Department of Civil Engineering M.

Tech Seminar
Report 2021

1. INTRODUCTION

PCC is the most material utilized in construction widely. The average PCC consumption
is approximately 1 ton per year per living person. Portland cement (PC) is one of the
basic constituents for concrete which represent about 10–12% from the concrete volume.
Recently, increasing demand for PC led to an increase in its production, where the global
production of PC is >3 billion tons. It is projected that this demand will increase to 6
billion tons per year in the upcoming forty years. China ranks first among these countries
with over 50% of global PC production and India ranks second with 6.5% of global
production. Concrete manufacturing has a great effect on the environment due to
greenhouse gas emissions which have a main impact on global warming. Cement, water,
fine aggregates, and coarse aggregates are the basic components of concrete.
Nevertheless, the PC is considered the main contributor of gas emissions in the concrete
production, where the PC is responsible for about 74% to 81% of CO 2 amount emitted
from typical concrete mixes. The CO2 emissions associated with the different activities
during the concrete production and placement process were investigated.

The replacement of cement with alternative industrial by-products characterized with

high percentages of alumina and silica (aluminusilicates) activated with alkalis has been
researched for decades, but is gaining popularity at the present time due to increased
interest in reducing environmental footprint of cement production. Aluminusilicates, the
most commonly used source materials as alternatives to ordinary Portland cement (OPC),
contain relatively large amounts of silicon oxide (SiO2) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3).
Despite certain shortcomings in comparison to OPC concrete, such as high carbonation
and shrinkage, AAS concrete offers many opportunities to the construction industry in
terms of durability and high early strength development. The high early strength
development in particular makes AAS a viable alternative to OPC for deep-water oil well
cementing.The emitted CO2 from the PC industry is considered a main environmental
issue, where about 3% of total global greenhouse gas emissions are produced from the PC
industry. It was recorded that the PC industry alone generates nearly 7% of total global
emitted CO2. Producing one ton of PC approximately generates from 0.7 to 1.0 ton of
CO2 into the atmosphere.

Through a few decades ago, many research studies carried out on AAC as an alternative
for PCC and have gained popularity as a construction material. AAC can be

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manufactured without PC, so it can be considered green concrete. AAC has been
confirmed to have good mechanical characteristics in addition to reducing CO 2 emissions.
Moreover, AAC emits CO2 emissions lower than PCC. AAC is not only reducing CO2
emissions but also consumes large amounts of industrial waste like slag and fly ash. In
addition to the environmental problems caused by the PC industry and the large amounts
of energy consumed in the PC production process, there are many durability problems
faced by PCC such as sulphate attack, alkali-aggregate reaction and low fire resistance.
Hence, the development of eco-friendly construction material as an alternative for PCC
has become one of the main objectives of the scientific community. AAC consists of one
or more of alumino-silicate sources (e.g., ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS),
fly ash (FA) or silica fume (SF)), one or more of alkali activators (e.g., silicates,
hydroxides or carbonates), water, fine and coarse aggregates.

2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF AAC

Since 1983, slag has been used in OPC concrete to improve its strength and durability
properties. However, it was also used as binder for AAM as early as 1957 in USSR by
Kiev Institute of Civil Engineering, Ukraine. And there has been over a 100 patents and
certificates of invention issued in the field of AAS, with the first patent documented to be
in 1908. Now, several investigations are performed in the field of AAS. In the United
States of America, researchers have made attempts since 1987 to produce alkali activated
slag cement, comprising of dry mix of slag and alkali activator. Despite the discovery of
alkali activated slag (AAS) for almost a century, its general acceptance in the
construction industry is still obscured as a result of its several limitations. These
limitations are observed in both the fresh and hardened properties of the alkali activated
slag. Common fresh properties challenges are its low flowability and rapid setting, which
makes the mixing and placing of the AAS impossible in hot weather condition and
congested reinforced sections. Also, high drying shrinkage of the AAS compared to other
alkali activated material also plays a big role in the non-acceptance of AAS in the
construction industry.

3. THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AAC

The greatest advantage of AAC compared to PCC is the significant improvement in the
environmental impact. This is mainly based on the CO 2 emissions from clinker

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calcination process and the high consumed energy of PCC. AAC is considered as an
efficient concrete technology for decreasing emissions of CO2 and recycling of by-
products such as GGBFS and FA without using a calcination. Based on a life cycle
assessment (LCA), it was reported that the global warming potential of FA-based AAC is
about 70% lower than that of OPC. Another LCA examination for carbon impacts and
cost of PCC and AAC was performed in an Australian context. A big variation was
reported in the calculated environmental and financial cost for the AAC that may be
harmful or beneficial depending on source location, energy source, concrete mix
proportions and transport method. Based on typical Australian feedstock, some AAC
mixes recorded a reduction of 44–64% in CO2 emissions while the cost was 7% lower to
39% higher compared to PCC. Similar conclusions were drawn from a study based on a
binder-to-binder and concrete-to-concrete comparison. Similarly, it was concluded that
the AAC reduced the CO2 by 80% based on the binder-to-binder comparison, while the
comparison based on concrete-to-concrete demonstrated a savings just over 60%.

