TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 1

Final exam December 17, 2016

Department of Petroleum Engineering and Applied Geophysics

Examination paper for TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery

Techniques

Academic contact during examination: Jon Kleppe

Phone: 91897300/73594925

Examination date: December 17, 2016

Examination time (from-to): 09:00 – 13:00
Permitted examination support material: D/No printed or hand-written support
material is allowed. A specific basic calculator is allowed.

Other information:

Language: English
Number of pages (front page excluded): 4
Number of pages enclosed: 0

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TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 2
Final exam December 17, 2016

Symbols used are defined in the Attachment

Question 1 (10 points)

This question relates to the group project work.

a) Outline briefly the main objective of the Gullfaks I1 group project.

b) How did your group proceed to reach the objective?
c) Which sensitivity calculations did your group make, and did you observe significant variations
in reservoir behavior?

Solution
The students should give sufficient info to prove that they actively participated in the group work.

Question 2 (10 points)

Consider a cross-section for a homogeneous reservoir with defined WOC and GOC and a
measured reference oil pressure at a reference depth:

a) Sketch typical capillary pressure curves used for equilibrium calculations of initial saturations.
Label important points.
b) Sketch typical initial water, oil and gas pressures vs. depth. Label important points used and
explain briefly the procedure used.
c) Sketch the corresponding initial water, oil and gas saturation distributions determined by
equilibrium calculations and capillary pressure curves. Label important points and explain
briefly the procedure used.
d) Explain the concepts of WOC contact and free surface, using a sketch

Solution
a)
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 3
Final exam December 17, 2016

b) c)

At the WOC Po-Pw=Pdow, and at GOC Pg-Po=Pdog. Initial pressures are computed using
densities and assuming equilibrium. At WOC Sw=1,0. At any z value, Pcow is computed from the
difference in Po and Pw, and the corresponding Sw is found from the Pcow-curve. At GOC Sg=0.
At any z-value above the corresponding Sg is found from the Pcog-curve

d)
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 4
Final exam December 17, 2016

Question 3 (7 points)

Sketch typical Bo , Bw , Bg , µ o , µw , µ g , and Rso curves. Label axes, characteristic points and areas.

Solution:
saturated

Rso undersaturated

P
Bw Bg Bo

P P P
µω µγ µο

P P P
Pbp
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 5
Final exam December 17, 2016

Question 4 (14 points)

a) List all steps and formulas/equations/definitions used in the derivation of a one-phase fluid
flow equation.
b) Derive the following equation:

1 ∂ ⎛ ∂P ⎞ φµc ∂P
r =( )
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ k ∂t

Show all steps in the derivation.

c) Which two main types of boundary conditions are normally used to represent reservoir fluid
production and injection?
d) Write the steady-state form of equation b) above, and solve for pressure as a function of radius
for boundary conditions P(r = re ) = Pe and P(r = rw ) = Pw

Solution

a)
--- 4 p ---
• Mass balance (continuity)
• Darcy´s
• PVT relationship
• Pore volume relationship

b)
--- 4 p ---
For a cylindrical geometry, the flow area is (for a full circle):
A = 2πrh
The mass balance:
{uρA}r − {uρA}r+ Δr = ∂∂t {φAΔrρ} .
Substituting for area, assuming h to be constant, dividing by by rΔr, and taking the limit as Δr
goes to zero, we get the continuity equation for cylindrical flow:
1∂ ∂
−
r ∂x
( rρu ) = (φρ) .
∂t
We use the compressibility definitions for rock and fluid (at constant temperature):
1 ∂φ
cr = −
φ ∂P
1 ∂V 1 ∂ρ
cf = − or c f =
V ∂P ρ ∂P

to simplify the right hand side of the equation:

∂ ∂P
∂t
(φρ) = ρφc
∂t
After substituting for Darcy´s equation on the left hand side and using the standard
simplification in regard to the density term on the left side:
⎛ ∂P ⎞ ∂ 2P
2

c f ⎝ ⎠ << 2 .
∂x ∂x
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 6
Final exam December 17, 2016

we get the following simple form of the cylindrical flow equation:

1 ∂ ⎛ ∂P ⎞ φµc ∂P
r = .
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ k ∂t

c)
--- 2 p ---
• Bottom hole pressure specified
• Production rate specified

d)
---2 p ---
The steady state form of the equation is:
d ⎛ dP ⎞
r =0
dr ⎝ dr ⎠

--- 2 p ---
Integrating twice, we get:
P(r) = C1 ln(r) + C2 .
Application of the BC´s in order to find the integration constants yields
(P − P )
P(r) = Pw + e w ln(r / rw )
ln(re / rw )

Question 5 (22 points)

Consider a production well and derive expressions for surface gas production rate (Qgs), surface
water production rate (Qws),, and surface oil production rate (Qos), for the two cases below. You
may neglect capillary pressures.
a) Undersaturated oil reservoir with 100% oil saturation and a reservoir flow rate of Qor .
b) Saturated oil reservoir with oil, water and gas inflow and a reservoir flow rate of Qor .

