ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF

GRADUATE STUDIES

MEDIA FRAMING OF PEOPLE

WITH DISABILITIES IN LOCAL AMHARIC
NEWSPAPERS

TIGIST GEBRU

August, 2007
ADDIS ABABA
 MEDIA FRAMING OF PEOPLE
WITH DISABILITIES IN LOCAL AMHARIC
NEWSPAPERS

By

TIGIST GEBRU

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM

AND COMMUNICATIONS, ADDIS ABABA UNIVERCITY
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS IN JOURNALISM

THESIS ADVISORS:

EXTERNAL, ODDGEIR TVEITEN AND

INTERNAL, DR. WOLDEAB TESHOME

August, 2007
ADDIS ABABA
 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY GRADUATE STUDIES

MEDIA FRAMING OF PEOPLE

WITH DISABILITIES IN LOCAL AMHARIC
NEWSPAPERS

By

TIGIST GEBRU

SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM AND COMMUNICATION

Approved by the Examining Board

____________________ _______________

Chairman, Department Graduate committee Signature

______________________ _______________

Internal Advisor Signature

______________________ _______________

External Examiner Signature

______________________ ______________

Internal Examiner Signature

i
 Acknowledgment

My gratitude goes to my advisors, Oddgeir Tveiten and Dr. Woldeab Teshome who have
contributed their constructive comments and correction on the thesis. I also owe many
thanks to Mr. Terje Skjerdal for his unlimited supports- materially as well as
conceptually. I am also indebted to my dear friend, Biniyam Fiseha, for his benevolent
support, love and care in all my endeavours. I highly thank my family for their kind
support, and care as well.

Further my gratitude goes to Ato Demeke, ICT room, for helping with the SPSS and
other technical supports. I am equally thankful for the individuals who have patiently
coded the newspapers and the informants for their time.

ii
 Table of contents
Contents
Page
Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………………………..i
List of figures ……………………………………………………………………………iv
List of tables ……………………………………………………………………………..iv
Appendices …………………………………………………………………………….....v
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………..vi

Acronyms…………………………………………………………………...……………vii

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................... 1

[Link] ........................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem statement 4
1.3 Objectives 7
1.4 Research questions 8
1.5 Scope of the study 8
1.6 Significance Of The Study 9
1.7 Conceptual Definitions 10
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................ 13
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 13
2.1 Literature on general ideas of Disability definitions and concepts 13
2.2 Disability and the Developing World 17
2.3 Historical perspective on Media depiction of disability 18
2.3.1 The Role Of Media In Society 21
2.3.2 The Role Of Media In Influencing The Direction Of Public Opinion On Disability 23
2.4 Framing and the theory of framing 25
2.4.1 Predominantly used media frames 33
2.4.2 Factors affecting media frames 34
2.4.3 Criticism for framing theory 35
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................ 36
3. THE STUDY DESIG.................................................................................................... 36
3.1 Research
method……………………………………………………………………………36
3.2 The
sample……………………………………………………………………………………
36
3.3 Sampling technique 37
3.4 Data collection and analysis 41
 3.5 Limitation of the study 45
CHAPTER FOUR........................................................................................................... 46
4. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS .................................... 46
4.1 Presentation of Findings and data Analysis 46
4.2 Analysis And Discussion Of Research Findings 54
4.2.1 ADDIS ADMASS 54
[Link] Types Of Disability Reported Through Out The Past 18 Months
57
[Link] Pictures 58
[Link] Sourcing While Reporting On Disability 60
[Link] Children Vs. Adult Manifestations 61
[Link] Themes Used While Reporting On Disability 62
[Link] Frames Dominantly Used While Reporting On The Issue Of
Disability 64
[Link] Role Of The Articles 68
4.2.2 Addis Zemen 69
[Link] Types Of Disability Reported Through Out The Past 18 Months 71
[Link] Pictures 72
[Link] Sourcing While Reporting On Disability 73Feil! Bokmerke er ikke
definert.
[Link] Children Vs. Adult Manifestations 75
[Link] Themes Used While Reporting On Disability 75
[Link] Frames Dominantly Used While Reporting On The Issue Of Disability
76
[Link] Role Of The Articles 79
4.2.3 Medical 79
[Link] Types Of Disability Reported Through Out The Past 18 Months 82
[Link] Pictures 83
[Link] Sourcing While Reporting On Disability 84
[Link] Children Vs. Adult Manifestations 85
[Link] Themes Used While Reporting On Disability 85
[Link] Frames Dominantly Used While Reporting On the Issue of Disability....................86
[Link] Role Of The Articles 87
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................ 88
5.1 Summary, conclusion and recommendations 88
5.2 Recommendations on the need for further research 91
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lists of Figures
Figures page
4.1 Total percentages of articles published in each newspaper……………………....46
4.2 Percentages of news and feature distributions of articles about disability

iv
 through out the periods between December 2005 and May 2007 in all the
newspapers ……………………………………………………………………….47
4.3 Percentage of Disability Articles published as front page and inside
page stories in all the newspapers ………………………………………………48
4.4 Themes that were used in all the stories between the periods
December 2005 and May 2007………………………………………………….50
4.5 Number of source frequencies used in all the analyzed articles…………………51
4.6 Distribution of type of disabilities through out the analyzed articles……………52

Lists of Tables
Page
Tables

4.1 Total Articles that deal with disability in all the three newspapers………………48

4.2 Type of newspaper and number of articles that covered the issue
of disability as news and features between the periods December
2005 and May 2007………………………………………………………………49
4.3 Type and frequencies of pictures used in all the analyzed articles ……………....53
4.4 Articles written as features and news stories in Addis Admass…………………...55
4.5 Number of articles that were represented medically, socially and
both in Admass newspaper……………………………………………………….56
4.6 Type of disability dominantly used in Admass newspaper with
in the past 18 months…………………………………………………………….57
4.7 Distribution of pictures used in Admass newspaper……………………………..59
4.8 Number of articles that compare disability with non disability in
different locations ………………………………………………………………..60
4.9 Number of articles and type of sources quoted in Admass newspaper ………….60
4.10 Dominant themes used in a disability article and their locations
in Admass newspaper………………………………………………………….…62
4.11 Articles written as features and news stories in Addis Zemen…………………..69
4.12 Number of articles that were represented medically, socially and
both in Zemen newspaper………………………………………………………..70
4.13 Number of articles that compare disability with non disability in

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 different locations ……………………………………………………………...... 71
4.14 Type of disability dominantly used in Zemen newspaper………………………..71
4.15 Distribution of pictures used in Zemen newspaper………………………………73
4.16 Dominant sources quoted in Zemen newspaper………………………………….74
4.17 Dominant themes used in a disability article and their locations
in Zemen newspaper……………………………………………………………...76
4.18 Articles written as features and news stories in Medical…………………………80
4.19 Number of articles that were represented medically, socially
and both in Medical newspaper…………………………………………………...81
4.20 Number of articles that compare disability with non disability in
different locations………………………………………………………………….82
4.21 Type of disability dominantly used in Medical Zemen newspaper……………….83
4.22 Distribution of pictures in Medical newspaper……………………………………84

4.23 Dominantly quoted sources in Medical newspaper……………………………….84

4.24 Dominant themes used in a disability article and their locations in………………86

List of Appendices
Appendices
A. Table 4.25 Children vs. Adult Manifestations………………………………….99
B. Lists of Informants
C. Coding sheet
D. Coding book
E. Interview guide
F. Role of the Articles
G. Frames used in each newspaper

vi
 Abstract

Disability is a very ordinary part of life in every part of the world. Yet the problem gets
worse in developing countries like Ethiopia as a result of poverty and war. Hence this
research aimed to study how this issue is framed, portrayed and covered in three local
Amharic newspapers. The research looked in to dominantly covered types of disabilities
and pictures used in these newspapers. Framing theory was also made central to the work.

The study employed both quantitative and qualitative research methods; content analysis
and in-depth interview. Of 53 newspapers in the country, the study made purposive
selection of three sample newspapers (Addis Zemen, Addis Admas and Medical) with in
the time frame of 18 months between December 2005 and May 2007. Through out these
periods, 56 articles were coded by two trained individuals. In-depth interviews were also
made with journalists and editors of each newspaper so as to get information that would
have been impossible otherwise.

As per the results acquired, the issues of disability in Admas and medical were covered
due to the presence of a link of research finding in it. These newspapers also employed
“need for cure” themes hence depicted disability as ‘synonymous with illness and
suffering’. While in Zemen it was covered as news stories, depicted socially, only
because it involved charities and donation links made by international organizations.
Much of the stories in Zemen were framed to attribute responsibility to Government and
NGOs as having the ability to alleviate the problem, although there were a number of
other frames used. On the other hand, Admass and Medical persistently used empathy
frames while reporting on disability depicting them as ‘helpless and needy’.

All the newspapers also were engaged in selection and salience as they persistently cover
one type of disability over others. Zemen and Medical dominantly reported on Visual
impairments of adults over others while Admass was engaged to cover mental illness and
retardations in children.

vii
 Acronyms

CSAE: Central Statistics Authority of Ethiopia

DAA: Disability Awareness in Action
DFID: Department for International Development
EEOC: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
EFMH: Ethiopian Federal Ministry of Health
ETV: Ethiopian Television
FAO: Food and Agricultural Organization
IDD: Iodine Deficiency Disorders
TV: Television
VAD: Vitamin A Deficiency
WHO: World Health Organization

1
 Chapter one

1. Introduction
1.1 Background

The World Health Organization (WHO), 1992, estimates that 10% of every developing
country’s population are disabled. The central statistics authority of Ethiopia (CSAE) latest
publication July’s 2006-projected total population to be 75,067,000 persons. Thus the Total
number of disabled people in Ethiopia will be 7,506,700, a huge figure for the country to
contend with. However, Disability is a significant but often an overlooked social status in
society with dynamics and social consequences similar to other social statuses such as race,
ethnicity and gender (Gordon & Rosenblum 2001).

Further, the World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons (WPA the United
Nations), 1988, states that at different degrees every individual possesses impairments. It
said;
In reality there are no sharp parameters, but different individuals possess a
range of abilities to differing degrees. For example, visual ability ranges
from people with near-perfect 20/20 vision through to those who need
glasses, or who have restricted vision even using glasses, to those who can
see nothing at all. The same is true of all other types of impairments, from
people with minimal hearing loss, to others who are profoundly deaf from
birth, from people with a little limited mobility to others who are completely
confined to a bed, finally there are people with minimal learning impairment
to those with profound learning impairments. The truth is we all have a
range of abilities and limitations and in this disabled persons are no
different. This information directed to two conclusions:
· Disabled people are not a small, marginalized minority but a significant section of the
public and, as such, they are also directly consumers of media products;
· Disability is a very ordinary part of life.

2
However, as a result of negative attitudes and discrimination disabled people, as a group,
generally occupy an inferior status in African countries and are severely disadvantaged
socially, vocationally, economically, educationally and politically (Phiri, 2004).

Some people in Biblical times also depict these people as sin and sinners. Similarly,
historically in Ethiopia, disabled people and disability are seen as punishment of God, curse
(of elders or forefathers or an attack of evil spirit), beggars, evil eyes, and in need of charity
and protection as a result of traditionally held views (UN, 2001). Films and videos also
depict this assumption. One recent example could be that of “KIBRENEK” made in
Ethiopia, which means “DISGRACE”. This film depicts a kind of beliefs that people with
disabilities are a disgrace to the family and the society. The researcher herself grew up
listening to these beliefs, traditionally.

Dahl, (1993), writes a review of our cultural forms of expression provides evidence of the
metaphoric role of disability, which is deeply ingrained in our social values, (in Sontag,
1978). It has been a convention of all literature and art that physical deformity, chronic
illness, or any visible defect symbolizes an evil and malevolent nature and monstrous
behaviour (Ibid). History tells that, society’s attitude towards disabled people is still guided
by stereotypes and myths (UN, 2001).

What is Disability?

Disability is defined as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or

more major life activity. These major life activities may include walking, seeing, hearing,
speaking, learning, or working, equal employment opportunities (Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission and Department of Justice, 1991). However, disability problems
get even worse especially in developing countries like Ethiopia where poverty seems to be
prevalent and where technological advancements are scarce. UN, 2001, also envisaged that
the combination of poverty, ignorance, war, famine and drought with the absence of

3
adequate preventive and rehabilitation services could produce high prevalence of disability
in Ethiopia.

According to Dahl, (1993 p.2) society constitutes a major barrier for people with
disabilities with its misconceptions, attitudes, and commonly held beliefs. Dahl says
attitude change can follow on heightened awareness, increased contact, and increased
meaningful communication between disabled and non-disabled people (Ibid). Although
personal interaction is the most effective medium for conveying the personal experience of
disability, Dahl asserts, the mass media can be an effective vehicle for bringing about
greater understanding, and a consequent gradual change in public perceptions, of people
with disabilities Dahl, (1993 p.2). Although, as many researches show, it is difficult to
discover the precise effects of the media on public opinion, but it is possible that attitudes
and opinion changes dramatically through time, as a result of what is seen or heard (Dahl,
1993 p.7).

On the other hand media as to Jones, & Ulicny, 1986, can perpetuate or abolish disability
perceptions through its word choices and story focuses. Therefore, Media has a potential
for generating social knowledge, providing common terms of reference and uniting
people’s consciousness about minority people and people of especial attention through
continuous information (Ibid).

Nevertheless the Ethiopian Federal Ministry of Health, (EFMH), 2004, asserts that
information on modern treatments is limited to clinical settings primarily seen in few
hospitals that existed in the early 20th century, (EFMH, 2004). A recent report also said
many organizations in Ethiopia do not hire a person with whom people with disabilities can
contact and get information from. It is said that only 14% of people with disabilities go to
hospitals to get a test for HIV and Aids as a result of lack of information (Ethiopian
television (ETV), 2006, July).

4
This is why the study aimed to conduct a research on how Ethiopian media particularly
newspapers contribute to societal knowledge and information through their coverage,
depictions and frame of disability issues and people with disabilities.

1.2. Problem statement

The number of people with disabilities is increasing all over the world (WHO, 1992).
Societies on the other hand need to be informed of such health issues for the reason that a
large proportion of disability is preventable according to Department for International
Development (DFID), 2000, p.6, through continuous education. However many societies
do not believe that it is curable and preventable as a result of lack of knowledge (Ibid).

Poor nutrition, dangerous working and living conditions, limited access to

vaccination programmes, and to health and maternity care, poor hygiene, bad
sanitation, inadequate information about the causes of impairment, war and conflict,
and natural disasters all cause disability. Many of these causes are preventable (Ibid
p.6).

Much of the causes of disability in many ways are seen to be associated with poverty.
(WHO, 1992, DFID, 2000,) states that hunger, malnutrition and poverty breed disabilities.
The organization estimates between 250,000 and 500,000 children go blind every year
from Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD). As to these organizations, there are over 16 million
mentally handicapped and nearly 49.5 million people with lesser degrees of brain damage
due to Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD). More than half of all pregnant women in the
world are anemic, of whom 90% live in developing countries (Ibidpp.6-7).

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 2004, asserts that disability is also a cause of
poverty and hunger, especially in rural areas, where people are far from services and have
very limited economic opportunities as a result this leads them very often into the hunger
trap (Ibid).

This being the case, the portrayals of disability in newspaper articles are often pessimistic.
Researchers like Barnes, (1992), show that media often perpetuate a negative image and

5
meaning about these people. Furthermore as researchers like Haller 1999 says many of the
stories about disability in America are substantiated with government or other officials as
sources for stories about people with disabilities. Haller (1999 p.3) asserts that the kind of
sources used in the disability stories have the power to frame the message about disability
issues (Ibid p.11). In an ideal world, people with disabilities should be involved as sources
in any news story that concerns their issues (Ibid). However, in her findings she indicates
that people with disabilities are not ignored though they are not in total control of
disability-related stories. Yet they are used as an example than sources in hard news. On
the other hand people with disabilities are used more as sources in feature stories. This
according to Haller, 1999, designates an implication about the “voice” people with
disabilities are given in hard news stories. Besides this, Haller states that almost 70% of the
stories had no identifiable source with a disability in it (Ibid).

In recent years, however, media representations and portrayals of visible minorities have
come under increasing scrutiny (Karen, 2001). Relatively few mass media studies assess
media coverage based on disability. Studies based on groups such as gender, race or
politics are more frequent (Ibid p.7). Karen, (2001) writes that this is unfortunate in that
few Americans have sufficient, direct and personal contact with enough disabled people to
be able to form accurate perceptions of them (Ibid). Thus, media assume added importance.
When looking at perceptions of people with disabilities, literature and mass media may be
even more powerful than personal contact because one's interaction with disabled people
may be restricted by the barriers of architecture, transportation or communication (Ibid).

As a result it seems reasonable to postulate that exposure to mass media messages about the
disabled community is one of the principal determinants of levels of knowledge of and
about people with disability (Ibid). Exposure to media messages is not sufficient to produce
changes in attitudes and opinion, yet negative stereotypes can interfere with the acceptance
of accurate information about people with disabilities (Karen, 2001 p.7-8).

6
On the contrary, despite the fact that these studies are considerable in the research world,
they deal with limited issues of disability like the kind of portrayal and usage of sources.
However a major role of local media in portraying, covering as well as teaching the public
what disability is all about, how to prevent disability, how to live with disability and how to
better see people with disability are lacking since inadequate information about the causes
of impairment are stated as one of the major causes of disability in the literature here
above.

What is more missing in the literature on the issues of disability is the examination of how
the local media particularly the press (both government and private owned) frame the issue
of disability. Media framing of disability remain important since media defines problems,
regarding discrimination and suggest solutions for solving particularly the social problem
people with disabilities face in their different socio-economic contacts.