4. SLAG AS A BINDER FOR AAM

Slag is waste products of the production of different types of metals. The main
components of slag are alumina, silicates, calcium and magnesium. Most of the slag used
in concrete and as binder as AAM are produced from the steel and iron industry, and
these types of slag are called blast-furnace slag. These types of slag are formed by quick
cooling of molten slag by immersion in water. The quick cooling of the molten slag
changes the molten slag into small sized particles of less than 4 mm. The small size
particles formed are mostly non-crystalline material, as a result of minimum
crystallization that occurs during quick cooling. This occurs because, due to the high
composition of alumina and silica in slag, it exhibits binding and pozzolanic properties in
the presence of an alkali medium. However, it should be noted that the composition of
slag varies depending on the raw materials used by the metallurgical industry to produce
metals. These differences in raw materials lead to differences in how different slag
responds to the alkali activation.

4.1. ACTIVATORS USED TO ACTIVATE AAS

Activators used in alkali activated materials are capable of liberating the aluminate and
silicate monomers in the aluminosilicate material, which further dissolves and form an

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aluminosilicate gel. Some common examples of alkali activators are sodium hydroxide
(NaOH),potassium hydroxide (KOH), potassium silicate (K 2SiO3) and sodium silicate
(Na2SiO3). Theoretically, the higher the level of alkalinity, the higher the amount of
dissolution. However, in case of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide, it has been
shown that sodium hydroxide can liberate more silicate and aluminate monomers than
potassium hydroxide. The reason is that, there are sodiumcations which are smaller than
that of the potassiumcations, and this enables them to move easily in the paste matrix
thereby resulting in more zeolitozation. Sodium silicate has been reported to provide
more activation influence (higher strength) when compared to sodium hydroxide and
sodium carbonate. Other activators that have been tried for slag activation are: quick lime
(CaO), sodium sulphate (Na2SiO3), calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2), magnesium oxide
(MgO), barium hydroxide (Ba (OH), and strotium hydroxide (Sr (OH) 2).Activators can be
used individually or combined with one or more activator. Combined activators have
been found to be more beneficial than being used individually, especially, when
improvement of mechanical properties of the alkali activated concrete is desired. The
most common examples being the combined use of sodiumsilicate and sodiumhydroxide.

A common type of activator used during the early years of AAS in Scandinavian
countries is called the F-activator. F-activator is comprised of sodium hydroxide, sodium
carbonate, sodium gluconate, tributyl phosphate, and lignosulphonate. However, all
attempts to use this F-activator in later years did not produce AAS with good strength.
However, the type of activator used affects the fresh and hardened properties of the
produced concrete.

4.2. ALKALI ACTIVATION OF SLAG

Despite the existence of AAS for a very long time, there has been no agreement yet on
the chemistry of alkali activation of the slag. The alkali activation of slag has been
referred to as “a complex process of structural disruption of slag and polycondensation of
hydrate products”. After a long again the activation of slag started with the breaking
down of the slag bonds, accompanied by the formation of silicate-alumina gel. And also
reported that there was production of hydration products. Alkali activation can also be
simplified as the breaking down of slag particles into inert components, followed by the
interaction between the components to form compact structures. However, there is
variation in the types of products formed based on the type of activators used. But most

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research findings have identified hydrotalcite (Ht) and C-S-H as the main hydration
products. A further investigation showed that Ht plays a major role in strength
development of the resulting AAS.

5. FRESH PROPERTIES OF ALKALI ACTIVATED SLAG

5.1. FLOW PROPERTIES

Workability is a function of the ease of placing and compacting concrete or mortar

without segregation. The main factor that affects the rheology of the alkali activated slag
is the type of activator used. Flow of AAS is also an indication of its workability. Several
other factors such as the concentration of the activator, amount of water present, type of
aluminosilicate materials, chemical admixtures, among others, affects how the alkali
activated slag flows. The effects of some of these factors are further explained as follows:

5.1.1. Effect of the Type and Concentration of Activators

Use of sodium silicate has also been attributed to high loss of fluidity of the AAS
compared to those activated with sodium hydroxide only. This loss of fluidity of the AAS
led to lower workability. Low flowability of AAS activated with sodium silicate has been
associated with the high fluidity loss, which results in poor workability. The slump of
AAS activated with sodium silicate are higher when compared to that of OPC and AAS
activated with sodium hydroxide. The reduction in the flow of AAS occurs when the
there is increase in the concentration of the activator. It may be due to quick formation of
reaction products, especially when there is high amount of alkali available in the system.