Solution

a) Oil in stock-tank: 1/ Bo
Surface volume of gas: Rso / Bo
Surface volume of water: 0.
b)
Reservoir rates:

QoR = PI ⋅ λo (P − Pbh )
QgR = PI ⋅ λg (P − Pbh )
QwR = PI ⋅ λw (P − Pbh )
Combining the equations and eliminating (P − Pbh ) , we get:

QgR = QoR ⋅ λg / λo
QwR = QoR ⋅ λw / λo
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 7
Final exam December 17, 2016

The surface rates then become:

QoS = QoR / Bo
QwS = QoR ⋅ λw / λo / Bw
QgR = QoR ⋅ λg / λo / Bw + QoS Rso

Question 6 (14 points)

Solution
a) Discuss the terms "diffuse flow" and "segregated flow". Which factors determine these flow
conditions?
--- 2 p ---
• Diffuse flow if dynamic pressure gradients dominate the flow
δP
ie. >> gΔ ρ (leads to uniform saturation distribution vertically)
δx
• Segregated flow if gravity gradients dominate the flow
δP
ie. gΔρ >>
δx
b) What do we mean with the term “Vertical Equilibrium” in reservoir analysis and under what
conditions is it a reasonable assumption?
--- 2 p ---
• Fluids segregate vertically immediately (in accordance with capillary pressure)
δP
ie. gΔρ >> (the “ultimate” segregated flow)
δx
May be a reasonable assumption in high permeability reservoirs where
dynamic gradiens are small and vertical segregation takes place quickly

c) What do we mean with the term “Piston Displacement” in reservoir analysis and under what
conditions is it a reasonable assumption?
--- 2 p ---
Oil saturation behind displacement front is equal to residual oil saturation
May be a reasonable assumpion for very favourable mobility ratios, such as for
water displacement of oil in many North Sea sandstone reservoirs
d) What assumptions are made in the application of Buckley-Leverett analysis?
--- 2 p ---
• Diffuse flow, no capillary dispersion at the displacement front
e) What assumptions are made in the application of the Dykstra-Parson’s method?
--- 2 p ---
• Piston displacement, isolated layers, constant ΔP across layers
f) What assumptions are made in the application of the Vertical Equilibrium (VE) method?
--- 2 p ---
• Instantaneous segregation of fluids
g) What assumptions are made in the application of Dietz’ method for stability analysis?
--- 2 p ---
• Vertical equilibrium, piston displacement, no capillary pressure
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 8
Final exam December 17, 2016

Question 7 (13 points)

Solution

a) Start with Darcy’s equations for displacement of oil by water in an inclined layer at an angle
α (positive upwards):
kk A ⎛ ∂Po ⎞
qo = − ro + ρo gsin α
µ o ⎝ ∂x ⎠
kkrw A ⎛ ∂ ( Po − Pc ) ⎞
qw = − ⎜ + ρ wgsin α ⎟
µw ⎝ ∂x ⎠
and derive the expression for water fraction flowing, f w , inclusive capillary pressure and
gravity.

Rewriting the equations as

µ ∂P
−q o o = o + ρ o gsinα
kkro A ∂x
µ ∂P ∂P
−q w w = o − c + ρ wgsin α
kkrw A ∂x ∂x
and then subtracting the first equation from the second one, we get
1 ⎛ µ µ ⎞ ∂P
− ⎜ qw w − qo o ⎟ = − c + Δ ρgsin α
kA ⎝ k rw k ro ⎠ ∂x
Substituting for
q = qw + qo
q
fw = w
q
and solving for the fraction of water flowing, we get the following expression:
kk A ⎛ ∂Pc ⎞
1+ ro − Δρgsinα
⎝
qµo ∂x ⎠
fw =
k µ
1+ ro w
µo krw

b) Make typical sketches for water fraction flowing, f w , vs. water saturation, assuming capillary
pressure and gravity may be neglected, for the following cases:
• a high mobility ratio
• a low mobility ratio
• for piston displacement
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 9
Final exam December 17, 2016

“High” mobility ratio

“Low” mobility ratio

Piston displacement
fw

Swir Sor
Sw
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 10
Final exam December 17, 2016

c) Make a typical sketch for water saturation vs. x for water displacement of oil in a horizontal
system (Buckley-Leverett), assuming capillary pressure and gravity may be neglected, for the
following cases:
• a high mobility ratio
• a low mobility ratio
• for piston displacement
Explain the physical meaning behind these curves in terms of break-through time, water-cut at
break-through and recovery factor.