Further, as Haller, (1999. p.2), asserts journalists select the content and frame the news,
thereby constructing reality for those who read, watch, or listen to their stories. However,
these media frames are filled with cultural meanings (Ibid). The content of the mass media
can provide two contrasting indicators of social culture; the contents of the mass media are
a reflection of the social organization and value system of the society or group interest
involved. Simultaneously, the contents of the mass media are purposive elements of social
change, agents for modifying the goals and values of social groups (Ibid).

As the Ethiopian Federal Ministry of Health, (2004), says information about health issues
are limited to clinical settings thereby large portion of the society lacks knowledge about
disabilities and related issues. As a result, health information in Ethiopian media is less
prevalent for the society (Ibid, 2004). As much of the disabilities being found in developing
countries, Ethiopia being one, what the country’s media doing in this regard remains to be
seen?

7
Therefore, as to the researcher’s knowledge, there is very little research made so far on the
area of disability and the media in general, and no researches made on media portrayal,
coverage and framing of disability issues in particular. Hence, there seems to be a need to
focus research on the area of disability and the local media as they are expected to inform
the public and bring about social changes. Therefore, this research is intended to fill this
gap and study how the Ethiopian newspapers cover, frame and report about issues of
disability and people with disabilities in the stories reported in newspapers.

1.3 Objectives

The research has the aim of looking on Ethiopian newspapers’ portrayal and framing of
stories and articles of people with disabilities. The specific objectives are:

1. To look into contents and frames of disability in three Ethiopian newspapers, the
Medical, Addis Zemen and the Addis Admass.
2. To identify the extent to which Ethiopian newspapers cover and report issues of
disability and how the articles reinforce or challenge current views of people with
disabilities?
3. To identify dominant frames, themes and sources, used in these newspapers when
writing about issues of disability and see the nature of how people with disabilities
are portrayed.

1.4 Research questions

1. What is the nature and extent of Ethiopian newspapers’ coverage and frame of
disability issues?

2. Are the newspapers engaged in reinforcing or challenging current views of

people with disabilities?

3. What are the dominant frames and themes used in theses newspapers while
reporting on issues of disability?

8
1.5 Scope of the study

The study is limited to the horizon of Ethiopian three selected news papers and assesses
their coverage of disability issues. It, therefore, is limited to only this kind of mass media;
hence do not look at representations of disability in television and radios, the Internet and
other magazines or pamphlets produced mainstreaming disability by different non-media
organizations like non-governmental organizations. In addition, the research assesses
articles written about disability with in the time gap of the year December, 2005- May,
2007. As a result its boundary is limed to almost 2 years’ examination. Further as it
assesses textual analysis on newspapers it also lacks an examination of how people with
disabilities perceive or respond to a given media output.

1.6 Significance of the study

There are few researches conducted in the area of media and disability in Ethiopia. This
study is carried out believing that it examines and flings a light on the national media
coverage of disability issues which are often the forgotten aspects of most developing
countries’ media.

The study will be significant for the analysed three newspapers and the Ethiopian media in
general, as it will show the margin in which issues of disability are covered and framed.
Up on the aspiration of the research, it aims to assist the newspapers in question to improve
their coverage and framing of disability since it will address the good sides and indicate
their limitations. It further, will suggest ways on how to improve the social meanings
attached and framing of such issues of disability in Ethiopian newspapers hence to media in
general. The outcome will be considerable for the research world, the disables society and
by large for the Ethiopian newspapers, health sectors, the Ministry of Labour and Social
Affairs and other organizations and NGOs working in similar areas in Ethiopia.

9
Newspapers will benefit most for the research will provide them with adequate information
on how to benefit people with disabilities. Moreover, it will be able to give some insights
for our media on how it would help people with disabilities. Further it will make media
owners, reporters and editors aware of the issue of disability and make them work for the
lives of these people who are often forgotten and stereotyped as being unable of doing
things unlike the non-disabled.

Furthermore, the research will present the current framing of articles and news items in our
media regarding people with disability. In so doing, it will be able to come up with the kind
of framing of issues of disability in newspapers. The research finally, will be helpful, as it
will serve as a foundation and reference for other researchers who wanted to do research in
similar areas as well.

1.7 conceptual definitions

The research has used the following definitions as germane to the research area of
emphasis.

Disability is defined as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or

more major life activity. These major life activities may include walking, seeing, hearing,
speaking, learning, or working, equal employment opportunities (Equal employment
opportunity commission and department of justice, 1991).

The Ethiopian Proclamation concerning the Rights of Disabled Persons to Employment

No.101/1994, defines a disabled person as ‘a person who is unable to see, hear or speak
or suffering from injuries to his limb or from mental retardation, due to natural or
manmade causes; provided, however, that the term does not include persons who are

10
alcoholics, drug addicts and those with psychological problems due to socially deviant
behaviours’.

The ADA (Americans with Disability Act 1990,) defines disability as a physical or mental
impairment in an individual that substantially limits one or more major life activities. A
handicap is a social or other kind of disadvantage that accompanies and stems from the
disability, for example, education. It is described that the devastating effects of lower
education levels among persons with disabilities, as a key factor in higher poverty, lower
income, and greater unemployment in this population (Juliene et al,2000; 11; 212)

Non- disabled means person without disability, but it does not mean normal, or healthy.

Medical model of disability definition; Disability is defined as a problem of functioning at

the individual level, the result of a disease or health condition that causes impairment.
Based on this model, research and interventions focus on eliminating the disease and/or
the impairment to improve an individual’s functional status. The primary construct,
therefore, is the disabling disease or health condition (WHO, 1980 in Lutz and Bowers
2005).

Social model of disability defines disability as a problem at the societal level; that is,
individuals are disabled by a discriminating and prejudicial society. Thus, disability is
distinguished from impairment (Lutz and Bowers, 2005) and is defined as the “disabling
barriers of unequal access and negative attitudes” whereas impairment is defined as “the
functional limitations of bodies and minds”. Solutions to the problem of disability based on
this model are thus seen as interventions, including policy changes that eliminate
discrimination and prejudice, and remove barriers of access to community services at the
societal level.

Discrimination essentially means treating people less favorably than others (Aart, 1995).

11
Advocacy is defined as a set of skills that can be employed to alter public opinion and
mobilise resources in favour of an issue or policy EFMH, 2004. Advocacy as to Dettmer,
1995, is "standing up or speaking up" or "giving active support to a cause, putting out a call
to take a position on an issue, and acting to see it is resolved in a particular way."

Frames are composition of elements; visuals, values, stereotypes, messengers which

together trigger an existing idea that signal what to pay attention to (and what not to),
allowing filling in or inferring missing information, and setting up a pattern of reasoning
that influences decision outcomes. The frame is “the package in which the main point of
the story is developed, supported, and understood.” (Wallack and Dorfman, 1996).

The term framing effects refers to the fact that people’s decisions are heavily influenced
by the way information is framed.

Hegemony refers to a loosely interrelated set of ruling ideas permeating a society, but in
such a way as to make the established order of power and values to appear natural, taken-
for –granted and commonsensical

12
 Chapter two
2. Literature Review
This part will contain literatures, which include theories and views of different scholars
for the study. The aim of this part is to provide germane literatures which are expected
to function as a relevant framework for the current research. It is organized in to four
sections: brief definition and description about what disability means; the role of media
in society and in depiction of disability; and finally about framing theory in the media. In
each of these parts an attempt is made to argue the relation ship between the literature
and the study.

2.1 Literature on general ideas of Disability definitions and concepts

Disability Study is a vibrant and diverse “field” or “area of inquiry” (Steven 2003). First of
all, it is interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary. No single academic discipline can place a
claim says (Steven 2003). Second, “Disability Studies cover an incredibly diverse group of
people. People, who are blind, deaf, use wheelchairs, have chronic pain, and learn at a
slower pace than other people and so on have vastly different experiences and
perspectives” (Steven 2003). Steven (2003) stresses “it does not make sense to lump such
different human beings under a simple category such as disability. Not because they are the
same in any biological or philosophical sense, but because society has placed them in this
category, with consequences for how they are viewed and treated by the majority non-
disabled” (Ibid).

Thus, it is usually easier to define what Disability Studies is not (not medicine,
rehabilitation, special education, physical or occupational therapy, and professions oriented
toward the cure, prevention, or treatment of disabilities) than to specify what it is (Steven
2003). Although Disability Studies scholars generally subscribe to the “minority group
model” of disability, the view that the status of people as a minority shapes their
experiences in society, they agree on little else. For example, some scholars view disability

13
in terms of culture and identity, while others see disability as a label and a social construct
(Ibid).

Despite the fact that it is difficult to define what disability is, Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC, 1991), defines disability in such a way that it is a
physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities.
These major life activities may include waking, seeing, hearing, speaking, learning or
working (EEOC 1991).

However Department for International Development (DFID 2000), states defining

disability is complex and controversial. Though it arises from physical or intellectual
impairment, disability has social implications as well as health ones. A full understanding
of disability recognizes that it has a powerful human rights dimension and is often
associated with social exclusion, and increased exposure and vulnerability to poverty. As a
result disability has many implications in societal as well as medical terms.

As of DFID (2000 p.4), disability is a cause of poverty and a consequence as well.

Disability limits access to education (which is only 1–2% in developing

countries) and employment, and leads to economic and social exclusion.
Poor people with disabilities are caught in a vicious cycle of poverty and
disability, each being both a cause and a consequence of the other. Poverty
and disability reinforce each other, contributing to increased vulnerability
and exclusion. The result of the cycle of poverty and disability is that people
with disabilities are usually amongst the poorest of the poor and their
literacy rates are considerably lower than the rest of the population as a
result they are unable to find employment, driving them more deeply into
poverty. Breaking out of the vicious cycle of poverty and disability becomes
more and more difficult (Ibid p.4).

In addition, Disability Awareness in Action DAA (1995, p.13) states that a large
percentage (75%) of people with disability in developing countries do not get enough to eat.

14
Added to this is the problem of dietary deficiencies; one hundred million people have
impairments caused by malnutrition (Ibid).

Disability as to DFID, (2000, p.5) is the outcome of complex interactions between the
functional limitations arising from a person’s physical, intellectual, or mental condition and
the social and physical environment. It has multiple dimensions and is far more than an
individual health or medical problem (Ibid). In broad it occurs in all nations of the world
regardless of sex, age or race. However it poses diverse challenges in different countries
depending on their socio-economic development as well as cultural and political
circumstances. It means that a person with disability in different society, like Ethiopia and
England is more likely to experience different challenges since these countries do have
different socio economic, cultural and political make ups. These disparities underline the
core concept of disability in its essence of social perspective than the medical one.

Scholars like Steven D. Edwards, (2005), Mike Bury, (1996), Barbara J. Lutz and Barbara
J. Bowers, (2005), stress on two models; medical and social, to conceptualize disability
understanding.

The medical model conceptualizes disability as a result of a disease or health condition.

As such, the focus of this model is to eliminate the disease or condition and the resulting
impairment and/or functional limitations (Brandt & Pope, 1997; Nagi, 1991; WHO, 1980)
in Lutz and Bowers, (2005).

On the other hand, the social model of disability or the rights-based model, conceptualizes
disability as apart from impairment. Disability, from this perspective, results from a
disabling society. Thus, the focus of this model is to eliminate the prejudice, oppression,
and barriers that prevent persons with impairments from participating in society eclipse the
disabling effects of the impairment itself (Lutz and Bowers, 2005 citing Finkelstein, 1993;
Marks, 1997; Morris, 2001; Tregaskis, 2002).

15
Disability, according to the social model, is all the things that impose restrictions on
disabled people; ranging from “individual prejudice to institutional discrimination, from
inaccessible public buildings to unusable transport systems, from segregated education to
excluding work arrangements, and so on (Dinerstein, 2005). Essentially, according to the
“social model” people with disabilities are disabled because society “disables” them with
environmental barriers and social attitudes. Otherwise, people with disabilities would be
people with impairments able to be educated, to work, to live their lives independently,
Dinerstein, 2005.

Lutz and Bowers, 2005 assert that Disability can not only be seen from the medical point of
view but from the social perspectives as well. The reason for this as Bury, 1996, is the
recognition of the role of impairment, alone, does not avoid social dilemmas. He notes
Disability is not the resulting limitations caused by chronic illness, impairment or trauma,
but also the way such matters are responded to and categorized by the wider society (Bury,
1996).

Historically, disability has been explained and understood from a variety of perspectives.
These views of disability span a continuum from a diagnostic-medical perspective to a
complex, interactive person-in-environment perspective (Stiker, 1999). Simply putting the
diagnostic-medical explanation of disability places the locus of disability internally, within
an individual who has experienced illness, insult, or anomaly. This internal focus results in
an interpretation of the disabled individual as defective with reference to normative
physical, behavioural, psychological, cognitive, or sensory being. The interactive, person-
in-environment lens, on the other hand, looks at the interaction of the person with the
environmental and societal barriers (Striker, 1999).

Therefore, disability Studies generally refer to the examination of disability as a social,

cultural, and political phenomenon (Steven et al, 2003). In contrast to clinical, Medical, or
therapeutic perspectives on disability, Disability Studies focuses on how disability is
defined and represented in society. From this perspective, disability is not a characteristic

16
that exists in the person so defined, but a construct that finds its meaning in social and
cultural context (Ibid). Current debates about the nature of disability in society as well are
now being focused on discrimination and the redefinition of disability as a human rights
issue asserts Hurst, (1995). This shift has been marked by the development of an
increasingly politicised disability movement at all levels (Hurst, 1995).

2.2 Disability and the Developing World

Disability in developing countries is characterized by poverty and vulnerability as most of

the causes of disability are “malnutrition and injuries” as to DAA (1995, p.13). This often
is associated with children who are working as to the International labor Organization (ILO
1996). As Power 2001, argues, what partly defines disability in developing countries is the
‘voiceless ness’ and institutional neglect of disabled people who are often forced to take
positions on the peripheries of their societies. ILO, 1996, similarly states:
This is both a product of prevailing attitudes within these societies but can
also be attributed to ways in which disability was institutionalized under
colonialism. In many pre-colonial societies, disabled people were
pragmatically accommodated by what they were able to contribute to the life
and welfare of communities (Ibid).

In many developing countries, humanitarian models were imposed, with disabled children
attending special schools run by a church or charitable non-governmental organizations as
to Kabzems & Chimedza, (2002). The charitable link provided communities with
personnel, funding and equipment that served as an alternative source of attitudes towards
disabled people. Churches and charities very often filled, and continue to fill, gaps in
provision for disabled people (Ibid). However, they also imported attitudes that emphasized
medical/ charitable models of disability, development and service delivery; aid was usually
contingent on the adoption of the philosophy of the donor or service provider, and this is
still very often the case stresses (Kabzems and chimedza, 2002).

17
Like wise disability in industrialized countries poses different questions. Disability does
not mean the same thing across cultures and over time. Barens (1991), states, “it has been
widely acknowledged that the place of disabled people in industrialized societies has
changed as social, cultural, economic and political environments have developed” (Ibid).
However, definitions of disability are required to shape policy, and there is a general
tension between the need for internationally shared meanings that enable cross-cultural
information exchange and, on the other hand, the need to recognize cultural differences as
Stone (1999, p.2), notes.

The term "disability" is now used by many disabled people to represent a complex system
of social restrictions imposed on people with impairments by a highly discriminatory
society (DAA, 1995). Disability, therefore, is a concept distinct from any particular
medical condition. It is a social construct that varies across culture and through time, in the
same way as, for example, gender, class or caste (DAA, 1995). These two approaches are
used to depicting disability.

2.3 Historical perspective on Media depiction of disability

Barnes, (1992 p.7), writes that the link between impairment and all that is socially
unacceptable was first established in classical Greek theatre. Cultural stereotypes today
continue to perpetuate this negative view, leading to a portrayal of disable people as
pitiable and pathetic (Ibid). Media encourage pity, in order that the non-disabled public can
express compassion by giving money (Ibid). Barnes explains; a regular feature of popular
fiction is to show overtly dependent disable people receiving help from kind and sensitive
persons - and even better if the disable person is appealing, eliciting even greater
sentimentality. These images project to the general public the idea that the well-being of
disable people is entirely dependent upon the benevolence of others. Historically, popular
fiction has depicted disable people as poor defenceless victims. As a result, mass media
images still provide many of the cultural representations of disability to society (Barnes,
1992).

18
Barnes, (1992), states that the negative view of disable people is a common feature within
the broadcast media.

Disabled individuals are continuously depicted on TV screens either in

hospitals or nursing homes, "perpetuating the myth that disability is
synonymous with illness and suffering". Presentations of research into
medical treatments and impairment-related cures shown on TV news
programs and documentaries are designed to stimulate sympathy. This
portrayal perpetuates the medical model of disability away from the social
factors which cause disability. These highly emotive broadcasts use
language which induces sentimentality which many disable people find both
patronizing and offensive. Derogatory language such as 'cripple' or
'dummies' is almost never used, but terms such as, 'the disabled' or 'the
handicapped' are preferred, depersonalizing disable people, shredding them
of their humanity, reducing them to objects. Even reporters who use neutral
terminology, still employ terms such as, 'plucky', 'brave', 'courageous
victims' or 'unfortunates' (Ibid).

Consequently the manner in which media portray disabled people has a significant impact
on how disabled people are regarded in real life by non-disabled society given that media
serves as a powerful socializing agent; reflects our norms, beliefs and values, acting as a
prism through which we interpret and disseminate words and images which impact our
lives in a most profound ways (Barnes 1992 p.10). However it should be eminent that it is
difficult to firmly make such a sweeping statement though it seems.