5.1.2. Effect of Water and Chemical Admixture

In analogous with OPC composites, the flow of AAS increases with increase in the
amount of water introduced into the system. Water reducing admixtures used for OPC
concrete shows similar results when used in AAS. Also, air entrainer has also been found
to increase the flow of AAS without any significant decrease in compressive strength.

5.2. SETTING TIME

With the presence of alkali medium and absence of C3S and C3A in AAS, it is expected
that it would have a different setting mechanism compared to OPC composites. However,

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the setting time of AAS depends mainly on the type and concentration of activators and
water to solid ratio.

5.2.1. Effect of Type and Concentration of Activator

The activation of slag with sodium silicate is well known to results in fast setting of the
AAS. As such, this rapid setting has been attributed to the formation of initial calcium
silicate hydrate. The effects of different activators on the setting time of AAS is presented
in Fig.5.1. As can be seen, out of all the activators considered, the proportions (4, 6, and
8%) of slag - sodium carbonate (Slag SC) exhibit setting times that are somewhat close to
the that of OPC. It is obvious from here that the rate of activation is enhanced by dosage
of slag SC. However, further check is required to evaluate the possible means of
energizing the slag - liquid sodium silicate (Slag LSS) and slag - sodium hydroxide (Slag
SH) mixtures. AAS activated with sodium carbonate exhibits longer setting time which
was as a result of the reaction being delayed as a result of the initial formation of sodium
calcium carbonate. AAS activated with sodium hydroxide set very quickly, however, it is
slower than those activated with sodium silicate. Similar studies also showed that AAS
activated with sodium hydroxide was more workable than those activated with sodium
silicate. The final setting time of AAS activated with sodium silicate was found to reduce
with increase in SiO2/Na2O ratio and increases with increase in sodium concentration.

Setting Time Of Slag Activated With Different Activators

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
OPC OPC LSS - OPC LSS - Slag LSS - Slag SH - Slag SH - Slag SH - Slag SC- Slag SC- Slag SC-
4% Na 6% Na 8% Na 4% Na 6% Na 8% Na 4% Na 6% Na 8% Na

Initial Setting time (min) Final setting time (min)

Fig. 5.1 Setting Time of Slag Activated with Different

Activators [5]

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OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement
OPC LSS 4% Na – Proportion of ordinary portland cement to liquid sodium silicate is 4%
OPC LSS 6% Na - Proportion of ordinary portland cement to liquid sodium silicate is 6%
SLAG LSS 8% Na - Proportion of slag to liquid sodium silicate is 8%
SLAG SH 4% Na - Proportion of slag to sodium hydroxide is 4%
SLAG SH 6% Na - Proportion of slag to sodium hydroxide is 6%
SLAG SH 8% Na - Proportion of slag to sodium hydroxide is 8%
SLAG SC 4% Na - Proportion of slag to sodium carbonate is 4%
SLAG SC 6% Na - Proportion of slag to sodium carbonate is 6%
SLAG SC 8% Na - Proportion of slag to sodium carbonate is 8%

5.2.2. Effect of Chemical Admixtures

Early studies have shown that the use of phosphate and borate within the range of 1–2%
by mass of the slag can be used to retard the setting time of AAS with medium strength.
However, these chemicals admixtures are not effective for high strength AAS, even at
higher dosages. The addition of slaked lime at 2–5% by mass of the slag to sodium
silicate to activate slag has been found to also retard the setting time of the resulting slag.
However, another study reported that slaked lime, compared to sodium silicate leads to
decrease in the early and latter ages of the AAS.

The use of a concentrated solution of ethanol sulphate such as sodium alkylsilicone was
reported to extend the setting time of high strength AAS to up to 30 min, without any
significant decrease in strength. However, the use of this solution is not consistent in all
situations. Also reported that the setting time of AAS can be extended for up to 3 h with
the use of naphthalene-based admixture. Therefore, more research on how to extend the
setting time of AAS would help to bridge this knowledge gap and extend the application
of AAS.