--- 3 p ---

The higher the mobility ratio, the lower will be the water saturation at the front, and the break-
through of water will happen earlier. The water-cut at break-through and also the oil recovery
factor will thus be lower. The lower the mobility ratio the break-through time will be longer and
water-cut at break-through as well as oil recovery factor will be higher. Piston displacement gives
a perfect displacement so that water-cut at break-through is 100% and all the movable oil will
have been recovered.

} Piston displacement

“Low” mobility ratio

Sw
“High” mobility ratio

}
x
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 11
Final exam December 17, 2016

Question 8 (10 points)

The general form of the Material Balance Equation may be written as (se attached definitions of
the symbols used):

[ ( ) ]
N p Bo2 + R p − Rso2 Bg2 + W p Bw 2 =
⎡ ⎛B ⎞ ⎤
C r + C w S w1
N ⎢ ( Bo2 − Bo1) + ( Rso1 − Rso2 ) Bg2 + mBo1⎜
⎢ ⎜ − 1⎟ − (1+ m) Bo1
⎟ ( P2 − P1 )⎥⎥
g2

⎣ ⎝ Bg1 ⎠ 1− S w1 ⎦
+ (Wi + We ) Bw 2 + Gi Bg2

a) What is the primary assumption behind the use of the Material Balance Equation, and which
"driving mechanisms" or "energies" are included in the equation?

solution
Primary assumption: Zero-dimensional system
(homogeneous system/no flow inside reservoir)
Driving mechanisms: -Expansion/contraction of reservoir fluids (including gas cap)
-Expansion/contraction of reservoir rock
-Aquifer influx
-Gas/water injection

b) Reduce the equation and find the expression for oil recovery factor ( N p / N ) for the following
reservoir system:
• The reservoir is originally 100% saturated with oil at a pressure higher than the bubble
point pressure
• The production stream consists of oil and gas
• No injection of fluids
• No aquifer

solution
[ ( ) ]
N p Bo2 + R p − Rso2 Bg2 + W p Bw 2 =
⎡ ⎛B ⎞ ⎤
C + C w S w1
N ⎢⎢ ( Bo2 − Bo1) + ( Rso1 − Rso2 ) Bg2 + mBo1⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ − (1+ m) Bo1 r ( 1 )⎥
⎥
g2
P2 − P
⎣ ⎝ Bg1 ⎠ 1− S w1 ⎦
+ (Wi + We ) Bw 2 + Gi Bg2

[ ( ) ] [
⇒ N p Bo2 + R p − Rso2 Bg 2 = N (Bo2 − Bo1 ) + (Rso1 − Rso 2 ) Bg2 − Bo1Cr ( P2 − P1 ) ]
N p (Bo2 − Bo1 ) + (Rso1 − Rso 2 ) Bg2 − Bo1Cr (P2 − P1 )
RF = =
N (
Bo2 + R p − Rso2 Bg 2)
c) Simplify the expression in b) for the following situations:
i) P2 ≥ Pb p
ii) P2 < Pb p, cr and cw may be neglected
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 12
Final exam December 17, 2016

solution
P2 ≥ Pb p
[ ( ) ] [
N p Bo2 + R p − Rso 2 Bg2 = N (Bo2 − Bo1 ) + ( Rso1 − Rso 2 )Bg 2 − Bo1Cr (P2 − P1 ) ]
N p Bo1 ⎡⎛⎜ Bo2 ⎞ ⎤
⇒ RF = = − 1⎟ − Cr (P2 − P1 )
N Bo2 ⎢⎣⎝ Bo1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
solution
P2 < Pb p, cr and cw may be neglected

[ ( ) ] [
N p Bo2 + R p − Rso 2 Bg2 = N (Bo2 − Bo1 ) + ( Rso1 − Rso 2 )Bg 2 − Bo1Cr (P2 − P1 ) ]
N p ( Bo2 − Bo1 ) + ( Rso1 − Rso2 )Bg 2
⇒ RF = =
N [ (
Bo2 + R p − Rso 2 Bg2 ) ]
d) Make the following sketches for the reservoir in b):

• A typical curve for GOR vs. time for the reservoir . Explain details of the curve.

solution

GOR

Rso (P > Pbp )

Sg < Sgc
time
P > Pbp P < Pbp
Sg = 0 Sg > 0
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 13
Final exam December 17, 2016

• A typical curve for oil recovery factor, N p / N , vs. cumulative gas-oil ratio, R p . Explain
details of the curve.