According to Barnes, (1992), the way news items and features about disabled people are
presented also prejudices the way they are viewed. Disabled people, as to Barnes are
frequently seen as overcoming their impairment, through cure or rehabilitation. The real
struggles of disabled people's lives - poverty, inaccessibility and discrimination - receive
little attention, so that images of disabled people as real people, rather than as cardboard
figures to be feared, admired or pitied are not available to the general public (Ibid).

However, it is not only the type of media representation that affects people’s attitudes but
also the amounts of coverage people with disabilities receive.

19
According to Brittain, (2004), media coverage given to an event suggests the value placed
on it by programmers. Programmers cover an event for a variety of reasons, like financial,
perceived interest to the viewing public or sponsors, or simply newsworthiness. In addition,
the locations and formats of stories also indicate the values placed on that issue (Ibid).

For media coverage to have any real, major, positive effects in this area, it is not only the
amount of coverage that needs to improve but also the content of that coverage and the
underlying perceptions upon which it is formulated. Although it could be argued that some
coverage is better than no coverage at all, if that coverage is only going to reinforce
negative perceptions of disability, it has to be questioned as to whether it is actually doing
more harm than good stresses Brittain, (2004).
Based on the literature so far, media depiction of disability and issues of disability mainly
focus on one of the models, the medical. As a result the focus shapes the judgments and
attitudes readers or viewers would more likely posses regarding the issue under the
spotlight.

The extent of media portrayals and coverage remains one of the important factors that
affect or influence societal attitudes towards disability and issues of disability.

Therefore, as Gitlin, (1980), notes, the mass media are, to say the least, a significant social
force in the forming and delimiting of public assumptions, attitudes, and moods and of
ideology, in short.

2.3.1 The role of media in society

Mcquail, (2000), in his media and society theory asserts that media and society are
inseparable in many ways and it is often difficult to separate media from the lives of the
society and vise-versa. He states, mass communication interposes in some way between
“reality” and our perception and knowledge of it (Ibid).

20
Media are also expected to help forge minority identities or to help resolve social conflicts.
Gold and Auslander, (1999), explaining more on the same idea asserting that media has
much interplay in society, as a major socialization medium, a transporter of culture, a
source of information, education, and entertainment, as an important factor in political
communication and participation in a democracy, and a communicator of ideological
values and norms, attitudes and beliefs (Ibid). Thus the media can be seen to exert an
influence on identity formation and associated issues around stigma, self-esteem, social,
economic and political relations (Gold and Auslander, 1999). In this regard, McQuail,
(2000), states the concept of hegemony of how the media culture (news, entertainment,
fiction) helps to maintain the class divided and class dominated society. Hegemony tends to
define unacceptable opposition to the status quo as dissident and deviant. In effect it is a
constantly reasserted definition of social situation, by way of discourse rather than political
or economic power, which becomes real in its consequences (Hall, 1982, in Mcquail).

Hence media has a major role in the society and to the society. It seems that many people
are dependent on the media to be informed about current events of the world and their
environment. Above and beyond, they are dependent to receive information about less
news worthy issues such as health1 and education. Researches also indicate that mass
media serves as a major source of information, metaphors and values in a mass society
influencing customs, taste and morality in a wide range of areas including politics, religion,
family and sexual life, science and medicine (Clark, 1992, in Valenta, 2002).

Among the several media roles to society, informing, educating, and entertaining are
mostly mentioned. The media have a significant influence on the development of both
concepts and attitudes held by the general public towards individuals with disabilities as
well as the self-concept of disability says Walker, 1988 cited in smith, 1990. As a result,
media service, particularly, play a powerful role in the lives of people with disabilities.
Media are capable of sharing the experiences of people with disabilities either (correctly or

1
Health is defined primarily as the absence of disease Wallack and Dorfman, 1996.

21
incorrectly) there by influencing people's attitudes especially towards people with
disabilities (Phiri, 2004).

As stated on page 21, there is in fact a great deal of relationship between media and society,
one depending on the other. In addition media have the potential to reach various parts of
the society with in a very short period of time, so it can for instance, educate the public
about causes of disability both natural and manmade. It can as well contribute much to
bringing about attitudinal change by persistently referring to the causes of disability and
their equal rights in society so as to show accurate perceptions.

2.3.2 The role of media in influencing the direction of public opinion on disability

Generally, communication whether it is a face to face or from the media is the heart of any
social life. However under certain circumstances where face to face communication is
unattainable due to certain cultural or traditional attitudes, media communication becomes
a powerful tool for communicating about a certain issue, like in this case the issue of
disability. Karen (2001), for instance states, how people in America do not have personal
contacts with people with disability and as a result, how their perception about disability
depended on the media. In this case media plays a role regarding the kind of perception
people will have on disability and people with disabilities.

Gold and Auslander, (1999) state that there should be number of aspects that need to be
examined when considering the relation ship between media and disability. Among them,
media contents (representations, stereotypes, absences), and media policies which address
language, technology, content and scheduling. They significantly stress on the media
contents, technologies and policies for they all convey discourses about disability that
frame the way disability is constructed and viewed in the society (Ibid).

The modern day media plays an important role not only in reflecting public attitudes and
values regarding disability, but also in shaping them (Gold and Auslander, 1999). Based on

22
the idea that the media influence audience members, first, by selecting certain people and
events for attention and, second, by telling the audience what is important to know about
the story (Schooler, et al, 1996).

Haller, (1999) also notes the contents of the mass media are reflections of the social
organization and value system of the society or group interest involved. Simultaneously,
the contents of the mass media are purposive elements of social change, agents for
modifying the goals and values of social groups, hence getting on the news media agenda is
essential, and how the issue is represented-or framed-is equally important.

In addition Voakes et al, (1996), states that news audiences receive information about
diversity issues directly from content in the news so does this study. “The content is what
activates, motivates, interests, and involves its mass audience.” (Voakes et al, 1996).

Thus, the role of media in educating and shaping the public about issues of disability to
bring about societal opinion change regarding disability is generally accepted among
scholar, governments, none government organizations, and people with disabilities.
However to what extent media put in to bringing about good portrayals and influencing
social opinion remains a field of debate among scholars.

In the literature, it has been said how media could bring about change in societal attitude
towards an issue. However it is not only media coverage about disability and issues of
disability that could bring about changes, but it highly depend as well on the way in which
these issues are presented in a particular way. Hence several studies show significant
correlations between media attention to issues and salience of those issues to the public.

Harwood et al, (2005) asserts; theoretically and practically, the news media can play
several agenda setting and issue-framing roles in advancing public policies. One role is to
set the agenda of public concern by establishing issues as salient or cognitively accessible
to individuals in the population (Scheufele, 2000 in Harwood, 2005).

23
As stated earlier, media coverage of issues of disability remains one among the important
factors that determine the attitudes of society on such matters. However, the same coverage
of an issue may entertain a different response as a result of how an issue is framed.
Consequently, media framing of issues of disability is equally important.

2.4 Framing and the theory of framing

Framing, an analytical technique, was first developed by social psychologists, but

Kathleen, 2004, says it helps explain the roles of the news media in defining and refining
issues for the public. However, Entman, (1993), states that framing appears in different
fields and circumstances as a result there is no single precise definition for it.

Dorfman, (2005), also comments on framing that it means different things to different
people. She says some think of framing as finding the right word, while others think that
frames knock on complex moral structures that trigger how people react to a whole
constellation of social and public policy issues in our society (Dorfman, 2005).Yet,
Semetko and Valkenburg, (2000), go on to state that, the various definitions that have been
used in different fields suggest a range of similar characteristics in their essence.

Gamson, 1998, (in Kathleen, 2004) called a frame “a central organizing idea or a story line
that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of events for making sense of relevant events
and suggesting what is at issue” given that not every angle of an event in the story is
included or put in to attention in the media. Consequently some aspects of an event or
issues become more dominant over the others.

As said in the previous paragraphs, disability is a multifaceted term and has various
implications when used in different contexts. Many issues are involved in the creation,
prevention and addressing the matter in its social as well as health perspective. As a result,
media might dominantly focus on the physical problems, barriers, or discrimination over

24
other issues of disability. This in other words indicates what is at issue and the angle in
which the story is told.
Tuchman, (1973), (in Scheufele, 1999) offered a similar definition for media frames: the
news frame organizes every day reality and the news frame is part and parcel of everyday
reality. Frame is an essential feature of news. Kensicki, (2004), writes news can be
understood as a narrative that has implied meaning. News and information have no intrinsic
values unless embedded in a meaningful context which organizes and lends it coherence.
As to Kensicki, (2004), the meaningful context is the frame that shapes a news story.

On the other hand, Entman, (1993), provided a generally applicable definition by linking
selection and salience to frames. To frame, as to Entman, is to select some aspect of a
perceived reality and make them salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to
promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and
treatment recommendation. Frames for Entman fulfill many functions like they define
problems by determining the causal agents, diagnose causes by indicating the factors
behind the problem, make moral judgments by evaluating causal agents and their effects
and suggest remedies and forecasting the effect of the treatment. To perform these
activities, as to Entman, a number of textual devises can be used. This includes uses of
certain words, phrases, making certain contextual references, choosing certain pictures or
films referring to certain sources and so on. These textual devises create the difference in
presenting the same thing in different perspective.

For instance a newspaper might use certain words like “unfortunate” to refer to people with
disabilities and might include big pictures of, for instance, a body part that is disabled.
These devices (the word “unfortunate” and the big picture) as to Entman are the elements
where a particular issue might be defined in certain manners hence become salience in a
communicating text of a newspaper.

In such a way, media provides not only facts about an issue but also put in issues in
contexts to engage the readers or viewers. As a result frames influence how the public think

25
of an issue by defining the issue, indicating what/who the causes are, and suggesting what
should be or needed to be done to overcome the problem (Entman, 1993).

Like wise, Andsagar and Powers, (1999, p.538) explain media framing as a selection
process where by pieces of information are selected and placed together in news stories.
Thus, Frames tells more than what is significant and newsworthy, according to Pan and
Kosicki, (1993).The selected frames indicate which opinions, interpretations, and
definitions are more valid particularly in conversational issues (Pan and Kosicki, 1993
p.68).

The frame is “the package in which the main point of the story is developed, supported, and
understood” regarding Wallack and Dorfman, (1996). For these people, frames to a larger
extent define the boundaries of a public discussion about an issue. Elements in the frame
are perceived as credible and legitimate. Elements outside the frame, however, are marginal
and have limited currency in public debate.

The media frames further reflect the dominant norms, values and culture of society.
Kathleen, (2004), referring to Reese et al, (2001), says that frames must be consistent with
the values of the audience to be effective. For instance if disability and disability issues are
covered most of the time then that tells somehow something about the concern of the
society and the media. In other words it tells something about the values given to an issue
in society and the media. Reese et al, (2001), however, goes on to assert that unless those
values –social, economic or cultural are shared by the audience, the frames lose their
organizing effectiveness.

When journalists frame an event, they activate the existing beliefs and understandings and
they do not need to create them, though they are not often aware of whether they are
framing a story or not writes McQuail, (2000). It shows how frames are understood among
the audiences who have had their own prior understanding and beliefs. Media frames also
serve as working routines for journalists that allow the journalists to quickly identify and

26
classify information and “to package it for efficient relay to their audiences” Gitlin, (1980).
For Gitlin, frames are indispensable for communications; they are the scaffolds for any
credible stories Gitlin, (1980).

Confirming to Reese et al’s idea, Gilliam 2003 (in Dorfman 2005) explains that frames are
the “labels the mind uses to find what it knows.” Frames are a composition of elements;
visuals, values, stereotypes, messengers which together trigger an existing idea. Gilliam
says, they tell what this communication is about. They signal what to pay attention to (and
what not to), they allow filling in or inferring missing information, and they set up a pattern
of reasoning that influences decision outcomes. Framing, therefore, is a translation process
between incoming information and the pictures in our heads hence takes very few words to
trigger a frame (Gilliam 2003). For instance, one might think that disability is lacking legs,
then if a newspaper includes a story of a person with out having two legs, then the person
reading would find it easier to understand as a result of prior built knowledge and image of
the situation or disability.

Lakoff (1996) in Dorfman et al, (2005), on the other hand, says frames are equivalent to
optical illusions and are seen in terms of whether the glass is half full or whether the glass
is half-empty. Thus it depends on the choice of people to see the same event or issue from
the perspective of half full or half empty. Accordingly, people make different choices
depending on how information is framed.

Lakoff, (1996), points out some pieces about framing asserting on the idea that
Communication itself comes with a frame.
• The elements of the Communication Frame include: a message, an audience, a
messenger, a medium, images, a context, and especially, higher-level moral and
conceptual frames and,
• The choice of language, which is vital, but vital because language evokes frames:
moral and conceptual frames.

27
Entman, (1993), further added a similar idea regarding the above statement made by lakoff
that frames are found in at least four elements of communications. The communicator, the
text, the receiver, and the culture hold frames. Frames also guide the communicator
messages while in the text frames emphasise facts or opinion. In contrast, the receivers
might have frames that are different from the communicators and the text. Lastly, culture
provides common frames shared by the majority of the social group.

A frame generally is defined by what it includes, excludes and omits while defining
problems, explaining, evaluating and recommending on an event or issue, writes Entman
(1993). By focusing on one aspect and omitting the other, media draws and directs readers
or viewers attention away from the other side which perhaps might lead in to a different
reaction, emphasizes Entman (1993).

All in all then, framing, as to these scholars, refers to a kind of selection made by
journalists to emphasise the most important part of the story dominate over other parts of
the story so that the way readers or viewer’s can in the same way understand the point
emphasised and leave out the rest. As a result it will shape their perception in such a way as
framed by media professionals. In the same way, the issue of disability might be selected to
appear in the media but the question of what part of disability is most emphasised in an
article is what influences the way readers understand the point at focus.

However some times due to the complexity of the concept of framing, many associate it
with agenda setting which refers to as salience of issues in the media as to McCombs, and
Shaw, (1972), in McQuail (2000). According to these authors, agenda setting is a process
of media influence (intended or unintended) by which the relative importance of news
events, issue or personage in the public mind is affected by the order of presentation or
relative salience in news reports (McCombs, and Shaw, 1972, in Mc Quail 2000).

Framing, on the other hand, is seen as a second level of agenda setting which refers to the
salience of attributes. Here, McQuail, (2000) argues that frames have two main meanings.
One refers to the way in which news content is typically shaped and contextualized by

28
journalists with in a familiar frame of reference and underlying meanings. The other is
concerned with the effect framing on the public where the audience is thought to adopt the
frame of reference set by journalists as to see the world in a similar fashion. Mc Quail says
this second meaning of frame is related with agenda setting.

Based on this idea McCombs, and Shaw, (1972), define frame as the selection of- and
emphasis upon- particular attributes for media agenda. As to these authors, it is useful to
place framing in agenda setting context for it unifies scattered concepts of framing by
differentiating it from other attributes. Further it helps to address emphasis and tone used in
media content and their effect on audiences (McCombs, and Shaw, 1972). When used in
agenda-setting approaches, frames will here be considered as both consciously adopted, but
more frequently unconsciously used conceptual scaffolds (Gitlin, 1980).

More over, Scheufele, (1999), provides a distinction between frames and agenda setting
based on the selection and salience perspective. As to Scheufele, agenda setting deals with
selection and salience of issues while frames examine selection and salience of elements of
a single issue. Further McCombs and Shaw, (1972), assert that frames in agenda setting,
are either the central ideas or aspects of an issue. This depends on how the media is
analysed. If we identify the major theme of the story, frames become the central theme,
while aspects become fames when we analyze “various attributes” of the story. Theme as
to pan and kosicki, (1993), refers to the central idea that connects the different “semantic
elements” in to a meaningful whole. Semantic elements refer to elements that hold
meanings in language as it also is the study of meanings in linguistics.

These distinctions remain important as to the aspiration of this research for it highly
depends on these aspects of selection and salience of frames in the issue of disability in
Ethiopian newspapers.

As to Pan and Kosicki, (1993), frames in the media have decisive indicating factors by
showing signifying elements of whether an issue is for example advocated or not. Pan and
Kosicki, (1993), explain that the news media use frames in “news texts as a system of

29
organized signifying elements that both indicate the advocacy of certain ideas and provide
devices to encourage certain kind of audience processing of the texts.”

In addition Wallack and Dorfman, (1996), goes on to state frames as; if an issue does not
exist in the media, then it is not really an issue for decision makers and the larger public.
They say gaining access to the news media is important for two reasons. One for setting
public agenda that is linked to the amount of media coverage and thus the broad visibility
of an issue. The media set the agenda for each other, and their collective agenda helps set
the public agenda. Two, the news media are vehicles for reaching opinion leaders and
policymakers. These authors assert that the only way to have a “conversation” with a
particular policymaker is through the news media. Wallack and Dorfman further, stress that
access provides visibility, credibility, and legitimacy for the issue being discussed and
helps set both the public and policy agendas. They say, “after all, health is a newsworthy
topic, and public health stories usually involve conflict, controversy, community
involvement, and struggle-the stuff of drama and interesting news” Wallack and Dorfman,
(1996).

These scholars emphasize that media organizes a range of activities around two
fundamental, interrelated concepts: framing for access and framing for content. Framing for
access means as to Wallack and Dorfman, 1996, shaping the story to get journalists’
attention and gain access to the media. It means being able to create an event that will be
interpreted as news or to interpret an existing news event to make a story newsworthy.
Framing for content means telling the story from policy advocacy, perspective that
emphasises root causes or upstream conditions of the problem (Wallack and Dorfman,
1996), hence as in the current research the issue of disability and its root causes for social
and medical biases.