5.2.3. Effect of Mixing Time

The time used to mix AAS has also been found to affect the setting time of AAS. Mixing
of AAS for 3–10 min extended the initial and final setting time to approximately 40 min
and 4 h respectively, and the study also showed that mixing for 30 min also exhibited
retarded initial and final setting time. However, irrespective of the mixing times, as

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reported in those studies, factors such as temperature, relative humidity and other
environmental factors may contribute to the acceleration or retardation of the initial and
final setting times of AAS.

5.3. HEAT OF HYDRATION

The heat of hydration of AAS is generally lower than that of OPC, which has been
approximated to be about one-third of that of OPC. However, the heat of hydration of
AAS has been found to increase with increasing dosage and modulus of sodium silicate.
Despite the increasing heat of hydration observed by increasing dosage and modulus of
sodium silicate, lower heat of hydration of AAS to that of OPC was still observed. The
effects of different types of activators on the heat of hydration of AAS are shown in Fig.
5.2. As shown, the heat of hydration measured for AAS binder is lower than that of OPC,
low heat and high heat cements. This lower heat of hydration of AAS is as a result of the
hydration products formed which differs from that of OPC. The hydration products of
AAS have lower Ca/Si ratio, therefore low hydration energy is needed compared to that
of OPC. Fig. 5.3. shown the heat of hydration of sodium silicate activated slag concrete
and Fig. 5.4. shown the heat of hydration of sodium hydroxide activated slag concrete.

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
OPC HAV LHC AAS(SH) AAS(SC) AAS(SS)

Heat of Hydration

Fig. 5.2 Heat of Hydration of Different Binders [5]

OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement

HAV - High Alumina Cement

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LHC - Low Heat Cement
AAS(SH) - AAS (Sodium Hydroxide)
AAS(SC) - AAS (Sodium carbonate)
AAS(SS) - AAS (Sodium Silicate)

Fig. 5.3 Microstructure of Sodium Silicate-Activated Slag

Cement After: (A) 24 Hours, (B) 7 Days, And (C) 28 Days of
Hydration [4]

Fig. 5.4 Microstructure of Sodium Hydroxide-Activated Slag

Cement after: (A) 24 Hours, (B) 7 Days, and (C) 28 Days of
Hydration [4]

Slag activated with lime showed lower heat of hydration compared to those activated with
lime and gypsum. From the study, high heat of hydration of slag activated with lime and
gypsum was attributed to the formation of ettringite, and its evolution to
monosulfoaluminate. However, the heat of hydration of AAS was lower than that of
OPC.

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6. HARDENED PROPERTIES OF ALKALI ACTIVATED SLAG

6.1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Compared to OPC composites, where the strength is mostly controlled by the amount of
binder and water, AAS composites are much complicated as its strength is being
controlled by its composition and the interactions between them. The effect of different
factors that affect the compressive strength of the AAS are further discussed as follows. It
is necessary to note that, most of the other mechanical properties can also be related to the
compressive strength of the composite.

6.1.1. Effect of Type of Activator

It is found out in series of studies they carried out that activating slag with sodium silicate
gave the best compressive strength compared to sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide.
Similar results were also observed by different propels where the compressive strength of
AAS activated with sodium silicate was higher than even that of OPC mortar. It can
conclude that sodium silicate gave best compressive strength, followed by sodium
carbonate and sodium hydroxide. Slag activated with calcium hydroxide was found to
have strength 30% higher than those activated with magnesium oxide at 28 days for
activator level between 5%–10%. However, at activator levels above 10% and below
20%, the strength of slag activated with magnesium oxide showed higher strength about
four times that of slag activated with calcium hydroxide.

Sodium carbonate has been used to activate slag in the quest to achieve a more
sustainable AAS. Compared to conventional activators, sodium carbonate resulted in
lower early age. This low early age has been attributed to the low alkalinity of sodium
carbonate. The higher strength at later ages was as a result of the formation of carbonated
compounds, which led to an enhanced strength. This observation was also made in a
study and in which the strength of slag activated with sodium silicate increase from 0
MPa at 3 days to 60 MPa at 28 days.

Therefore, as mentioned earlier; trial experiments must be done to determine the best
activators to use as different types of slag behave differently during activation. However,
more consideration has to be done to carefully select the best activators, as they affect
other fresh and hardened properties of the concrete.

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6.1.2. Effect of Concentration of Activators

It is observed that increasing the concentration of the sodium increases the compressive
strength of the AAS and also observed increase in the strength of AAS when the activator
dosage was increased from 5% to 10%. Increase in the strength of the AAS could be
attributed to higher content of Na2O in the mixture, which also affect the alkali content of
the system. Therefore, it can be deduced that increasing the concentration of the activator
would increase the alkalinity of the pore solution thereby increasing the reaction and
dissolution rates. However, another factor to be considered maybe, increase in the
concentration of the alkali, as it has been reported that it can lead to formation of a more
densified interfacial transition zone which consequently improves the strength.

