesthesia Abnormal sensations, such as ‘pins and needles’, tingling, prickling, reduced or even loss of sensation. It implies
abnormality anywhere along the sensory pathway from peripheral nerve to sensory cortex – the epitome of
‘neuropathic pain’

Reproduced with permission from Beran R. Neurology for General Practitioners. Sydney: Elsevier Australia, 2012

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Focal neuropathies the regimen. It must be acknowledged that nerve conduction

A proper history and examination may be all that is required studies may not be abnormal in small fibre neuropathy yet the
to diagnose carpal tunnel neuropathy or ulnar neuropathy. patient may still present with neuropathic symptoms. A perfect
The median nerve supplies only four muscles in the hand, example of this is the painful diabetic neuropathy, which
represented by the mnemonic ‘LOAF’: lateral two lumbricals; requires insulin and improved glycaemic control.
opponens pollicis, abductor pollicis brevis and flexor pollicis For more complex cases of peripheral neuropathy, there may
brevis.1 Patients will complain of paraesthesia in the hand but be a need for more detailed investigation including evoked
the history may be very vague, although it usually includes studies, imaging (possibly with magnetic resonance imaging
being woken from sleep because of the dysaesthesia.1 or ultrasonography) and nerve biopsy. In these cases it seems
Weakness, restricted to these four muscles of the hands, is appropriate to involve a consultant neurologist, which implies
pathognomonic of median nerve impairment, as is found with further consideration that is beyond the scope of this paper.
carpal tunnel syndrome. Similarly, sparing of the LOAF muscles Even with the involvement of consultant colleagues and
of the hand through involvement of the abductor digiti minimi comprehensive evaluation, the underlying mechanism of a
and medial two lumbricals is indicative of ulnar neuropathy, significant proportion of neuropathies remains indeterminate.
usually traumatised by turning over in bed and focusing the full
body weight on the elbow, where the ulnar nerve traverses the Treatment
medial humeral epicondyle.1 Treatment is determined by the relevant diagnosis. By far
If the above has been found then the diagnosis has been the most common cause of peripheral neuropathy, heralded
made, thereby negating a need for nerve conduction studies by paraesthesia, is diabetes mellitus. Once diagnosed and
unless the patient fails to respond to conservative intervention confirmed, patients should be more closely monitored,
with either a night splint for carpal tunnel or padding of the encouraged to be more compliant with the prescribed
medial epicondyle of the elbow for ulnar neuropathy.1 In treatment and, in many cases, insulin should be added to the
addition to diagnosing these focal neuropathies and instituting treatment regimen,1 together with nutritional approaches.2
local conservative intervention, it is imperative to exclude Nutritional neuropathies are addressed by correcting the
contributory diagnoses, such as vitamin deficiencies, thyroid nutritional deficiencies that have been identified.7–9 Those
disease, vasculitities, diabetes and various medications, such neuropathies caused by exposure to medications are
as those already described, together with other agents, such addressed by reconsidering treatment options, when possible,
as amiodarone, nitrofurantoin or statins.1 It follows that other and close monitoring of the consequences complemented by
investigations are warranted, particularly blood tests to look for conservative supportive symptomatic relief.
these associated diagnoses. Carpal tunnel syndrome may be provoked by direct trauma
Proper physical examination should have defined the to the median nerve, as may occur with exposure to vibrating
distribution of the dysaesthesia reflective of the paraesthesia, machinery or direct impact from repeated use of tools, such
which was the presenting symptom. Impairment of deep as a screwdriver pushing into the palm of the hand, but
tendon reflexes, especially at the periphery (such as ankle by far the most common cause is sleeping with the wrist
jerks) provides additional confirmatory evidence of a possible hyperflexed, thereby impeding vascular supply to the median
sensory–motor neuropathy. When testing sensation, nerve. Treatment with a night splint, specifically prepared
movement from impaired sensation to retained sensation is for the individual patient (not a generic splint) designed to
favoured, thus moving from the periphery, passing distal-to- be in the ‘natural’ position (mildly dorsiflexed rather than the
proximal (foot, ankle, calf to knee), is preferable as it is easier flat, ‘neutral’ position) is usually all that is needed. Padding
for a patient to appreciate increased perception, especially of the elbow to protect the ulnar nerve as it passes over the
pin prick and light touch, than is the reverse. This will help humeral epicondyle when turning over in bed at night is often
demarcate the ‘glove and stocking’ impaired sensation that sufficient to relieve ulnar neuropraxia. The response to therapy
accompanies peripheral neuropathy. is predicated by the severity of the problem at the time of
presentation and hence early detection and intervention are
Investigations invaluable.
Neurophysiology, using nerve conduction studies and Addressing the underlying cause of the peripheral
electromyography, may be required, especially for the neuropathy, which presents with paraesthesia, is the
patient who proves to be a very poor historian or in whom initial approach to intervention. There may be a need to
confirmation of a diagnosis may dictate altered therapy. This consider lifestyle issues and the involvement of other health
may be the case in a poorly compliant patient whose diabetes practitioners, such as occupational therapists, physiotherapists
is uncontrolled and in whom such confirmation may encourage or podiatrists, and review of fundamental factors such as diet,
better compliance, as well as the possible addition of insulin to alcohol consumption and medications. Should the paraesthesia

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persist, even after treating the cause of neuropathy, the

question of neuropathic pain assumes greater significance.
Treatment of neuropathic pain is beyond the scope of this
paper, which has focused specifically on paraesthesia and
peripheral neuropathy. There is a host of agents available to
treat neuropathic pain, including antidepressants (tricyclic
antidepressants and serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake
inhibitors), antiepileptic medications (such as carbamazepine
or pregabalin), antispasmodics (such as baclofen) and a variety
of other treatments (including topical analgesics).

Conclusion
As with all neurological conditions, the most important
diagnostic tool is a good history, complemented by physical
examination – usually to confirm the diagnosis, already
considered, based on the history obtained. Paraesthesia is the
usual presentation for a sensory neuropathy, which may affect
the sensory pathway from peripheral nerve to sensory cortex.
Having made the diagnosis, many of the conditions, but
particularly carpal tunnel syndrome and ulnar neuropathy, can
be effectively managed by the GP without requiring consultant
involvement. Addressing the underlying problem is often all
that is required but, in complex cases, referral to a specialist
may be necessary.

Author
Roy Beran MBBS, MD, FRCP, FRACGP, FACLM, B LegS, Consultant
Neurologist, Conjoint Associate Professor of Medicine, Department of
Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW; Professor, School
of Medicine, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD. [email protected]
Competing interests: None.
Provenance and peer review: Commissioned, externally peer reviewed.

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