Kernochan R., (2004), states, framing is an unavoidable part of human communication.

Kernochan says “We find it in the media as events are presented in certain ways; we find it

30
in politics as politicians attempt to characterize events as one thing or another; and we find
it in negotiating when one side tries to move another towards a desired outcome”

In addition as to what news frames are and where to find them in texts, scholars like
Dorfman et al, (2005) writes “in greater numbers than ever before, people in our society get
their information, especially what they know about any person or situation they don’t
personally experience, from the media; especially the news”. These scholars further state,
that although the entertainment media transmit ideas and mores through popular culture,
the news is the site for public conversation, the place where policy issues are debated and
framed. They say holding on to Walter Lippmann’s critics that “news was functioning to
provide the pictures in our heads that were determining policy decisions”. The news, then,
is an important source of frames as well as the terrain on which public health policy is
debated. The routines of producing news have shaped typical news frames in ways that
make public health stories communicate social justice values that are harder to tell
(Dorfman et al, 2005).

Kensicki, (2004), writes though readers often forget specific elements of media stories,
they retain general impressions that later become integrated in to their perception of the
world. News is an authoritative version of reality that specialises in “orchestration everyday
consciousness by virtue of their occurrence, accessibility and their centralized symbolic
capacity” (Kensicki, 2004).

De Vreese, (2004, pp.36-38) states that by means of activation of certain constructs, news
can encourage particular “trains of thoughts” which citizens may make use of in subsequent
judgments as a result of news frame effects. De Vreese, (2004) says it remains an open
question however, whether audiences pick up more of the news frame or the core news
facts when conceiving an issue in the news.

31
Entman, (1993), asserts that a single sentence in a news can hold more than one framing
function (define problem, diagnose cause, make moral judgments or suggest solution).
However, many sentences may not contain these functions Entman, (1993, p.52).

De Vreese, (2004, pp.37-40), on the other hand, state that frames are found at the first
moments of television news and early sentences of articles in the newspaper and magazine.
Thus, headlines and subheads, opening and closing paragraphs are therefore very important
frame indicators. Johnson-cartee, (2005, p.173) further state that frames are found in the
headlines and kickers (small headlines over the main headline), subheads, leads (the
beginning of news stories), photo captions, photographs, concluding statements or
paragraphs, source selection, pull quotes, logos, statistics, figures and graphs of a story.

2.4.1 Predominantly used media frames

As stated previously frames appear in many forms but the following are predominantly
used in many fields including the media. Conflict, economic, human interest, morality,
attribution of responsibility, and empathy frames are dominantly used in the media.
However De Vreese, (2004, p.36) states conflict frame mostly appears in the news than any
other frames. Research on news values points to the importance of conflict. The presence
of conflict is consistently listed as an essential criterion for making “news” in a story not
only because it “sells” but also to meet the professional standards of balanced reporting.
Framing news in terms of its economic consequences for the audience, the journalistic
news values of “proximity” and “relevance” are translated in to the news (De Vreese,
2004). Next to conflict frame, is the human interest frame for it as well attracts readers and
shows the significance of the problem (Smetko and Valkenburg, 2000). Morality frame on
the other hand places the issue or problem in the “religious tents” or moral prescription by
indirectly quoting sources that raise such issues (Smetko and Valkenburg, 2000). The
attribution of responsibility frame suggests what the causes are and what measures should
be taken as to Kensicki, (2004).

32
In Haller’s, (1999), research on what is being presented about disability in the major
mainstream news media, Haller states that most of the newspaper frames about disability
are tragedy and pity, able-bodied, medical, and legal-oriented disability rights frame are
dominant . Medical and need for a cure frames are dominant in American newspapers like
the Washington post and a legal rights frame for the New York Times (Haller, 1999). In the
same way, which kind of frames appear mostly in the local newspapers remain to be
uncovered then, as we go along with the findings.

2.4.2 Factors affecting media frames

Addressing the factors affecting the way an event or issue is framed in the media is
important for two reasons. One for differing on whose frame the story was presented and
the other is to know the autonomy of journalists to frame a particular issue (Entman1991).

Frames in the media are affected mainly by the following aspects. Of these, Scheufule,
(999, p.109) states five factors that potentially affect the way journalists frame a certain
aspect of an issue or a story. These are Social norms and values, organizational pressures
and constraints, pressure from interest groups, and sources, journalistic routines, and
ideological or political orientations of journalists (Reese, 1996, Tuchman, 1998 p.108).

The way news is framed in the media is a result of social and professional routines of
journalists. According to Edelman, (1993, p.232 in scheufule) the choice of frames often is
driven by ideology and prejudice. Further, organizational pressures that arise from
ownerships affect how an event will be framed. As to Scheufule, (1999), time, human and
financial constraints, by large determine the way stories are framed in media.

2.4.3 Criticism for framing theory

Though this theory remains important as to offering a spotlight on how events are covered
in the media, authors like Scheufele have criticised it. Scheufele, 1999, argues that many
of the limitations of media framing theory relates to its lack of a clear conceptual definition
and generally applicable operation.

33
The theory of framing research is based to often assess media effects, where audiences are
seen to share the frames set by journalists as to, De Vreese, (2004, p.37). De Vreese, (2004)
says it is not easy to pin point whether the audience focuses on the ‘frame’ or ‘facts’ about
the news. It sees audiences as powerless to “passive” who do not oppose the views of the
media. Moreover, framing theory is criticized for exaggerating the media texts (Newman et
al, 1992; 9).

Further, Scheufele, (1999, pp117-18), states when researchers carryout an experimental

studies on media framing, they do not exactly show why and how news fames influence
audiences or readers behaviour, attitude and cognitive. Newman et al, (1992, pp62-74),
further asserted that the selections of different topics do not necessarily require certain
frames.

34
 Chapter three
3. The study design
3.1 Research method

The research made use of quantitative approach as a major research method supplementing
a qualitative approach to it. The reason for using a quantitative (content analysis) approach
as a main research method was because it was a suitable approach for framing research and
a frequently used method.

In addition, it was believed that supporting quantitative research method with a qualitative
one will provide deeper understanding of the problem for these two approaches address
different aspects of the problem; breadth and depth respectively (Orcher 2005). As a result
a quantitative method was used to collect data from the selected newspapers regarding
sources, frames, themes and the likes. While the qualitative approach was used to help
interpret and better understand the complex reality of a given situation and the implications
of quantitative data. As a result it was used to get more information that substantiates the
quantitative analysis which would have been impossible to get otherwise as to the question
of why for instance quote certain sources, select certain type of disability and etc.

3.2 The sample

The study included two types of subjects. Newspaper selection that covered the social
political and health issues of the country were chosen as subjects initially. Then journalists
who wrote most of the article about disability and editors were included as subjects of the
study as well.

Newspapers were selected for their reasonable and conceptual justifications. It would be
rather mentioned that newspapers in Ethiopia only reach a certain level of population due
to the fact that illiteracy is rather high in the country. According to UNESCO, about 57.3 %
of adults in Ethiopia are illiterate. However, newspapers are considered important in

35
reaching the decision makers at a national level. Further newspapers are considered
important for they show a wider picture (Variety) as they are both government and private
owned unlike the broadcast (television and radio) that are government owned.
Nevertheless, it is true that radio and television have higher number of viewers, (any
individual of whether s/he is literate or not can listen and watch it), yet it would be difficult
to do both. Therefore, newspapers were chosen for there are more varieties and new
insights of what one might get in television or radio.

As to the Ministry of Information, (2007), there are about 53 newspapers in Ethiopia

dealing with social, political economic as well as health issues. These include both
government and private owned papers.

Therefore, from the total of 53 newspapers in Ethiopia, this research made a sample
selection of three newspapers namely, the Addis Admass (private), Addis Zemen
(government), and Medical (private). It would be rather important to note that only two
newspapers in Ethiopia deal with medical and health issue exclusively, even though it is
true that other papers deal with health issues in their different columns of their newspapers.

3.3 Sampling technique

The study aimed to see how the Ethiopian newspapers frame the issue of disability.
Therefore, the researcher selected the population of newspapers that cover social, political
and health matters purposefully. This manner was believed to insure diversity in
ownership and content of newspapers. Newspapers were selected mainly for having higher
circulations in the country and for their major area of focus on societal, political and health
issues that were believed to have included the issue of disability since it is all a social,
economic, political and a health concern.

All of the selected newspapers are Amharic newspapers. This was assumed to help in
getting the real and clear understanding and frame of issue of disability in the country while
reading the articles in local language, given that only few educated people would

36
understand the English ones (though the Amharic one as well requires knowledge of
reading). Among the selected three newspapers one is government owned and the rest two
are private owned newspapers. This would be acceptable since most of the newspaper in
the country, 77% are private owned and the rest 33% are under the ownership of
government as to Mekasha (2005).

Addis Zemen which is government owned broadsheet newspaper was established in 1933.
It remained a daily newspaper having all issues like politics, economy, society, health,
entertainment and sport; all in it. The newspaper now has about 18,443 circulations beyond
the confinement of one region as to a recent monthly statistics data of Feb, 2007 of the
Ministry of Information. The sole reason for choosing this paper was due to the
presumption that disability is mostly a concern of government as in when policies are
formulated about disability and equal employment, rights, discrimination and the likes.

Addis Admass which is private owned tabloid newspaper is a weekly paper. It covers
mostly of social issues as well as entertainment. It has a circulation of 30,500 (Ministry of
Information, 2007). The main reason for choosing this paper was for the reason that the
paper recently has started to cover sponsored disability issues on one of their columns and
for its higher circulation.

Medical which is also a private owned tabloid newspaper has a circulation of 13,500
(Ministry of Information, 2007). This weekly newspaper solely deals with health issues of
all kinds. The reason for selecting this paper was due to the assumption that it might
include disability issues in it since disability is partly a health concern and for its high
circulation.

Time frame

It would be unreasonable to set a specific time frame for getting a higher number of articles
dealing with disability since it is unpredictable of whether disability happens now or later.

37
So factually it has no timeframe or any kind of calculations. However the researcher aimed
to set time fame for looking at articles written starting from December 2005 to May 2007
so as to include the month of December, which the International Disability Day is
celebrated in (December 3), and chose the latest year so as to get the most recently used
frames in these newspapers while reporting on disability. This time period might
correspond to the assumption of getting higher number of articles where presumably most
of the critical issues (could be about equal opportunity, about constitutional rights, about
the physical as well as psychological barriers they face or about their success and the
changes that are being achieved so far etc) concerning disability would be raised in the
media.

With in this time frame, from Addis Zemen, (daily) one edition of each week was selected
for analysis. This means four articles per month. Therefore, 72 editions for 18 months were
taken for analysis. However, in order to include all the days in the week in to the analysis,
for this specific newspaper only, the study selected one day from each week’s edition so
that all the days will be represented in the analysis. For instance Monday was taken from
the first week, Tuesday from the second week, Wednesday from the third week and so
forth.
Like wise, from Addis Admass and Medical, since they are both weekly’s, four articles per
month were included in the analysis. This means, 72 editions from each newspaper for 18
months were analyzed. Thus all editions of these two newspapers were included in the
analysis.

Therefore from the three newspapers, 72 editions each, which are 216 newspaper editions,
were included for analysis in the study.

However the researcher added the International Disability Day (December 3) in to the
analysis. This means that 2 (December 3) editions of the Addis Zemen from each year are
taken. This kind of selection would not affect the number of editions since there were
shortages by two editions in the actual systematic selection. Therefore, adding these dates

38
would only contribute for the proper calculation and for the rationale of the date itself for it
provides credibility of the finding and analysis of the whole work.

Articles

In each of the three newspapers, each article was considered a unit of analysis. All articles
that were based on facts (news, features, and interviews) that deal with disability of any
kind were included for analysis. Photos were also included in the article so as to be able to
see the relationship of the theme of the article and the visual representation of disability.
Therefore, both written articles and pictures were coded. However most of the pictures
were found to deal with other settings and scenarios than presumed to depict people with
disabilities.

Moreover, only 56 articles and 13 pictures could be found from 216 editions of all the
newspaper, for the past 18 months. This means each of the 56 articles was analyzed.

Interviews
As mentioned earlier the study proposed to carry out an interview with journalists who are
disabled and non-disabled. However in the end it was learned that all the three newspapers
never had a journalist with impairment, working in their organization. As a result the views
included are of those with out disabilities. They were selected purposefully on the ground
that they wrote most of the articles about disability from each of the three media
organization. One journalist, who wrote most of the articles from each newspaper, was
selected for an interview. However, it was very difficult to trace journalists who wrote
most of the articles from Medical newspaper because there were no articles that provide
by-lines first. In addition, while interviewing the editor in chief, it appeared that most of the
reporters for this newspapers were freelance journalists and was impossible to identify who
wrote on disability more and who did not. As a result it was difficult to trace them. Once
more due to this reason the researcher did not include an interview with a journalist from
Medical newspaper. Similarly only one journalist wrote a story on disability from Admass.

39
However, he was on his annual leave as a result did not carry an interview here too. In fact,
it was believed that this would not affect the results since most of the articles were written
by staff members of the sponsor’s organization. In addition one editor from each of the
three organizations were contacted for an interview as well, regarding media’s portrayal of
disability issues, the Medias attention for it, the amount of coverage and the frame on
which disability is represented.

3.4 Data collection and analysis

A content analysis and in-depth interview were used to collect and analyze essential data
for the study. As mentioned earlier, the content analysis is believed to be the appropriate
analysis method for framing researches. Content analysis (also called: textual analysis) is a
standard methodology in the social sciences on the subject of communication content. Ole
Holsti (1969) offers a broad definition of content analysis as "any technique for making
inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified characteristics of
messages". It has been mentioned that this very research aimed to look in to Ethiopian
media framing of disability issues while reporting on disability both in textual and pictorial
demonstrations or illustrations. Besides content analysis is the most widely, flexible and
frequently used analysis method (White & Marsh, 2006).

On the other hand, the reason for carrying out a supplementary qualitative approach (in-
depth interview) to it was for it could enrich the work with the views of different stake
holders of the problem. Further In-depth interviews were optimal for collecting data on
individuals’ personal histories, perspectives, and experiences, particularly when sensitive
topics are being explored like in this case the issue of disability which would have been
impossible to get otherwise. As a result the research will have a full faceted output for it
won’t be limited to only textual or content analysis.

Coding sheets to analyze the contents of the newspapers were adopted from previously
made researches and prepared so as to be able to analyze the dominant frames used,

40
sources quoted, and pictures used while reporting about disability and disability related
issues. Further, the coding sheets were used to see the extent and location of articles, to
which disability issues appear in the media agenda of these newspapers like any other
reports. Moreover, it was used to see whether the media reinforces or challenges the current
views of disability which is a human right perspective of equality. Therefore, each article
from each newspaper about disability was analyzed in terms of the stated components that
are; the kinds of sources quoted, frames applied, pictures used and locations of articles in
each newspaper.

Categories of items in the coding sheet

The researcher made some relevant category of questions that coders answered in
accordance with the context, the issue of disability. It then was sorted out like the first part
dealt with basic details like genre or formats (whether the story is a news, feature or an
interview), pictures (whether there was a picture, which part was dominant from the
picture, what the caption said) and location of articles in the newspaper (whether the story
was on the front page or inside pages).

The other group was comprised of dominant themes (could be donation, chastity, success,
burdens, neglect or discrimination, crimes and criminal activities, violence or medical care,
educative and the likes), and type of disability (mental illness, physical disability, visual
impairment, hearing difficulty, speaking difficulty, polio, leprosy, emotional disturbance,
multiple disability, and other kinds of disabilities).

The next category took account of dominant sources of the story (whether individual with
disability, NGOs, officials, experts, researchers, researches, families, friends etc were
quoted as sources) and children vs. adult matters for instance to see if children or adults
with any kind of disability were mentioned mostly. The rest included the kinds of frames
used in the media (whether it is a human interest, moral, sympathy and empathy, educative,
advocacy, medical, attribution of responsibility, solution etc frames). Indeed each category
had its own sub categories of other related aspects as well.

41
The coding process

Two postgraduate students were trained to code articles of the three newspapers that
address the issue of disability. After their training they were given the coding sheet and a
coding book with lists of questions, and guides respectively. Then, coders replied to those
questions accordingly as they were given hard copies of each newspaper, which the
researcher checked out from the library, to scan manually. This involved a total of 216
editions of the total of three newspapers. This was believed to assure economical usage of
resources.
Lists of questions for the coding sheet were developed from the literature and the current
issue of disability. Further questions about framing and the existence of a frame in an
article were adopted from previously made framing researches (Wondafrash, 2006,
unpublished thesis) and other researches that made disability the centre of attention, of a
content analysis study, Haller, (1999), respectively.

Thus by taking on some of the important questions from other researches the study was
able to see how the questions raised somewhere else might work in Ethiopia. Yet it should
be rather mentioned that the researcher also made relevant, current and contextual
questions that correspond to the country’s actual and existing situations for example in the
third category, traditional medicines, harmful traditional practices, war, car accidents and
poverty.

Reliability and validity

Regarding reliability and validity of using content analysis, the degree to which the two
coders respond to the same text in the same way (coders’ agreement) was assured. Inter-
coder reliability therefore was measured by using Ole Holsti’s formula, which is:
Reliability = 2*m/ (N1+N2) where;
m is the number of coding decisions on which the two coders agreed

42
N1 and N2 are the total number of coding decisions by the first and second coder
respectively (Wondafrash, 2006).

Therefore, the degree to which the two coders agree ranges from 0.52 - 0.96 for the 15% of
the stories they coded. (See Appendix C). The validity can be assured from the
categorizations of relevant issues on the coding sheet as well. Validity refers to “the extent
to which a measuring procedure represents the intended, and only the intended, concept
(Neuendorf, 2002, p. 112). In this case, the objective of assessing the extent to which
disability is covered in the Ethiopian media and how it is framed would be indicators of the
validity as the most important points in each category were reasonably developed and
included.