6.1.3. Effect of Mineral Admixtures

Mineral admixtures are used to either supplement or targeted towards improving the
mechanical characteristics of AAS. The use of mineral admixtures such as silica fume has
been found to improve the strength of AAS. Also, replacement of slag with silica fume in
the range of 10%–15% has been found to improve the 28 days compressive strength of
AAS by 13%, 24% and 27%, respectively. Similar results were also reported in related
studies. Therefore, more research efforts are required in the area of finding sustainable
admixtures for AAS production.

6.1.4. Effect of Curing Conditions

The curing process selected for a cementitious mix has major role on the strength and
durability performance of the material. The common curing methods include water
immersion, water sprinkling, polythene wrapping, and heat curing of composite.
However, one of the advantages of using slag as a binder for AAM is the ability to cure it
at room temperature compared to its counterpart such as fly ash that needs elevated
temperature for curing. It showed that elevated temperature curing of AAS led to rapid
strength development of the AAS. However, the strength at later ages was similar to those
cured at ambient temperature. But curing AAS at elevated temperature reduces the drying
shrinkage of the AAS significantly, compared to OPC concrete. It is observed that curing
AAS at elevated temperature could aid an increase in its early strength. However, this
was not the case at later ages, as elevated temperature was detrimental to the latter age
strength, compared to those cured at ambient conditions. Sealed curing was found to

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result in higher compressive strength compared to curing inside water. The lower strength
of AAS cured inside water has been attributed to the leaching of alkali ions into the water
which reduces the amount of activator available for activation.

7. DURABILITY OF ALKALI ACTIVATED SLAG

The resistance of AAS composite against aggressive environmental conditions is one

major factor to be checked prior to its full adoption. While there are research efforts
relating to the AAS durability, yet the process of improving this innovative material still
requires further checks. Studies have shown that the reaction product of alkali-activated
slag, among other factors, contributes to its durability property.

7.1. PERMEABILITY

Permeability of binder or concrete is one of the major factors that determines its
durability. During design, adequate measures are mostly taken to ensure that the concrete
is less permeable as much as possible. Several studies have shown that AAS has a lower
permeability compared to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete. However, some
other studies also found that AAS is more permeable compared to OPC. When AAS
composite is highly permeable, compared to OPC, it might be as a result of microcracks
developed following inadequate pre-drying of the matrix. Different admixtures or micro
filling nano materials may be dosed with the AAS mixture to possibly enhance its pore
structures. The study established that 0.45 alkaline solution or slag content ratio is the
optimum.

7.2. SULPHATE ATTACK

One of the common threats to concrete’s durability is sulphate attack. This attack occurs
when concrete is placed in areas with high amount of sulphate in the soilor constant
contact with other sulphuric sources. Earlier studies have shown that sulphate attack can
lead to several deteriorating effects in concrete, such as cracking, expansion, spalling, and
strength loss. Sulphate attack can be classified into physical and chemical sulphate attack
based on the mode at which it deteriorates the concrete.

It has been generally accepted that chemical sulphate attack is eminent in concrete made
with 100% Portland cement due to high amount of its C 3A content. However, with the

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absence of C3A content in AAS, it is expected that its resistance would differ. Based on
the studies, it is clear that AAS have high resistance to sulphate attack.

7.3. ALKALI SILICA REACTION (ASR)

Slag is used in OPC concrete to curb the expansions due to ASR, there is no consensus
yet about the resistance of AAS made with ASR reactive aggregates. With the high slag
and directly calcium content in AAS, it is expected that AAS should be resistant to alkali
ASR. However, it is found out the resistance of AAS to ASR is lower to that of OPC
composites. Expansions were observed in AAS samples during the tests, and it was
attributed to the formation of sodium calcium silicate hydrate. Fig.7.1. shows alkali
activated concrete after long years.

Fig. 7.1 Alkali-Activated Concrete After 10 Months Curing. (A)

Reactive Aggregate. (G) Alkali–Silica Gel [2]

7.4. ACID ATTACK

Alkali activated slag is known to possess high resistance to acid attack compared to OPC.
Another study also affirms this assertion, where they stored the samples in hydrochloric
and tetraoxosulphate acids of pH 2. However, AAS still deteriorates in these acidic
environments. The acid resistance of concrete is essential because concrete structures in
mining, mineral processing and chemical industries are exposed to acid attack. Overall,
AAS is rated as more acid resistance than OPC, mainly because of its low calcium
content.