N p (Bo2 − Bo1 ) + (Rso1 − Rso 2 ) Bg2 − Bo1Cr (P2 − P1 )

RF = =
N ( )
Bo2 + R p − Rso2 Bg 2
A
⇒ RF = (for a given set of P1 and P2 )
B + Rp

RF
RF @ R p = Rso1

A
RF =
B + Rp

Rp

e) Reduce the equation for the following reservoir system:

• The reservoir is originally at bubble point pressure and has a gas cap
• The production stream consists of oil and gas
• No injection of fluids
• No aquifer

solution

[ ( ) ]
N p Bo2 + R p − Rso2 Bg2 + W p Bw 2 =
⎡ ⎛B ⎞ ⎤
C r + C w S w1
N ⎢ ( Bo2 − Bo1) + ( Rso1 − Rso2 ) Bg2 + mBo1⎜
⎢ ⎜ − 1⎟ − (1+ m) Bo1
⎟ ( P2 − P1)⎥⎥
g2

⎣ B
⎝ g1 ⎠ 1− S w1 ⎦
+ (Wi + We ) Bw 2 + Gi Bg2

[ (
⇒ N p Bo2 + R p − Rso2 Bg 2 =) ]
⎡ ⎛B ⎞ C + Cw Sw1 ⎤
N ⎢ (Bo2 − Bo1 ) + (Rso1 − Rso 2 ) Bg2 + mBo1 ⎜ g 2 − 1⎟ − (1 + m) Bo1 r ( P2 − P1 )⎥
⎣ ⎝ Bg1 ⎠ 1− Sw1 ⎦
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 14
Final exam December 17, 2016

f) Make the following sketches:

• A typical curve for reservoir pressure vs. time for a large gas cap.
• A typical curve for reservoir pressure vs. time for a small gas cap.

solution

Large gas cap

Small gas cap

time

g) Reduce the equation for the following reservoir system:

• The reservoir is originally at a pressure higher than the bubble point pressure and
contains oil and water
• The production stream consists of oil, water and gas
• No injection of fluids
• Water flows into the reservoir from an aquifer.

solution
[ ( ) ]
N p Bo2 + R p − Rso2 Bg2 + W p Bw 2 =
⎡ ⎛B ⎞ ⎤
C + C w S w1
N ⎢⎢ ( Bo2 − Bo1) + ( Rso1 − Rso2 ) Bg2 + mBo1⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ − (1+ m) Bo1 r ( 1 )⎥
⎥
g2
P2 − P
⎣ ⎝ Bg1 ⎠ 1− S w1 ⎦
+ (Wi + We ) Bw 2 + Gi Bg2

⎡ C + Cw S w1 ⎤
⇒ N p ⎡⎢ Bo2 + ( Rp − Rso2 ) Bg 2 ⎤⎥ +W p Bw2 = N ⎢⎢( Bo2 − Bo1 ) + ( Rso1 − Rso2 ) Bg 2 − Bo1 r ( P2 − P1 ) +We Bw2 ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎦ 1− S w1
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 15
Final exam December 17, 2016

h) Make the following sketches:

• A typical curve for reservoir pressure vs. time for a reservoir with a strong aquifer.
• A typical curve for reservoir pressure vs. time for a reservoir with a weak aquifer.

solution
P

Strong aquifer

P=Pb
P=Pb p
p Weak aquifer

time
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 16
Final exam December 17, 2016

Attachment - Definition of symbols

Bg Formation volume factor for gas (res.vol./st.vol.)

Bo Formation volume factor for oil (res.vol./st.vol.)
Bw Formation volume factor for water (res.vol./st.vol.)
Cr Pore compressibility (pressure-1)
Cw Water compressibility (pressure-1)
ΔP P2 − P1
Gi Cumulative gas injected (st.vol.)
GOR Producing gas-oil ratio (st.vol./st.vol.)
Gp Cumulative gas produced (st.vol.)
k Absolute permeability
k ro Relative permeability to oil
k rw Relative permeability to oil
k rg Relative permeability to oil
m Initial gas cap size (res.vol. of gas cap)/(res.vol. of oil zone)
Me End point mobility ratio
N Original oil in place (st.vol.)
N ge Gravity number
Np Cumulative oil produced (st.vol.)
P Pressure
Pcow Capillary pressure between oil and water
Pcog Capillary pressure between oil and gas
qinj Injection rate (res.vol./time)
Rp Cumulative producing gas-oil ratio (st.vol./st.vol) = G p / N p
Rso Solution gas-oil ratio (st.vol. gas/st.vol. oil)
Sg Gas saturation
So Oil saturation
Sw Water saturation
T Temperature
Vb Bulk volume (res.vol.)
Vp Pore volume (res.vol.)
WC Producing water cut (st.vol./st.vol.)
We Cumulative aquifer influx (st.vol.)
Wi Cumulative water injected (st.vol.)
Wp Cumulative water produced (st.vol.)
ρ Density (mass/vol.)
φ Porosity
µg Gas viscosity
µo Oil viscosity
µw Water viscosity
γ Hydrostatic pressure gradient (pressure/distance)