3.5 Limitation of the study

There was an enormous time constraint while collecting the data. The study mainly focused
on newspapers that are predominantly circulated in the capital Addis Ababa, and few others
cites. As a result it would be in contrary with the majority of people with disabilities living
in rural areas. However, since the study does not aim to carry out an assessment of how
people with disabilities respond to media products, reception analysis, it will more likely
not affect the work. It as well was limited to this kind of media product, newspaper, only.

The researcher did not carry out two interviews with two journalists because it was
impossible to locate them and because most of the articles in Admass were written by
sponsors. The reasons these writers were not contacted was because the individuals were
not professional journalists rather were staffs in an NGO working for people with
disabilities.

Further, the research might not give a full picture of the Ethiopian media representation of
disability other than the time frame stated. Moreover, the research lacked books about
disability and related issues in relation to the media.

43
 Chapter four
4. Presentation of findings and data analysis

In this chapter analysis of the data collected through out the period from December 2005 –
May 2007 of the three newspapers; in an attempt to assess the prominence and coverage
given to the issue of disability in the country, how it is framed in these papers, and how the
articles play a role regarding whether or not it reinforces or challenges the current
perspectives of disability. Thus results are compiled and presented in tables and graphs
with their appropriate interpretations.

4.1 Presentation of Findings and data Analysis

From the total of selected three sample newspaper, 216 editions, only 56 articles were
found to deal with issues of disability in these newspapers, during the period between
December 2005 and May 2007. Thus there were 56 articles with in the selected time frame
and were analyzed. It rather be mentioned that one newspaper edition had one article or
none in all the three selected newspapers according to the results.

Figure 4.1 Total percentages of articles published in each newspaper

50
45 42.9
41.1
40
35
30
Percent

25
20 16.1
15
10
5
0
Addis Zemen Addis Admas Medical
Name of newspapers

44
As can be seen from figure 4.1, Zemen, a government owned newspaper, published 42.9%
of the total analyzed articles. The two private owned newspapers, namely, Admass and
Medical reported 41.1% and 16.1% of the total analyzed articles respectively.

This means that Addis Zemen covered 24 articles while Addis Admass covered 23 articles
that deal with disability. The rest 9 articles were reported by Medical through out the
periods between December 2005 and May 2007. In other words this tells that the issue of
disability has been given a total of 25.9 % coverage of all other issues that these
newspapers, all together, covered for the past 18 months in 216 editions that they published
with in this time frame.

As can be seen below in figure 4.2, 55.4% of the articles were written in a news format
while the rest 44.6% were written as feature disability stories.

Figure 4.2 Percentages of news and feature distributions of articles about disability
through out the periods between December 2005 and May 2007 in all the newspapers

Articles

60 55.4

50 44.6

40
pecent

30

20

10

0
New s Feature
Article form at

Of the 56 articles that were found to have the issue of disability, 31 (55.4%) were presented
as news stories while the rest 25 (44.6%) were featured disability stories as can be seen on
Figure 4.2 above. Regarding the location of these stories, 50 (89.3%) of the articles were

45
inside page stories while only 6 (10.7%) of the stories appeared as front page stories. This
implies in other words the news value given to the issue of disability by looking at the
location on which it appeared. Important stories often appear on the front page while less
important ones come out on the inside. See also Table 4.1 below.

Figure 4.3 Percentage of Disability Articles published as front page and inside page
stories in all the newspapers

100
89.3
90
80
70
60
Percent

50
40
30
20 10.7
10
0
Front page Inside page
Location of Articles

Table 4.1 Total Articles that deal with disability in all the three newspapers

Location of
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Articles
Front page 6 10.7 10.7
Valid Inside page 50 89.3 89.3

Informant 2 Total 56 100.0 100.0 and 4, from

Addis Zemen, underscored that the issue of disability is a concern of all. As a result they
and their newspaper regard the issue as worth news, unlike the private newspaper, Admass.
As informant 2 from Admass stated it, the issue could be as newsworthy as other issues like
political and crisis. However, to make a real hard news out of it, it requires good

46
professional knowledge and high cost. However, he said it would be risky for the reason
that the paper won’t sale. Informants from Zemen also included that, their editorial policy
also asks the equal coverage of disability issues and people with disabilities with out
discrimination. As such they covered more news stories of disability and people with
disability. Informant 3 also provided that their newspaper deals with health issues as a
result they publish most of their stories on the issue of disability as front page news stories
than feature. Although the reasons are different, Medical and Zemen often report the issue
of disability as news stories than feature. See also Table 4.2 below.

Table 4.2 Type of newspaper and number of articles that covered the issue of
disability as news and features between the periods December 2005 and May 2007

Generally (as can be seen in figure 4.4 below), from the total, 21.4% of the articles made
‘Medical care and other health issues’ the central focus in 12 stories. Similarly in the same
percentage, ‘Educative’ theme, (explaining about what for instance mental illness is) was
more a theme as well. Other themes that were not stated were covered in 13 articles or
23.2%. This includes themes like child rights, demonstrations and the like. Success stories
were also covered often, in 7 articles being a central theme which is 12.5%. Donation and

Location
Type of Newspaper Article format Total
Front page Inside page
News 1 20 21
Addis Zemen
(N=24) Feature 3 3
Total 1 23 24
News 3 3
Addis Admass
(N=23) Feature 20 20
Total 23 23
News 5 2 7
Medical
(N=9) Feature 2 2
Total 5 4 9
Total 56

47
charity themes were found in 7.1% in only 4 articles of disability stories which are unlike
what other researches came up with. This tells that most of the articles about disability talk
more about what something is, for instance what mental illness and its treatments are, in
association with medical care in these local newspapers.

Figure 4.4 Themes that were used in all the stories between the periods December
2005 and May 2007

25 23.2
21.4
21.4
20
Percent

15 12.8

Themes
10
7.1
5.4 5.4
5
1.8 1.8

0
Discrimination Violence Success Educative Neglect Rape Donation Medical Care Other

Themes used in the analyzed articles

As to the distribution of themes across all the newspapers, ‘Medical care’ and ‘Educative’
themes were highly used at 21.4% each. Next the ‘Success’ and ‘Donation and charity’
themes were prevalent at 12.5% and 7.1% respectively. The ‘other’ however was more
prevalent at 23.2% in all the articles analyzed. The ‘other’ theme included two child rights
issues and a demonstration. Other than these there were no other themes included. The least
used themes are ‘Discrimination’ and ‘Rape’ themes at 1.8% of all the analyzed articles. A
relatively higher use of Violence and Neglect themes were also found at 5.4% each through
out the analyzed articles. On the other hand, themes like pity and burden were never used
in the analyzed articles.

48
Figure 4.5 Number of source frequencies used in all the analyzed articles

25 23.2 23.2
21.4
19.6
20
14.3
Percent

15 12.5
10.7 10.7
10 7.1
5 1.8
0
ns

y
y

ls
ds

ed

r
rts
ilit
ilit

he
er

O
ia
io
en

if i

pe
ab

ab

G
fic

ch
at

ot
ec
fri

N
is

Ex
of
is
iz

ar
sp
an

d
rd
d

se
nt
an

ith
rg

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fo

re
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w
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d
ilie

io

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io

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Sources
ch
rn

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re

Distribution of sources through out the analyzed articles

Regarding source2 distribution across the articles, Experts were extensively quoted as
sources at 23.2%. Following this is NGOs being prevalent at 21.4% from the analyzed
articles. Thirdly research and researchers were found in 19.6% of the articles. Government
officials and people with disabilities were employed in 14.3% and 12.5% of the articles.
On the other hand 10.7% of the articles were published with out having any specified
source. As depicted on Figure 4.5, much of disability stories in these local newspapers are
attributed with Experts and NGOs respectively than the subject, people with disabilities and
are seen other sources speaking about them.

Moreover, through out the analyzed articles; 42.9% of the articles deal with mental illness
and retardation over other types of disabilities3. Visual impairment was covered in 36.7%
of the articles while physical disability was prevalent at 18.4%. Only 8.2% of the articles

2
Some of the articles had more then one source, hence the sum exceeds 100.
3
Some of the stories dealt with two or more types of disabilities as a result the sum exceed 100.

49
dealt with hearing impairments. Other types of disabilities like polio and leprosy, which
often refereed as hidden kinds of disabilities, were not mentioned. See figure 4.6 below.
Figure 4.6 Distribution of type of disabilities through out the analyzed articles

50
42.9
45
40 36.7
35
30
percent

25
18.4
20
15
8.2
10
5
0
Hearing physical Visual Mental
difficulty disability impaiment illness/
retardation
Types of disabiities

Pictures also tell more about the story frames. However, in the three newspapers a total of
only 13 pictures were found and 4 of which showed a body part that is disabled and one
showed the wheelchair in bold. The other 8 pictures were not associated with the question
on the coding sheet. They either showed people on a meeting or workshops or other images
of for instance a book. Therefore, 30% of the pictures used in these newspapers, framed a
disability story by portraying a body part that is disabled.

As can be seen here below in Table 4.3, the three newspapers used pictures rarely while
they report or write about such issues of disability.

Table 4.3 Type and frequencies of pictures used in all the analyzed articles

Type of Location
Type of Picture Total
Newspaper Inside page

50
 A body part 4 4
Addis Wheelchair 1 1
Zemen
(N=24) Other 5 5
Total 10 10
Addis Other 2 2
Admass Total 2 2
( 23)
Medical Other 1 1
(N=9) Total 1 1

Regarding the roles the articles played, 46.4% were engaged in suggesting treatments. Of
this, Addis Admass had the highest share at 25%. On the other hand, 44.6% of the articles
provided moral evaluations of the problem. Out of this Zemen alone constitutes 23.2%.
Causes of disabilities were also discussed in 42.8% of the articles. From the total
percentage, Medical and Admass together constitute 26.7% of it. 41.0% of the articles were
played a role of defining the problem. With this end it can be said that articles in these
newspapers were primarily engaged on suggesting treatments and providing moral
evaluations with out adequately addressing the causes. The articles attribute responsibility
by providing moral judgments while stating causes of disability.

All in all then, the general finding looks like what is discussed above. However, each
newspaper, when looked at individually, gave a distinct coverage for the event or issue of
disability through out the periods between 2005 and 2007. Thus, Addis Admass gave 41.1%
coverage, by reporting 23 disability articles that it published through out the year 2005 to
2007. Addis Zemen, on the other hand, covered 24 (42.9 %) while Medical reported 16.1%
disability stories in 9 articles within the same period. All papers covered less than half of
their total editions of the past 18 months. By this, one can see that disability and disability
related stories were less covered or have lesser coverage in Ethiopian newspapers as we
look at the percentage of coverage given to the issue of disability Addis Zemen, 42.9%.,
Addis Admass and Medical, 41.1% and 16.1% coverage respectively.

51
Below, we will see how each newspaper, Addis Zemen, Addis Admass and Medical,
covered and framed the issue of disability for the past 18 months between 2005 and 2007.

Article format Location Total

4.2 Analysis
Front page Inside page and discussion
News 3 3 of research
Feature 20 20 findings
Total 23 23

4.2.1 Addis Admass

Addis Admass, a private newspaper, covered 23 disability articles that it published in the
period 2005 to 2007. This paper covered 41.1% of disability and disability related articles.
Out of this, three articles were written as news stories while the rest 20 were written as
features (See also table 4.4 below). All of the 23 articles were inside page stories.
Table 4.4 Articles written as features and news stories in Addis Admass

In this newspaper, two pictures were found while the article dealt with disability issues. Yet
the pictures did not show a person with disability.

Thus this paper presented most (21 or 91.3%) of its stories without pictures, as a feature
and inside page stories. Consequently, the paper does not consider disability stories as news
worthy, or big or important for it never, placed a disability story on the front page with in
the stated time frame as seen on Table 4.4 above.

52
Out of a total of 23 articles that were written, 12 articles or editions (47.8%) show
disability being reported medically showing medical treatments and cures while only 8
articles or editions (34.7%) were written showing the social perspective of disabling images
of disability in the society depicting the socio-environmental barriers. The rest 4 (17.3%)
articles written were represented both in medical as well as social approach. Even if it is at
the smallest percentage, depicting disability in both approaches is of standard for it will not
classify one more favourably over the other.

Table 4.5 Number of articles that were represented medically, socially and both in
Admass newspaper

The issue of Total The issue of Total The issue of Total

disability represented disability represented disability represented
Medically socially both Medically and
socially
Yes No Yes No Yes No
11 12 23 8 15 23 4 19 23

Hence this result proves Baren’s (1992 pp.7-9) statement true on what he argues most
media cover disability in its medical approach than social. As he asserts, this constant
repetition of the medical approach to impairment helps to divert the public's attention away
from the social factors which cause disability (Ibid). In addition, medical and need for a
cure frames were also dominant in American newspapers, like, the Washington Post
(Haller, 1999). In the same way, this newspaper, Addis Admass, in Ethiopia, like the
Washington Post, framed disability in a need for cure and medical approach. Hence
diverting the publics’ attention away from the societal barriers in to looking disability as
synonymous with illness and suffering that can only be cured with medical treatments, are
prominent in 47.8% of the articles or editions it covered.

53
However the editor in chief briefly stated “we have not written it so we did not frame it in
such a way rather it was our sponsors.” He also said they let that happen because he
believes there is a great deal of wrong spiritual attachment to the problem of mental illness
in Ethiopia. That is, he said,

In many places people attach it with spiritual problems like they believe the
person is affected by an evil sprit. If legs or eyes are impaired, people won’t
refer to these as an evil cause, but when it is mental illness, they often attach
it with that sense, thus the situation gets worse than others. We accepted this
medical perspective so that parents will take their children to hospital and
get them treatments instead of keeping them at home without any treatment
and second for there is a scarcity of mental health care service in the
country.

[Link] Types of disability reported through out the past 18 months

Addis Admass as shown in the Table 4.6 tends to mainly report on mental illness over other
types of disability. Out of the total of 23 articles or editions, 15 (65.2%) of them deal with
mental illness and / retardations. Next the paper covered 3 (13%) articles dealt with visual
impairment while 2 (8.6%) articles dealt with physical disability. Only one article reported
on hearing difficulty of the total of 23 articles. On the other hand it was possible to find out
that other types of disability, like, polio and leprosy which are often referred as hidden
kinds of disability were never mentioned for the past 18 months in this newspaper.

Table 4.6 Type of disability dominantly used in Admass newspaper with in the past 18
months

Location
Type of disability Total
Front page Inside page
Mental illness/retardation 15 15
Physical disability 2 2
Visual impairment 3 3
Hearing difficulty 1 1

54
Multiple disability 2 2
Total 23 23

Therefore this implies that most of the coverage (65.2%) was devoted solely to mental
illness and or retardation other than for instance polio and leprosy. Thus as framing theory
states, framing researches help to find out about which issues are dominating the media’s
agenda, and which are not included. Accordingly in this newspaper what is not included
shows polio and leprosy being excluded from the agenda. Thus it framed mental illness in
such a way as to dominate all other types of disability and eliminate polio and leprosy from
the agenda.

As to the question of why make mental illness dominate over other types of disability, the
answers from the editor were it was only because “the sponsors were experts in that area so
that we can not ask them to do any thing about it. All we did was check the legal
perspective and how they used languages when they refer to these people.”

Consequently then, it has come to be clear that the newspaper has a very low coverage of
disability issues, though it is the second when compared to the rest two newspapers.
Though some coverage is better than no coverage, the reported articles, concentrate on
mental illness mostly portrayed in a much more medical approach.

As learnt from the interview, “doing a story on these areas requires effort and cost benefits,
good professional knowledge and experience, which is very unlikely to many newspapers”,
said informant 1.

[Link] Pictures

When coming to the way how pictures in an article or editions dealing with disability in
this newspaper are famed, it is better to say null. This is because, in 21 (91.3%) of the
articles, only two picture could be found, that means twice in 18 months. See also Table

55
4.7. However the picture itself does not depict any person with disability, as the coding
result shows it was rather a picture of a book, with no caption or photo byline provided for
it. One might wonder what this implies. In fact, it tells about the importance of using
picture as one way of attracting readers in to reading the actual article and could also be
used as showing the truthfulness of the article. Thus, this newspaper overlooked the
importance of using pictures, hence tells that it was left for the public to read the article or
leave it. Therefore, there was no effort made from the part of the newspaper as to catch the
reader interest in this regard.

Table 4.7 Distribution of pictures used in Admass newspaper

Location
Type of Picture Total
Inside page
Other 2 2

Total 2 2

In addition, Informant 1 stated some of the reasons why they do not often use Pictures, in
the article they covered about disability issues. According to him some of the reasons are;
lack of photojournalist, space, and people’s attitude on pictures as a way of taking much
space because they think “we don’t have enough texts to write. For these reasons we do not
use photo. The other thing, people are not willing for their pictures to be taken.”