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7.5. CHLORIDE ATTACK

Penetration of chloride ions into the concrete is mainly responsible for the corrosion of
reinforcements. Chloride ions get in contact with concrete from sources such as sea water
and de-icing salts used in winter seasons. Though the conventional rapid chloride
penetration test (RCPT) used for OPC concrete has been found to be unsuitable for AAS.
The results obtained from the test showed that AAS concrete have lower chloride
diffusion coefficient compared to OPC concrete. Also, better chloride resistance has been
observed in AAS concrete subjected to chloride ion sources. This enhanced resistance has
been attributed to its pore structure, and gel composition. Slag activated with calcium
carbonate showed higher chloride resistance compared to those activated with alkali earth
hydroxide (i.e., sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide). This higher resistance has
been attributed to the reaction of the calcium hydroxide with chloride ions in the system
to form calcium hypochlorite (Ca (ClO2)). The formation of this new products reduced
the concentration of the alkali in the system. Higher resistance of AAS concrete
compared to OPC concrete has been attributed to the absence of calcium hydroxide
inAAS. This observation correlates to lower diffusion coefficient observed in AAS.

7.6. CARBONATION

The penetration of the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the concrete leads to
concrete degradation. Carbon dioxide attacks the calcium components in concrete and
converts it into calcium carbonate, thereby lowering its pore solution alkalinity. Lower
alkalinity in concrete leads to corrosion of the embedded reinforcement. It is understood
that a concrete with lower permeability can resist the carbonation process as it lowers
carbon dioxide penetration rates. Moisture at an optimal level is required for this reaction
to occur in concrete. Too much supply of moisture to the concrete prevents the concrete
from carbonation, and too low supply of water would also protect the concrete against
carbonation as there won’t be enough water to dissolve the carbon dioxide.

To evaluate the carbonation of concrete, two factors have to be observed; the rate of
carbonation and the coefficient of carbonation. It is observed that the strength of the AAS
is related to its resistance to carbonation. It is found out the rate of carbonation of AAS is
faster than that of OPC when both binders were evaluated with the accelerated
carbonation test. However, the rate of carbonation of AAS is only slightly faster than that

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of OPC when they undergo natural carbonation. Also, it was found out carbonation
deterioration mechanism is different in AAS. An example is when the dissolved CO2
reacts with the C-S-H in AAM thereby reducing the pH of the solution. This reduction in
the alkalinity of the pore solution leads to loss of passivation thereby exposing
reinforcement to corrosion. These studies concluded that using accelerated carbonation
tests used for OPC to evaluate AAS does not represents accurately the carbonation of
AAS.

The type of activator has also been found to affect the carbonation of AAS. Activation of
slag with sodium carbonate showed higher carbonation compared to those activated with
sodium silicate. The main carbonation products in AAS have been identified as aragonite,
calcite and vaterite. Decrease in the concentration of sodium silicate from 7% to 3% has
been found to increase carbonation. When AAS was subjected to carbonation at different
relative humidity (RH) levels, it was observed that the highest carbonation occurred at
50% RH.

7.7. FREEZE AND THAW RESISTANCE

The ability of concrete to resist deterioration due to the freeze and thaw cycle (frost in
cold regions) is referred to as freeze and thaw resistance. Freeze and thaw are detrimental
to concrete, as it leads to internal cracks, expansion, and mass loss. This phenomenon of
freeze and thaw can be more pronounce in AAM based composites, due to its porous
nature. Thus, the internal and external structure of AAS composite can be modified, due
to micro-disintegration of grains. But it is possible that concrete resistance to freeze and
thaw can be improved by using air entrained admixtures. Currently, there are no
significant effect of freeze and thaw reported on AAS incorporating air entrained
admixture. This high resistance of AAS to freeze and thawing was observed in samples
without air entrainers, compared to OPC samples. The addition of air entraining
admixture may also influence strength increment in AAS concrete. It has also been
reported that no deterioration or weight loss occur in AAS samples with high
compressive strength when exposed to freeze and thaw cycles. However, despite AAS
activated with sodium sulphate showing higher strength, but its performance under
freezing and thawing cycles requires further investigation. In recent studies, addition of
materials such as nano silica, nano alumina, and nano clay or glass wastes to AAS
concrete has been reported as a suitable means of reducing compressive strength loss due

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to freeze and thaw. For the glass based AAS, insolubility of glass aided the improvement
in resistance of AAS concrete to freeze and thaw.