This paper in addition, presented 14 (60.8%) articles or editions out of 23, in ‘We’ vs.
‘They’ manner comparing disability with non-disability as a result of what they are able to
do and not as it compares. Besides, 13 (56.5%) articles compare disability with non
disability. Only 10 (43.4%) articles or editions were written in a manner that does not
compare disability with non- disability. See also Table 4.8 below. Thus, based on this
result, again Addis Admass portrayed disability in a particular way which is (we

56
representing ability vs. They representing inability). Hence this newspaper dominantly
depicts mental illness from a medical point of view which often is written comparing
disability with non disability.
Table 4.8 Number of articles that compare disability with non disability in different
locations
Name of the newspaper location Total
Front page Inside page
Addis Admass Comparing disability Yes 13 13
(N=24) No 10 10
Total 23 23

[Link] Sourcing while reporting on disability

As Haller, 1999, asserts, the kind of sources used in the disability stories has the power to
frame the message about disability issues. As Haller, found out, much of the stories about
disability in America are substantiated with government or other officials as sources for
stories about people with disabilities. Likewise, Addis Admass quoted, experts particularly
Doctors in eight articles (34.7%). The second dominant sources used in this newspaper in a
disability story are ‘researches and researchers’ in seven (30.4%) articles followed by
NGOs and International organizations as sources for disability stories in four (17.3%)
articles or editions. Again in only four articles (17.3%) people with disabilities were quoted
as sources through out the past 18 months.

Table 4.9 Number of articles and type of sources quoted in Addis Admass newspaper

Sources Location Total

Front page Inside page
People with disability 4 4
Government officials 1 1
NGOs 4 4
Experts 8 8
Researches 7 7
International Organization 2 2
No specified source 2 2
Other 3 3
Families and friends 1 1

57
 Total 23 23
This is somewhat similar to what Haller says, ‘most people with disabilities are not used as
sources in a disability story’. In Ethiopia the same is true as they are not often mentioned as
sources in disability articles.

This implies that they are given less voices of their own in the media. There are mostly
other groups speaking for them. Only two articles of the 23 were written without having
any specified sources while only one article quoted non-disabled woman in a disability
story. Again one article quoted government officials as sources in this newspaper. See also
Table 4.9 above.

The main reason for quoting experts and researches and researchers was due to the
sponsors’ choice and using either experts or researches is appropriate as to informant 1. He
said “research data are often reliable and verifiable. The other reason is that sponsors are
specialized in the area so that they quote doctors.”

This point might be accepted but even if it can be verifiable and everything whether the
grass roots reader will clearly understand that or not will remain a question.

[Link] Children vs. Adult manifestations

In this news paper, as can be seen from Appendix A, the articles dealt more on children
with mental illness. It incorporated children with disabilities in 12 articles of a total of 23.
This means that the rest 11 stories of disability dealt with Adults and mental illness.
Though the difference is very small, it is enough to say the newspaper covers stories of
children with disabilities more than adult with disabilities. This could be one of the reasons
why it uses more of educative themes so as to educate the reader about mental illness, its
causes and medical treatments, considering it helps parents.

[Link] Themes used while reporting on disability

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As said earlier in this chapter, this paper represents disability medically. This has been
found out from the gist of the article and the role the article plays as identified by the
coders. Admass framed most of its disability stories from a medical approach as it
dominantly used medical care as theme in eight articles, which accounts approximately
35%. In addition, five articles, of 23, made ‘Educative’ the next dominant theme.
However, unlike many researches depict, Discrimination, pity, burden, tragedy, donation
and crimes were never used hence are the missing themes. That could be one of the reasons
as to why the paper framed a story of disability from a medical explanation approach.
Hence only four articles were found to deal with both approaches.

Thus, together with medical care and educative themes, 13 (56.5%) articles out of 23 made
medical care and other health issues themes in disability stories. This means that around
57% of the articles talk about how to treat a specific kind of disability by using different
medication when the article tries to tell the audience what for instance mental illness is,
how it is caused, and how medication is used to help lessen the pain. See also Table 4.10.

Table 4.10 Dominant themes used in a disability article and their locations in Addis
Admass newspaper
Location Total
Themes Front page Inside page

Violence 3 3

Success 2 2
Educative 5 5

Neglect 2 2
Medical care/health matters 8 8

other 3 3
Total 23 23

Therefore, by making these two themes equally dominant in a disability stories, the paper
framed its stories medically as it omits other themes like for instance ‘burden’ which was
often a common portrayal of disability as to Barnes 1992.

59
Unlike Haller, 1999, and most other researches have found out, violence is a rarely used
theme in this paper. It accounts 3 articles (13%) of the total of 23 articles. Success theme
was found in only two articles that were written with in the past 18 months. The ‘other’
theme includes two child rights themes and one demonstration. The rest two articles (of 23)
made ‘neglect’ a central theme of the story.

All in all, then this paper never covered a disability story in the font page. It made (20)
86% of disability stories features with quoting few people with disabilities telling the
public about their cause. It further made medical care the central theme for 56.5% of the
articles that it dominantly covers; mental illness. In addition the newspaper quotes mostly
experts particularly Doctors because it presents disability from a medical point of view by
providing medical interpretation about a particular kind of disability. Thereby lets the
public see the issue from this (medical interpretation) perspective than otherwise. As a
result the human rights perspective of disability is overlooked here as only two of the
articles deal with it (child rights). Hence it would be difficult to say that this newspaper is
reinforcing the human rights view of disability to the audience. Rather, it is challenging this
view as it gave prominence and dominance for medical portrayal which makes the public
see the issue in medical terms than societal perspectives.

Thus the paper seems to fail reflecting the views of the subject on an issue that concerns
them the most for it presented the issue attributing other sources over people with
disabilities themselves.

[Link] Frames dominantly used in this paper while reporting on the issue of disability

As explained in the above statements, this newspaper has framed the issue of disability
medically by giving prominence to mental illness. Thus the following frames also shows
how the causes, effects, solutions and other frames depicted mental illness in the article the
paper published for the past 18 months. Thus the result can be seen from Appendix G. This

60
newspaper primarily used empathy frames over other fames as it was found 14 times in this
newspaper. This is 60.8%. Other frames that are often used were attribution of
responsibility, diagnostic and solution frames each appeared 12 times. But other frames
like economic, conflict and donation frames were never used in this newspaper in a
disability story.

Empathy frame

Admass framed 60.8% of disability stories by referring to them as helpless, and by using
adjectives that could create a feeling of compassion and care. Thus 65.2 % of disability
article that deal with mental illness or retardation was presented in a way that made reader
to identify with the subject as a result of empathy frame.

Attribution of responsibility frame

As can be seen form Appendix A, the newspaper attributes responsibility to “good medical
treatments” as having the ability to change or alleviate disability and discrimination views.
This was observed to dominantly appear in 12 stories. In addition the eight articles made
government and NGOs responsible see also Appendix A. This attribute also indicate
somehow, how the newspaper framed disability from a medical perspective. It justifies this
point by mentioning the over all capacity of medication or cure in alleviating disability and
discrimination. However, it is in fact, a little generalized in that, even though good medical
treatments remain important, it is very difficult to alleviate discrimination. Further, it could
be argued that not every disability and its discriminatory views can be alleviated or treated
medically. Because the causes of disability are varied in nature, there are for instance parts
that would never be fixed, or it might take years to treat a particular type of disability.
Therefore, presenting an article in its medical perspective would have its drawbacks as it
has its own importance. In the literature also, it has been mentioned by Barnes 1992, that
presenting articles in medical perspective will lead the public in to thinking about it as a
medical problem than a social one as well. Yet, nowadays disability movements push hard

61
to gain equality and equal rights besides good medical treatment, accessibility and so on.
These views of the social or human rights perspectives were given less prominence in this
regard.

Diagnostic frames

In the literature it has been said that one of the biggest problems of alleviating disability is
not knowing the causes of disability both natural and man made. Thus when we see how
this paper dealt with this part, it was found out that it mentions poor health care services,
drug addiction and other diseases as causes of disability, each five times in the articles it
published. This would be a total of 15 (65.2%). However, war, reckless driving, and
traditional medicines, were missing in this newspaper as it did not mention them as causes
of disability in 18 months. Further, the newspaper mentioned the presence of poverty and
harmful traditional practices as causes of disability only two and one times respectively.
Thus, disability is seen as it occurs due to other diseases, drugs and poor or lack of health
care services.

According to DFID, 2005, much of the causes of disability in developing countries are
poverty and war. Hence Ethiopia, being one of the poor countries had a long history of war.
Recently with Eritrea and Somalia, this is a double cause of disability apparently. However,
Admass framed the stories by principally mentioning for instance drug addiction, and other
diseases as causes. These are actually causes of disability but when it comes to the question
of whether drug addiction became a severe problem in Ethiopia or not. The answer is, drug
addiction is a common problem to all countries or it is a world concern. But for countries
like Ethiopia, it is not as severe as poverty and war. In addition, if we try to look at it from
this perspective; the newspaper highly covers children and mental illnesses, and states drug
addiction as a cause. This means the mother is addicted to drugs. But it is way far than the
actual reality. That is Ethiopian mothers are too busy trying to win daily bread instead of
thinking about drugs. So it seems that much of the causes of disability are related with
poverty and war than addict problems in a local context. In addition, Ethiopia is a

62
traditional country in which many harmful traditional practices are performed like put in
butter in the eye considering it would only make the eye clean and clear. These practices
have seen to result late blindness. The effect on some is faster as well.

Therefore, what is missing in this newspaper is the local perspective of stating disability
from the country’s actual and existing reality of what the reader shares. It seems the focus
is more on what is heard on other Media.

Solution frames

As can be seen from Appendix G, the newspaper suggested medical improvements as a

solution for alleviating disability 12 times. This accounts 52.1% of all other suggested
solutions. In the same way as it attributes responsibility to medical treatments, it also
suggests medical improvements as solution for alleviating disability. What about those
other causes of disability that result from war, car accidents and nutritional deficiencies.
This frame also shows the newspaper’s lens on how it looks disability issues.

Human interest frames

This frame was observed to have incorporated a human face or figure in seven articles from
the total. What’s more is when it addresses this frame it often (in eight articles) explain
how they are socially economically and politically influenced rather than using direct
testimonies of people with disability.

As such it was observed that this paper dominantly covered, mental illness, and the articles
that deal with it were presented lacking real testimonies of people with disabilities to their
readers though they possessed human figures. Of course it would be a little difficult to
make such a sweeping statement as to say the newspaper don’t use human interest frames
in the disability stories it published. However, it could be said that this frame was not
dominant in the articles the newspaper presented as a result is a Missing frame.

63
Prognostic frame

The newspaper referred to effects of negative attitude on disability 9 times or (39.1%) and
lack of equal treatment 8 (34.7%) times out of 23 articles. Thus as to this frame, it can only
be said that the articles do not often explain on the effects of disability and discrimination
for this reason it is considered as a missing frame.

Generally, there were lower numbers of frames. Thus most of the articles failed to discuss
the root causes of disability which could have contributed to changing the public’s attitude.
It could be argued if the public would have a chance to know about ranges of causes of
disability, it would hence contribute to decreasing the stereotypes of looking disability as a
punishment from God or curs from forefathers. The researcher also believes the cause of
disability itself is the solution about every thing in it, be it the discrimination, attitude and
perception.

[Link] Role of the articles

Admass made (25%) of its stories on disability suggest medical treatments. Next articles
were engaged in defining the problem and stating the causes of disability each were found
in 12 stories. The third dominant role used in this newspaper was found to be evaluating the
problem in its moral perspective as to what is acceptable and not. See also Appendix f.
This partly can show the views of the writers that is they see disability not as preventable
rather a treatable problem.

Furthermore, the articles were influenced for there are other groups involved in this
newspaper in 11 of the stories. Therefore, it was framed to represent the views of interest
groups. The articles lack to represent different views of different groups as can be observed
from Appendix f. Hence the role of the articles that dealt with mental illness suggest
medical treatments as a cure for the impairment and all that disables them as directed from
this groups. Much of the articles were sponsored by an individual who is a doctor and an

64
organization called Vision Development Inc. As said in the literature, frames are affected
by interest groups. Likewise, the articles in this newspaper were framed as to the views of
the organization. It rather be mentioned that most of the articles were written by staff
members of this particular organization though they were edited and published in the
newspaper. Only one article was written by a journalist from the newspaper, Admass.

4.2.2 Addis Zemen

Addis Zemen, a government owned newspaper, reported the issue of disability in 24 articles
with in the period stated. This newspaper, unlike Admass, made 21 news stories of which
one was front page news and the rest 20 were inside page disability news articles.

Throughout the past 18 months the newspaper made 3 feature stories regarding disability.
Hence it could be noted that, as said in the literature as well, location and article formats
indicate the value attached to an issue.
Hence this Article Location paper gave prominence to the
Total
format Front page Inside page
issue of disability by reporting on it
as news News 1 20 21 stories. According to Barnes,
1992, the Feature 3 3 way news items and features
about disabled people are presented also prejudices the way they are viewed.

Table 4.11 Articles written as features and news stories in Addis Zemen
Total 1 23 24

65
Thus, the manner in which media portray disabled people has a significant impact on how
disabled people are regarded in real life by non-disabled society given that media serves as
a powerful socializing agent; reflects our norms, beliefs and values, acting as a prism
through which we interpret and disseminate words and images which impact our lives in a
most profound ways as stated briefly in the literature. As a result Zemen portrayed
disability from the social perspective by including moral judgments in 14 articles. Thus
shows the public its social significance.

Table 4.12 Number of articles that were represented medically, socially and both in
Addis Zemen newspaper

The issue of Total The issue of Total The issue of Total

disability represented disability represented disability represented
medically socially both medically and
socially
Yes No Yes No Yes No
6 18 24 16 18 24 2 22 24

It can also be observed that, the paper presented disability in a far better way than others
simply because it depicted disability more from the social perspective, unlike Addis
Admass which presented disability as synonymous with illness and suffering. Look also
Table 4.12. Further it seems that the paper is aware of the current views of disability, as a
human rights view and non medical perspectives. Moreover, four articles were presented
depicting both views of disability, social as well as medical.

This means that the newspaper gave importance for the issue of disability by making the
stories appear as news, though most the stories were inside page articles. In the literature
also much has been mentioned that most disability stories appear rather as features. Thus
this paper proved that not every newspaper covers disability stories as features especially in
this case the local newspapers.

66
In addition as informant 2, and 4 explained, due to their editorial policy, they are obliged to
report on every group, ethnic etc with out discrimination.

This paper also substantiated its articles with pictures. Most of the pictures; ten out of 13
were found in this newspaper. See also Table 4.15.

However, the newspaper presented 45.8% of its articles in the “We” versus “Them”
manner, comparing disability with non disability in 11 articles. See also Table 4.13.

Table 4.13 Number of articles that compare disability with non disability in different
locations

Name of the Comparing disability location Total

newspaper Front page Inside page
Yes 11 11

Addis Zemen
(N=24) No 1 12 13

Total 1 23 24

[Link] Types of disability reported through out the past 18 months

As can be observed from Table 4.14, this newspaper covered most of its stories on visual
impairment. Just like Addis Admass, this newspaper also covered almost none of polio and
leprosy related stories. The newspaper reported about polio and leprosy, once each of these
two types in almost two year’s time. The second dominant disability type reported in this
paper was physical disability. On the other hand, hearing difficulty was mentioned only in
two articles.

67
Table 4.14 Type of disability dominantly used in Addis Zemen newspaper

Location
Type of disability Total
Front page Inside page
Mental illness/retardation 3 3
Physical disability 1 5 6
Visual impairment 9 9
Hearing difficulty 2 2
Polio 1 1
Leprosy 1 1
Other 2 2
Total 1 23 24

Thus in both newspapers, polio, leprosy and hearing difficulties were less covered than for
instance mental illness and visual impairment. By this aging we can see how one or two
issues gain on the media agenda hence to the public’s attention. Further, when considering
the relationship between media and disability a number of things should be considered like
‘representation’, ‘stereotypes’ and ‘absences’ as it was also discussed in the literature.
Hence when we look at how this newspaper performed this, there are for example types of
disabilities that are often mentioned and that are never mentioned. Such aspects frame
discourses of disability and the way disability is perceived and constructed.

As to this dominant coverage of visual impairment in Zemen, Informant 1 stressed that;

To dominantly appear on the media, it highly depends on their activities. For
instance, the association of people with visual impairment calls us for news
coverage often because they are engaged in lots of activities. So that is why
they got much coverage than others. Regarding polio and leprosy, these
issues are often event based stories. Unless there is an event to cover, it

68
 can’t happen. Rather we cover polio for instance when there is a sign of
threat, or national vaccine will be distributed and then we cover it as news.

He also said, “We also look for news and go to them, but it is not much that we find
worth news all the time we visited them.”

[Link] Pictures

Pictures in any article tell stories equally with the report. Hence, out of a total of 13
pictures that was found, this paper incorporated ten pictures for the past 18 months, four
of which depicted a body part that is significantly disabled while only one picture depicted
a wheelchair.

Table 4.15 Distribution of pictures used in Addis Zemen newspaper

Location
Type of Picture Total
Inside page
A body part 4 4
Wheelchair 1 1

Other 5 5

Total 10 10

The rest five dealt, in the same way as Admass, with other settings or scenario. This means
that the pictures depict either workshops or meetings. Also see Table 4.15. Therefore, it
was difficult to say the pictures were framed in certain ways as it was unattainable to find
many pictures that directly deal with disability.

[Link] Sourcing while reporting on disability

69
As said in the above paragraphs, the kinds of sources quoted in an article have the power to
frame a story in a particular way. We have seen how Addis Adams framed disability by
quoting doctors more in a disability article thereby leading the public to share the same
view. In the same way, Addis Zemen was found to quote more NGOs in a disability story
there by coveys an idea about how to see disability. This could mean that readers will have
an idea of a charitable link to the issue of disability. As Kabzems and Chimedza, (2002)
stresses in the literature, in many developing countries aid from donor or service provider
was contingent on the adoption of the knowledge of disability.

Table 4.16 Dominant sources quoted in Addis Zemen newspaper

Sources Location Total

Front page Inside page
People with disability 2 2
Government officials 1 6 7
NGOs 8 8
Experts 4 4
Association for disability 1 5 6
Researches 1 1
International Organization 1 1
No specified source 2 2
Other 7 7
Total 2 22 24

Hence, this newspaper emphasized the charitable model of disability by prominently

associating disability stories with charity organizations. Further, the newspaper used
donation frame in 58.3% or in 14 articles. It will be discussed in detail below while the
paper presents a discussion about frames. See also Table 4.16 above.
Again informant 1 responded that;
“Often news is very precise and shot. Therefore, there will not be a space to
include the views of the disabled. Of course this is a problem of lack of
knowledge of the profession. But what appears to be a news value would be
what they are funded. The other reason is that we want to encourage
Activists, so that they can as well create social awareness and attitudinal
change.”

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Further informant 4, also noted the same idea. As to her, the reason they covered more
news stories with out quoting a person with disability is because “the newspaper is a daily
paper, it often covers news events. Therefore, if it is news it is difficult to include, more
than three or four sources.”

[Link] Children vs. Adult manifestations

This manifestation was believed to help see whether children with disabilities were given
more coverage than adults and vice versa in all the three selected newspapers.
Consequently, the result, as depicted Appendix A, each newspaper framed their stories by
covering more one of the either alternatives. We have been able to see that Addis Admass
reported more on children with mental illnesses. On the contrary, Addis Zemen seems to
cover dominantly on adult people with visual impairments. Look also on Appendix A.
Thus each newspaper appeared to take ends of which they cover the most. As a result these
two newspapers so far occupy a role of taking sides regarding the question of what to cover
and about whom on what type of disability and how?

Informant 1, said, “We do not know about that but the reason I think is because adults are
the ones that are often the members of association. So it must be due to that, which we
cover more about adults.”

[Link] Themes used while reporting on disability

In any story the gist or the theme of the story is what is kept in mind even after time lapsed.
Hence it remains important as how to portray disability and people with disabilities in the
media.

71
As can be detected from Table 4.17, Addis Zemen engaged principally on the “educative”
theme as it explains how some kind of disability occurs. It could, for instance explain the
causes of visual impairment, how one should behave towards these people and so forth.
Zemen further used donation and charity themes second to educative. Thus the newspaper
was engaged in telling the public about what visual impairment is and what kind of aid
people with disabilities received or will need to receive.

Here also, pity, burden and tragedy themes were never used to depicting disability unlike
what researchers in the American media have found out. Therefore, this is what is missing
in this newspaper as it reports on disability.

Table 4.17 Dominant themes used in a disability article and their locations in Addis
Zemen newspaper
Themes Location total
Front page Inside page

Discrimination 1 1
Success 3 3

Educative 6 6
Neglect 1 1

Donation and charity 4 4

Medical care/health matters 3 3

other 1 5 6
Total 1 23 24

In fact these are among the negative portrayal of disability. Although this could be
considered as a good thing (to not include them in a disability article) Kabzems and
Chimedza, (2002) argument happens to be true here. That is, the newspaper redirecting the
publics understanding of disability in to the charity perspective as it links it to NGOs can
be observed from the above statements as well.

[Link] Frames dominantly used in this paper while reporting on the issue of disability

72
Frames tell more on how a particular newspaper approached a certain type of disability. As
a result it will be reflected in what people perceive what disability is all about. See
appendix G.
Attribution of responsibility frame

The dominant frame used in this newspaper appears to be attributing a responsibility for
alleviating disability and discrimination views to government, NGOs and international
organizations. Attribution of responsibility frame was used in 16 articles or covered 66.6%
of the articles. This frame was extremely used because 58.3% of the stories were framed in
a charity or donation model. Hence there is a link between attributing responsibility,
sourcing and donation frame itself. Due to these indicators the newspaper is said to report
disability stories as news stories only because it involved charities made by international
organization which would have been impossible otherwise to find if it was a disability story
only. This way of framing a story tells how the newspaper perceived the issue of disability
as well.

Donation and Charity frames

The next dominantly used frame while representing visual impairment in this newspaper
was the donation and charity frame that appeared in 14 articles or accounts 58.3% of all
other frames used in this paper. It includes news items of charities made by NGOs,
international organizations and Government. Using this frame, as explained earlier, is not
as such appropriate when especially referring to people with disabilities. The reasons are it
would put these people to be considered as “in need of charity and aid” with a disabling
image. In addition, it stereotyped people with disabilities generally as helpless and
dependent on donor’s services and support, thus this kind of framing perpetuates a negative
view.

Thus as Brittain, 2004 stresses, the newspaper has to be questioned even though it has
given higher coverage for the issue of disability. As indicated in the literature, if a certain

73
coverage is only going to reinforce negative perceptions of disability, it has to be
questioned as to whether it is actually doing more harm than good.

Morality Frame

It has been found out that the newspaper principally report on people with visual
impairments. Thus the newspaper framed visual impairment by providing moral messages
to it in 58.3% or in 14 articles. It for example included ‘good and bad’ messages by telling
the public that they should act accordingly. It tells the public how a joint effort to help
these people and to change attitudes is important. In this regard the newspaper assumed
added importance of telling the public how to behave towards disability and people with
disabilities.

Solution frame

In this newspaper this frame was found to be used 13 times from a total of 24 articles. Thus
the significance of this frame is obvious since it appeared in 54.1% of the news stories of
people with visual impairments. In this regard, the newspaper suggested as a solution for
alleviating disability and discrimination to government and international organizations. The
use of this frame also depicts the salience of a charity and donation perspectives in to
disability news. Thus the newspaper, though it depicts disability from the social
perspective, it fails to recognize the negative reinforcements of charity and donation links.

When we come to the issue of absences, just like Addis Admass, conflict, economic, and
human interest frames are missing in the articles published. Moreover, the newspaper never
mentioned poverty, and war, as causes for disability hence was busy to state the root causes
of disability. As a result diagnostic frame also is missing from the news stories this
newspaper covered for the past 18 months. Prognostic and empathy frames are also less
used frames. In this way, this newspaper by focusing on one aspect and omitting the other,

74
draws and directs readers or viewers attention away from the other side which perhaps
might lead in to a different reaction, as emphasized by Entman (1993).

Furthermore, most importantly, so far, the involvement of individuals with disabilities in a

disability story or news is highly missing from these two newspapers. The “voiceless ness”
of people with disabilities in Ethiopian media as well is in fact became a reality. As can be
seen form the near to the ground coverage given to the issue (only 56 articles from a total
of 216 editions) throughout the periods between December 2005 and 2007, usage of
sources that includes other groups speaking about disability was dominantly appeared. In
addition, most importantly, usage of frames that exclude people with disabilities (human
interest frames) and their socio-economic and political implications in the country were
also prevalent.

[Link] Role of the articles

In Zemen most of the articles, 23.2% provided moral evaluations of what is ‘good’ and
‘bad’ of the problem of disability and people with disabilities. As a government newspaper,
Zemen assumed responsibility of telling the public about what has been quoted as moral by
indirectly referring to it. The articles in this newspaper are secondly engaged in
suggesting treatments without adequately discussing on the causes. This newspaper as well
fails to state on the root causes of disability. It in addition, did not include all sides of the
story.

4.2.3 Medical

This private newspaper is known for solely reporting on health issues and their treatments.
Medical in 18 months, however, covered only 9 stories dealing with the issue of disability
from a total of 56 articles. It covered seven news stories of disability of which five were
found on the front page and made the rest two, inside page news items. It also reported 2
feature stories of people with disability.

Table 4.18 Articles written as features and news stories in Medical

75
This newspaper relatively gave a very low, 16%, coverage when compared to the other
two, Addis Zemen and Admass, who gave 42.9%, and 41.1% coverage with in equal time
frame and amount of total editions.

When asked though, the editor in chief said the newspaper used to cover relatively more
stories on people with disabilities. However, he said,
Because the articles were informative, people with disabilities used to come
and ask where they could find the medicine and everything just because they
have seen an information for instance for eye problems, and asked how to
treat it with medical services. So we did not want to give them what they
c
Location
Type of Newspaper Total a
Front page Inside page n
News 5 2 7 n
Medical Article format o
(N=9) Feature 2 2 t
Total 5 4 9
a
Total 56 c
h
ieve. People with disabilities need the corrective meanness as fast as
possible and when that delays they get hurt. It is good to give a glimpse of
light on situation; however, it also is eating them inside. That is why we
have reduced to cover such stories.

He also asserted, because the newspaper is profit oriented, it took the number of
people with disabilities in to consideration (small number). He said the “number of
people who buy our newspaper are non- disabled. These customers are not

76
interested to read such stories.” Also, he said, “our paper has few pages and it
would be difficult to cover all that. Rather, we concentrate on a national problem.
But we should have reported on it.”

However, if we look at the data on Table 4.18, this newspaper offered news worthiness for
the issue of disability as it made seven news articles out of nine. This could be computed as
77.7% of a total coverage. Even though Addis Zemen covered the issues of disability as
news, Medical gives a larger attention by making them appear as front page news attaching
a medical view to the six stories of a total of nine.

The reason for that, according to informant 3 is because it is their objective to make news
out of a health matters and events. He also added “such news stories are not common in
almost all Ethiopian newspapers.”

As can be seen from Table 4.19, Medical portrayed or represented disability more as a
medical concern where disability is corresponded to illness or sufferings. Just like Addis
Admass, this newspaper viewed disability more from medical care and treatments, than the
social or human rights perspective. Thus, similarly, this newspaper also overlooked the
importance of reflecting a social view of disability to their readers.
Table 4.19 Number of articles that were represented medically, socially and both in
Medical newspaper

The issue of Total The issue of Total The issue of Total

disability represented disability represented disability represented
Medically socially both Medically and
socially
Yes No Yes No Yes No
6 3 9 2 7 9 1 8 9

But there is a strong argument for putting the issue from medical perspective from
informant 3. He said;

We are primarily engaged in providing medical information about all type of

health matters. We provide a general perspective on the causes and

77
 treatments. Therefore readers will easily see preventive factors and ways for
both disabled and non-disabled individuals. We also provide progressive
ways so that a person with disability can perform in a better way. There are
social factors affecting them too. But this people want to live as the non
disabled often, and for that they need cure first. They can only get that from
medical treatment. Presenting them from the social barriers will only be
telling them how others will see them.

Medical as can be seen from Table 4.20, presented stories of people with disabilities less
comparing them to non- disability unlike what we have been able to see on the above two
newspapers. The newspaper relatively sees disability and people with disabilities in a
better way than the other two.
Table 4.20 Number of articles that compare disability with non disability in different
locations

Name of the newspaper location Total

Front page Inside page
Medical Comparing Yes 1 2 3
(N=24) disability No 4 2 6
Total 5 4 9

[Link] Types of disability reported through out the past 18 months

Medical also chose to report on people with visual impairments in five stories, four being
front page news items. Of the total stories it covered with in the past 18 months, 55.5% of
the stories were about visual impairment and people with this impairments. Leprosy, polio,
speaking and listening impairments were the missing type of disability in this that is not
covered through out the last two years. This implies dominance and news value given to
visual impairments over other types of disability. See also Table 4.21.

Table 4.21 Type of disability dominantly used in Medical newspaper

Location
Type of disability Total
Front page Inside page

78
Mental illness/retardation 1 2 3
Visual impairment 4 1 5
Polio 1 1
Total 5 4 9

In the same manner, informant 1 referred the importance of dominantly covering about
visual impairment because it is like a “second death” as to him. He said ‘the eye is the
window of brain’, means the eye is the window through which the mind processes 40% of
our thoughts. Therefore we give it more coverage. The other reason was most of the causes
of blindness are preventable. He said, “So we want to inform the public about this so that
they could take cautions since the numbers of visually impaired people are many when
compared to others.”

[Link] Pictures

Medical, as can be observed from Table 4.22, substantiated fewer stories of its stories of
disability with pictures. It used one picture once in 18 months and it appeared to show other
things than disability. Hence, the newspaper can be said to have its stories appear with out
pictures. In this regard the newspaper also offered less effort as to the readability of the
article. This happened because, as to informant 3, they did not find any representative
picture for the stories they presented.
Table 4.22 Distribution of pictures in Medical newspaper

Location
Type of Picture Total
Inside page
Other 1 1
Total 1 1

79
[Link] Sourcing while reporting on disability

This newspaper on its part, quoted more often, researches and researchers as source in three
articles. Here people with disabilities, their families and friends, international organizations
experts, government officials and association of disability are excluded from the articles the
paper presents about people with disabilities.

This means in other words, the paper places importance for the research world and its
findings. However, the newspaper is limited to one view that is persistently depicted from
the research findings that are controlled under medical experiments. Unless the researches
themselves are made to encompass the two disability approaches, social and medical, the
newspaper simply continues to present in the same manner. See also Table 4.23.
Table 4.23 dominantly quoted sources in Medical newspaper

Sources Location Total

Front page Inside page
People with disability 1 1
Experts 1 1
Researches 2 1 3
International Organization 1 1
No specified source 2 2
Other 1 2 3
Total 5 4 9

As to informant 3, the reason for dominantly using researches and researchers as sources is
because; “there are no medical researches made on the issue of disability in Ethiopia for it
to be worth news. The reason we don’t do feature is because we don’t have much space.
So the chances for us to quote people with disabilities went even down. Due to this reason
we often report foreign journals and new medical findings.”

[Link] Children vs. Adult manifestations

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As depicted on Appendix A, the newspaper presented research findings of people with
visual impairments who are often adults. As a result Addis Zemen and Medical seems to
have common ways of presenting adult people with visual disabilities as news story. The
difference is that this paper made news out of research findings while Zemen attached a
charities and donations to it as a news value to a disability story. It also means that, stories
of children with disabilities were considered feature stories as it covered two stories in this
aspect. Besides, as has been able to find out, most stories of children with disabilities in
Addis Admass were also features. It has its own implication as to how these groups are
distinctly differentiated to fit for news or a feature story.

[Link] Themes used while reporting on disability

As can be observed from the way sources are used, the themes also reflect the importance
of the research in to treating disability. See also Table 4.24. It is indicated as other,
indicated the success of the medical research and provides an analysis about for instance
the vulnerability of a particular type of disability.

Furthermore, other themes that were regarded as to be found in most media are missing in
this case as well. For instance discrimination, tragedy, pity, burden, neglect, and donation
and charity themes were never used in this newspaper. As a result it seems that the local
newspapers, unlike the American Washington Post, do not portray people with disabilities
from discriminatory views. Rather they link disability more with medical implications of a
need for cure image other than what’s indicated in many research findings.

Table 4.24 Dominant themes used in a disability article and their locations in Medical

Themes Location total

Front page Inside page
Success 1 1 2

81
 Educative 1 1
rape 1 1

Medical care/health matters 1 1

other 1 3 4

Total 5 4 9

[Link] Frames dominantly used in this paper while reporting on the issue of disability

Empathy frame

In this newspaper, empathy frame was found to dominate in five stories or in 55.5% of the
news stories this newspaper reported. The newspaper represented people with visual
impairments as sympathetic by labelling certain words that generate this feeling. For
instance in this paper, the word “KENTUDICAM” interpreted in to English appears to be
‘worthless effort’ was found at times when it was explaining about how the early
childhood age is reliable for medical treatment for eye. It is said, any attempt after that is a
‘“KENTUDICAM”’ or a futile effort. These and such words are diminishing and put in the
picture of despair and misery in to readers mind. Thus the local newspaper once more
entertained this frame.

Solution frame

Just like the two other newspapers, Solution frames seem to be used in this newspaper. It
suggested medical treatments primary solutions for alleviating disability and discrimination
views. However, we have come to know that medical treatments could only cure or
eliminate the disease or condition and the resulting risk of impairment of functional
limitations, as stated in the literature. Yet it cannot for instance get rid of the prejudice,
oppression, and barriers that prevent persons with impairments from participating in

82
society. Therefore, the article is merely suggesting ways on how to decrease impairment
than its disabling images.

Educative and moral frames seem to appear often. However frames like conflict, human
interest, and diagnostic, prognostic, economic and donation frames appeared little less or
never in this mews paper.

[Link] Role of the articles

This newspaper on the other hand was engaged in stating the causes and interpreting the
issue of disability. This role was found in six articles of a total of nine. Articles in this
news paper relatively discussed better on the causes of disability though they have not
addressed the root causes in a local context. The next dominant role was found in four
articles which was defining the problem or what visual impairment is and suggested
medical treatments. Furthermore, like the other two, this paper lacks incorporating all sides
of the story as can be seen from Appendix F.

According to informant 1, the role of the articles they publish was to decrease the belief
that disability ‘can not be cured’ and give them hope instead. Besides he said “it will give
information on treatments, care and prevention of disability and other health issues.”

83
 Chapter Five
5.1 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

Ethiopia had a long history of war and poverty which are double causes of disability in the
country. Besides disability is a very ordinary aspect of life that can happen any moment.
However both the disabled and non- disabled society, as a result of traditional and spiritual
attitude lacked a comprehensive knowledge about it. Media are then important in
contributing accurate information regarding the issue to the general public. This paper also
argued that it is not only the number of coverage that matters the most. But it highly
depends on how the local media portrayed and framed the issue of disability and people
with disability. However in many researches foreign media are seen to portray people with
disabilities and their issues negatively or incorrectly. As such it was reasonable to focus a
research on this part in the local media particularly newspapers.

Consequently, this research proposed to examine how people with disabilities and their
issues were covered, framed and portrayed with in the periods between December 2005 and
May 2007 in three local Amharic newspapers (Addis Zemen, Addis Admass and Medical).
The research looked in to dominantly covered types of disabilities and pictures used in
these newspapers by making Framing theory central to the work.