7.8. RESISTANCE TO REINFORCEMENT CORROSION

Corrosion generally reduces the structural integrity of concrete. The resistance of

reinforcement inside concrete to corrosion is dependent on the alkalinity of the pore water
solution and permeability of the matrix. The alkalinity in the pore solution of concrete is
mainly affected by chloride ingression. The chloride ions do not directly affect the
embedded reinforcement, but the ions lower the alkalinity of the pore system, thereby
causing a depassivation which leads to corrosion of the reinforcements. As the
permeability of AAS is very low compared to that of OPC, the movement of the chloride
ion into the pore system is restricted thereby preventing the lowering of the alkalinity of
the pore solution. It is also shown that reinforced AAS concrete stored in seawater,
showed no sign of corrosion after 1-year storage. Alkali activated mortars possess better
half-cell potential and polarization resistance than OPC mortars, when tested in a passive
condition. AAM mortars, due to its higher alkalinity than OPC, possesses greater
resistance to steel corrosion. While alkalinity of AAM is the catalyst to its high corrosion
resistance, yet uncertainties associated with different types of precursors used in AMM
composite can be further explored in the future.

7.9. FIRE RESISTANCE

Predominantly, concrete in all forms have good resistance to fire. Convectional concrete
degrades and decomposes at temperatures higher than 800 °C. The decomposition of the
concrete is as a result of destruction and loss of moisture from the crystalline hydrates
including C – S – H and other components of the concrete. This results in spalling of hot
concrete layers from the cooler layers, and to a certain extent, concrete cover to
reinforcement protects the embedded steel in concrete. In AAS, nano pores are present in
its microstructure, which provides a pathway for the movement of bonded water to leave
the concrete. These nano pores allow the moisture to leave the concrete at extreme
temperature without causing any destruction to the aluminosilicate network. AAS have a
lower temperature gradient within its body compared to conventional concrete as heat
transfers faster in alkali activated concrete when exposed to fire. This is majorly because

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AAM stores large quantity of moisture in its pore structure, thereby making it
endothermic in nature.

7.10. EFFLORESCENCE

The whitish deposits formed on the surface of some AAS samples is called efflorescence.
Efflorescence occurs as a result of leaching out of water which contains free alkali from
the samples. After the leaching of the free alkali with water, the alkali reacts with the
surrounding carbon dioxide to form the whitish alkali carbonate. Some possibility of the
formation of alkali sulphate is also possible. Small quantity of efflorescence on the
surface of AAS sample or structure is not a threat to its durability and strength. However,
when a higher quantity is formed due to certain types of activators used or curing
condition employed, the AAS integrity might be breached. Higher quantity of
efflorescence on the surface of AAS might impair the appearance, increase permeability
thereby reducing its durability. Fig.7.2. shows the efflorescence in AASC.

Fig. 7.2 Efflorescence in AASC [2]

A high possibility of the formation of efflorescence is possible when activators that are
less soluble such as sodium sulphate are used, or when moist curing is followed by a dry
curing. Curing AAS samples at relative humidity higher than 95% might be effective in

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preventing or reducing the amount of efflorescence formed. Higher curing relative
humidity would prevent the evaporation of the water with free alkali, resulting in
insufficient free alkali to react with the carbon dioxide in the air. However, this is not
practicable in cast insituAAS concrete where the exposure conditions cannot be fully
controlled. In addition, efflorescence is mostly associated with AAS activated with high
concentrations of alkali solutions. Efflorescence due to high concentration of alkali has
been attributed to the availability of excess alkali to react with atmospheric carbon
dioxide.

8. ADVANTAGES OF AASC

 AASC increases the strength and durability of the concrete structure.

 It reduces voids in concrete hence decreasing permeability.
 AASC gives a workable mix.
 It possesses good pumpable and compaction characteristics.
 The structure made of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) constituents
helps in increasing sulphate attack resistance.
 The penetration of chloride can be decreased.
 The heat of hydration is less compared to conventional mixed hydration.
 The alkali-silica reaction is resisted highly.
 These make the concrete more chemically stable.
 Gives a good surface finish and improves aesthetics.
 The colour is more even and light.
 Lower chances of efflorescence.
 The maintenance and repair cost of structures is reduced thus increasing the life
cycle of concrete structures.
 Unlike cement, GGBS does not produce carbon sulphur dioxide, or nitrogen
oxides.

9. DISADVANTAGES OF AASC

 Additional quality control costs.

 Slow and small hydration heat, not suitable in precast factories or during winter
concreting.

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 Faster carbonation rate decreased service life span due to reinforcement corrosion.
 Carbonation changes pore structure unfavourably with respect to durability.
 Permeability increases at a later age (carbonation).
 The pore structure becomes coarser.
 Salt-freeze durability deteriorates.
 Inferior workability and cohesion in fresh concrete.

10. APPLICATIONS OF AASC

AASC is used to make durable concrete structure in combination with ordinary Portland
cement and the other pozzolanic materials like fly ash, silica fume, usage of GGBS along
with OPC in concrete.

 All types of residential and commercial and industrial complexes.

 Dams and other mass concreting works.
 Water retaining structures.
 Concrete roads and flyovers.
 Ideal for use in marine constructions.
 Pre-cast concrete products
 Foundation and piles construction
 Increased flexibility to meet individual requirements in Ready Mix Concrete

11. CONCLUSIONS

Replacement of ordinary Portland cement with ground granulated blast furnace slag
offers significant environmental benefits in terms of CO 2 emissions and industrial
production energy. The following conclusions are made regarding strength and durability
of alkali-activated slag concrete and mortar.

The current corrosive activators result in high strength of concrete, its detrimental effects
limit its large-scale use. Therefore, development of a less corrosive, cheap activator
specifically for AAS would help to eliminate most of the challenges currently faced. In
addition, this would reduce the overall embodied energy of AAS. The main product of
alkali activation of slag is C-S-H and Ht. However, other products are formed depending
on the activator used. The use of sodium carbonate as activator can be deemed to be most

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appropriate as it results in similar strength with those activated with sodium hydroxide
and sodium silicate. Also, it produces excellent fresh properties which would make its
large-scale application possible. In addition, it is considered a greener alternative as it has
a very low embodied energy and carbon.

The main hydration product of alkali-activated slag is C-S-H in addition to the

hydrotalcite - like phase that produces less porous structure and higher compressive
strength, andthe aluminate - ferrite-mono (sulphate) hydrate phase. The high pH of the
alkaline activator promotes dissolution of GGBS which drives chemical reaction and
strength development. Compared to OPC concrete, alkali-activated slag concrete
demonstrates generally better resistance to chloride penetration, sulphate attack, freeze–
thaw cycles, and alkali–aggregate reaction. Carbonation of alkali-activated
concrete/mortar is typically higher than OPC-based concrete/mortar and may lead to
decalcification of C-S-H and subsequent loss in compressive strength. Carbonation in
alkali-activated concrete is also affected by temperature and type of alkaline activator
used. More studies are still required in terms of microstructure of AAS as there exist
limited data in these areas. In addition, there has been contradictions in the observations
made by different researchers. Therefore, exploring these areas would boost the
confidence of the society to trust this green material. Overcoming the major challenges
faced by AAS would lead to a wider acceptance of the material, and also its
commercialization and large-scale applications

Different admixtures or micro filling nano materials may be dosed with the AAS mixture
to possibly enhance its pore structures. Studies have shown that slag enhances the pore
structures of AAS composite, by the activity of the hydration products. However, the
mechanism of the slag application is still ill defined. Therefore, a more detailed
experimental design and optimization of the slag content required for AAS matrix
development is required. Higher strength loss in OPC exposed to sulphate attack is
attributable to the formation of magnesium silicate hydrate (M-S-H) and gypsum because
of interaction between the magnesium ions and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H).It also
suggested that a further assessment of sulphate attack on AAS composite when it is
altered with mineral admixtures is required. Mineral admixtures are bound to influence
the hydration phenomenon and pore structures.

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REFERENCES

1. Abeer M. Humad, et.al. (2021), ‟ Creep and Long-Term Properties of Alkali-

Activated Swedish-Slag Concrete”, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,
Vol. 33, Issue 2, pp. 1– 14.

2. F. Puertas, et.al. (2018), ‟Alkali-activated slag concrete: Fresh and hardened

behaviours”, Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 85, Issue 1, pp. 22–31.

3. Ismail Amer, et.al. (2020), ‟ A Review on Alkali-Activated Slag Concrete”, Ain

Shams Engineering Journal, Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 1–25.

4. Ominda Nanayakkara, et.al. (2020), ‟ Alkali activated slag concrete incorporating

recycled aggregate concrete: Long term performance and sustainability aspect”,
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5. Paul Awoyera & Adeyemi Adesina (2019), ‟A Critical Review on Application of

Alkali Activated Slag as a Sustainable Composite Binder”, Case Studies in
Construction Materials, Vol. 11, Issue 1, pp. 1– 13.

6. Paul Awoyera & Adeyemi Adesina (2019), ‟Durability Properties of Alkali

Activated Slag Composites: Short Overview”, Springer Nature, Vol. 1, Issue 1,
pp. 1– 10.

7. Tanushree Ray, et.al. (2020), ‟Study of Effect of Temperature on Behavior of

Alkali Activated Slag Concrete”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 1, Issue 1,
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