The research was carried out using quantitative as well as qualitative research methods so
as to enrich the output. A content analysis was employed to gather and analyze information
regarding number of coverage, article format, article locations, themes, type e of
disabilities, sources and frames in the articles. On the other hand, in-depth interviews were
also made with editors and journalists each newspaper so as to get information that would
have been impossible to find with the content analysis alone. An attempt was also made to
discuss the results based on the literature, the local context of the country and framing
theory.
Based on the results, it has come to be clear as to how much coverage was given for the
issue of media and disability in the three local newspapers. As discussed here above, all of

84
the newspapers devoted less than half percent coverage of all other issues. This implies that
the issue is not as newsworthy as other topics for these newspapers. However it should be
noted that 55.4 % of the stories found were presented as news stories from both Medical
and Addis Zemen. It can be argued that, disability is viewed more as news than feature in
these two papers while Admass entirely regards it as feature story.

Although less coverage is better than no coverage at all, the coverage seems to be one sided
as can be noted. Both Addis Admass and Medical covered disability form a medical frame,
while Addis Zemen tends to present disability from the human rights/social perspective as
news stories attaching charity and donation frames to the problem of disability.

Thus as seen in all the three newspapers, the articles lack testimonies of people with
disabilities. As a result, ‘voiceless ness’ was prevalent. As we looked at the kinds of
sources quoted in disability stories, what is discussed in the literature seems to work in this
case. That is “people with disabilities are less used as sources in a disability story”, as
Haller, 1999, found out. Thus, in these three newspapers, Experts (doctors, nurses and
psychiatrists), NGOs, and Researchers and Researches, respectively were the sources that
were dominantly quoted in the past 18 months. In addition, as said in the literature the kind
of sources used in a story tell more about the story frame. As such, disability stories in
Ethiopian newspapers are dominantly framed medically as ‘Experts’ explain about
disability in its medical implications. Further sources are also used as devises of framing
any story as Entman, (1993), explains. Therefore much of the stories of disability were
presented as synonymous with illness and sufferings that need cure. Addis Zemen and
Admass presented their stories of people with disabilities by comparing disability with the
non-disabled. Hence the articles depict to the public that disability is more a “difference”
than the core point or the actual story.
Again in all the newspapers, the articles did not mention the presence of poverty, war,
harmful traditional practices and car accidents as causes for disability. As a result the root
causes of disability in Ethiopia were not reflected in these newspapers for these are the
situation in the country. Hence the articles contributed little to creating awareness about the

85
causes and preventive aspects of the issue of disability from a local point of view. They
rather were engaged in suggesting treatments and providing moral evaluations of what is
good and not. The lack of this frame revealed the manner in which each newspaper looked
up on people with disabilities and the issue of disability. That is as a problem that can be
treated than prevented. This view was also regarded as better than to perceive it as a
punishment from God or forefathers as a problem that will not be even treated.

In these local newspapers what is more seen is that they do not often attach pictures for a
disability story. As indicated, few pictures were found but most of them deal with other
settings. This partly depicted the values attached to the issue of disability that they do not
consider pictures are important in such stories as well. The newspapers were also found to
be dominantly engaged in selection and salience of for instance types of disability. All
seem to have chosen ends on what to report more and on what to report less and how. For
instance Admass was highly engaged in reporting about children with mental illness and
retardation medically. Zemen and Medical on the contrary report on adult people with
visual impairments. Hence all have selected one form of disability over others. For
instance, stories of physical disability, hearing and speaking impairments were less coved.
Polio and leprosy, on the other hand, were never in the agenda of all the three newspapers.
This shows how much news organizations, journalists and editors are engaged in selection
and salience of issues in the media.

As argued in the literature, by framing certain type of disability appear in certain ways,
media practitioners frame the way readers understanding of the problem.
However lower number of frames were prevalence. This included human interest, conflict,
and economic frames. This may have partly contributed for most of the articles to appear as
inside page stories. Empathy frames were used dominantly by Admass and Medical where
as Zemen used attribution of responsibility frame.

Finally, the examined articles were shown to have few dominant roles. Of these 46.4% of
the stories suggest medical treatments for disability while 44.6% provide moral

86
evaluations. Discussing the causes rank as a third role. Yet it could have been a reasonably
used first and most roles. Discussing the cause will contribute most to its solutions. It
might have paved a way to suggest treatments, moral evaluations as well as preventive tips.

5.2 The need for further research

This research has not exhausted all possible aspects even though it tried to bring a spot
light on the issue. This very research was limited to the pictorial and textual or content
analysis aspects of the print media. Therefore, the same research would be used to examine
the broadcast stream of Ethiopian media. In addition since the current research had not
covered stories on magazine and pamphlets that are released by NGOs and International
Aid organizations, this area as well could be worth examined.
It would also be worth doing a reception analysis on how people with disabilities receive
and respond to varied media products. A comparative analysis on usage of pictures for
other stories and disability stories could also be important to the research world.

Discourse and trend analysis would also be used as to see how disability is depicted
through word choices and over time in local media, both print and broadcast. Carrying out
an examination on this matter on the Internet will be a good place to advance researches as
well.

87
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Mekasha, M. (2005). The Ethiopian media landscape. Unpublished Addis Ababa,

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92
 Appendix A

Table 4.25 Child versus adult manifestations

Name of the Children Vs. adult Location Total

newspaper
Front page Inside page
Addis Zemen Male children 6 6
Female children -
Addis Admass Male children 1 12
Female children 11
Medical Male children 1 2 6
Female children 1 2

Name of the Children Vs. adult Location Total

newspaper
Front page Inside page
Addis Zemen Male adult 1 13
Female adult 1
both 11
Addis Admass Male adult 3 11
Female adult 2
Both 6
Medical Male adult - - 5
Female adult 1 -
both 2 -

93
 Appendix B

List of informants

Informants Name Position Media house

1. Solomon GebreEgziabher Deputy Editor- in- Addis Admass

Chief Newspaper
2. Wendimu Alaye Editor- in- Chief Addis Zemen
Newspaper
3. D/r Abush Ayalew Editor- in- Chief Medical
Newspaper
4. Lemlem Mengistu Journalist Addis Zemen

94
 Appendix C

Coding sheet
Name of coder __________________
Name of Newspaper __________________
Date of publication __________________
Headline of the article __________________
Writer /byline __________________

1. Article description (0.96)

1.1 Article format

- News _____
- Feature _____
- Interview _____

1.2 Pictures

- Is there a picture for the article Yes/No?

- What part of disability is dominant?

- A body part that is visibly disabled __________

- Faces___________
- Wheelchairs______
- If other please specify_____________
- What does the caption say? __________________________________
1.3 Location

- Front page _________

- Inside pages ________

2. Theme of the article

2.1 Themes (.32)
-Discrimination _____
-Violence __________
-Success ___________
-Pity ______________
-Burden ___________
-Tragedy___________
-Educative _________
-Neglect ___________
-Rape _____________
-Donation and Charity __________
-Crimes and criminal activities _________

95
 -Medical care/ Health matters __________
-If other please specify __________________________________________

2.2 Types of disability mentioned mostly (0.64)

-Mental illness/ retardation__

-Physical disability__
-Sensory disability __
- Visual impairment __
- Hearing difficulty__
- Speaking difficulty__
-Polio __
-Leprosy__
-Emotional disturbance __
-Multiple disabilities __
-If other please specify __________________________________________

2.2.1 Other ways of explaining disability

- Is the story written in the We vs. They manner Yes / No

2.2.2 Are there inflated words or/and phrases used to describe disability? Yes / No
-Does the story compare disability with non-disability? Yes / No

3. Sources of the article

3.1 Sources

-Person (people) with disability __

-Government officials’ __
-NGOs __
-Experts (doctors, nurses, psychiatrists etc) __
-Rehabilitation centers __
-Charity organizations __
-Association for disability __
-Researches and researchers __
-Families and Friends __
-International organizations __
-No specified source __
-If other please specify ____________________________________________

3.2 Children vs. Adult manifestation in the article

-Male children with disabilities __

-female children with disabilities __
- Both __
-Male adult with disabilities ___
-Female adult with disabilities __
- Both __

96
 4. Frames of the story
4.1 Human interest frames

-Does the story provide a human figure/face? Yes / No

-Does the story tell personal or private lives of people with disabilities? Yes / No
-Does the story explain how they are influenced socially, culturally, Yes / No
politically and economically?
-Does the story provide testimonies of people with disabilities? Yes / No
- If other state____________________________________________________

97
4.2 Attribution of responsibility frames

- Are cultural attitudes suggested to have the ability to change or

Yes / No
alleviate disability and discrimination view?
- Are social behaviors suggested to have the ability to change or
alleviate disability and discrimination view?
- Are people with disabilities themselves suggested to have the ability
Yes / No
to change or alleviate disability and discrimination view?
- Are the general community suggested to have the ability to change
Yes / No
or alleviate disability and discrimination view?
- Are good medical treatments suggested to have the ability to change
Yes / No
or alleviate disability and discrimination view?
- Are improvement of architectural designs suggested to have the ability
Yes / No
to change or alleviate disability and discrimination view?
- Are NGOs, governments and International organization suggested to
Yes / No
have the ability to change or alleviate disability and discrimination view?
- If other
state_____________________________________________________

4.3 Diagnostic frames

-Is the presence of poverty stated as a cause for disability?

Yes / No
-Are eating habits stated as a cause for disability?
Yes / No
-Is poor/lack of health care services stated as causes for disability?
Yes / No
-Are drug addiction, drinking, and smoking stated as causes for disability?
Yes / No
-Are harmful traditional practices stated as causes for disability?
Yes / No
-Are traditional medicines stated as causes for disability?
Yes / No
-Is reckless driving stated as a cause for disability?
Yes / No
-Is war stated as a cause for disability?
Yes / No

98
 -Are seasons where children’s are born stated as causes for disability?
Yes / No
-Are rape and other violence stated as a cause for disability?
Yes /No
-Are other diseases (HIV, Censer, Diabetics etc) stated as causes for
Yes / No disability?
- If other
state__________________________________________________________

4.4 Prognostic frames

-Does the story provide effects of negative attitude on people with disability?
Yes / No
- Does the story state lack of equal treatment due to discrimination?
Yes / No
- Does the story state dropouts from school/work place due to discrimination?
Yes / No
- Does the story state people with disability as needy due to discrimination?
Yes / No
-Does the story state effects of disability like, suicides or other self-destructive
Yes / no
actions?
- If other
state___________________________________________________________

4.5 Solution frames

-Does the story state medical improvement as solution for decreasing Yes
/ No
or illumination of disability and discrimination?
- Does the story state behavioral change as solution for decreasing or
Yes / No
illumination of disability and discrimination?
-Does the story state eradication of poverty as solution for decreasing or
Yes / No
illumination of disability and discrimination?
-Does the story state government support as solution for decreasing or
Yes / No
illumination of disability and discrimination?
-Does the story state change in eating culture as solution for decreasing or
Yes / No
illumination of disability and discrimination?

99
 -Does the story state addict free behaviors as a solution for decreasing or
Yes / No
illumination of disability and discrimination?
- Does the story provide religious activities (baptizing) as a solution of
Yes / No
disabilities?
- If other
state__________________________________________________________

4.6 Morality frames

- Does the story provide moral messages, good or bad?

Yes / No
- Does the story make reference of God, or other religious tents?
Yes / No
- Does the story provide social prescription about how to behave towards
Yes / No
disabilities?
- Does the story tell readers to do something about the issue?
Yes / No
- If other
state_________________________________________________________

4.7 Empathy frames

-Does the story refer to people with disability as helpless, dependent, Yes
/ No
needy or pity?
-Does the story mention women, children or elders with disabilities? Yes /
No
-Does the story use words or adjectives to refer people with disability Yes
/ No
as “unable to do”, “Punishment from god”, “unfortunate”, “unlucky”,
“pity” or other words that generate feelings of outrage, sympathy, caring,
or compassion?
- If other
state_________________________________________________________

4.8 Educative/advocacy frames

- Does the story explain causes of disability, how to use medicine etc?
Yes / No
- Does the story tell the public about human rights, equal opportunity,
Yes / No

100
 and employment?
- Does the story give information on how to better see people with
Yes / No
disabilities?
- Does the story suggest policy changes in the country regarding disability?
Yes / No
- Does the story state accessibility for people with disability?
Yes / No
- Does the story states the need for societal change in attitude?
Yes / No
- If other
state_________________________________________________________

4.9 Donation frame

-Does the story involve donations or charities made by NGOs or

Yes / No
government body?
- Does the story involve fundraising activities from society/ community?
Yes / No
- Does the story involve free eye surgery, eye donations (eye banks),
Yes / No
wheelchair supply, etc?
- If other
state_________________________________________________________

4.10 Economic frames

-Does the story involve economic impacts of unequally employment?

Yes / No
-Does the story involve financial implications of people with disabilities
Yes / No
and their families?
-Does the story involve economic consequences of the country as a result
Yes / No
of unemployment and discrimination of people with disabilities?
-Does the story associate discrimination of people with disability with
Yes / No
development activities?
- If other
state______________________________________________________

4.11 Conflict frames

101
 -Does the story involve two opposing views?
Yes / No
- Does the story provide condemning one’s or each other’s statement?
Yes / No
- Does it show disagreements between individuals, groups or organization?
Yes /No
- If other
state________________________________________________________

5. What kind of role do the articles play regarding disability?

5.1 -Is the issue of disability in the media?

Yes / No
-Does the story include all sides of the story (more than two sources)?
Yes / No
-Is the issue of disability represented medically or socially?
Yes / No

5.2 -Are there other groups involved for the story to appear in the media
Yes / No
like, sponsors, NGOs, medical institutions, Ministry of health?

5.3 -Does the article define the problem?

Yes / No
-Does the article state causes and interpret the issue?
Yes / No
-Does the article provide moral evaluation of the problem?
Yes / No
-Does the article suggest treatments?
Yes /No
-Does the article provide logical reasoning of why the problem happened?
Yes / No
- If other
state________________________________________________________

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 Appendix D
Coding book (Guide)
Article description- indicates whether the article is news, feature or an interview.
2.1 Theme - the central idea of a story (main idea of the story).
Discrimination - favorable or unfavorable treatment especially on the basis of, disability,
gender, and race prejudices.
Violence - an aggression behavior or a physical force that a person with disability intends
to hurt or kills somebody.
Success refers to an achievement of a desired deed, aim or goal of a person with
disability.
Pity refers to feel of sorrow or compassion caused by the suffering and troubles of others.
Burden refers to a thing or a person that has become a responsibility or an obligation for
someone who did not want it and causes trouble.
Tragedy - a terrible event which a person with disability has gone through that causes
great sadness.
Educative refers to providing knowledge and instruction about disability, when it
explains what disability is, and how to go about it.
Neglect refers to giving less or no attention and care to people with disabilities
Rape refers to an act of forcing a person with disability to have sex
Charity - a society or an organization helping people in need, with money, food,
materials etc.
Donation refers to making a gift of money, clothes, food, utensils etc to a good cause.
Crimes and Criminal activities refer to an activity of offence which results on breaking
law where punishment will be carried out.
Medical care refers to taking or giving a medical treatment for a disease or an infection
2.2 Disabilities
Disability refers to diverse group of People, who are visually impaired, deaf, use
wheelchairs, have chronic pain, learn at a slower pace than other people, arthritis (
inflammation of joints) or old age, quadriplegic ( paralysis of all four limbs) conditions

103
requiring the disabled person to have access to a full time personal assistant and various
technical aids.
Mental illness Mental Illness, disorder characterized by disturbances in a person’s
thoughts, emotions, or behavior. The term mental illness can refer to a wide variety of
disorders, ranging from those that cause mild distress to those that severely impair a
person’s ability to function. Mental health professionals sometimes use the terms
psychiatric disorder or psychopathology to refer to mental illness.
Physical disability; refers to having a problem or an impairment on the legs, hands and
generally impairment on walking or moving.
Sensory disability having impairments on the sensory organs like the eye, ear, etc
Polio refers to temporary or permanent paralysis of the central nervous system.
Leprosy or Hansen's disease, chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium
Mycobacterium leprae. Leprosy can be treated effectively with several drugs, but if left
untreated, the disease can result in severe disfigurement, especially of the feet, hands, and
face. It is rarely fatal.
5.1 Sources
Sources are referred to as name(s) of a person, group or organization directly or indirectly
quoted in the story as government officials, families, NGOs and the likes.
5.2 Children vs. Adult
Child refers to any person under the age of 18.
Adult refers to any person who is above the age of 18.

4.1 Human interest frames - when the story involves people in the stories and when it
provides testimonies of people with disabilities.
4.2 Attribution of responsibility frames -when the story suggests any organ should take
actions
On the matter
4.3 Diagnostic frames –When the story diagnoses or provides lists of or ranges of causes
for disability example, war, car accidents or lack of medical care…etc.
4.4 Prognostic frames- when the story states the effects of disability on the individual as
well as on the country, and when it states the effect of discrimination.
4.5 Solution frames-when the story states or suggests solution for the problem.

104
4.6 Morality frames -when the story provides advice or when it tells the reader to do or
not to do something.
4.7 Empathy frames- when the story describes people with disabilities with word sand
adjectives that create sympathy, foe example words like “unfortunates”
4.8 Educative/advocacy frames- when the story relates the issue of disability with
policy changes or human rights and equal opportunities.
4.9 Donation frame- when the story states donations or charities made by an
organization, individuals or groups to people with disabilities.
4.10 Conflict frame- When the story provides to opposing views or statements.
4.11 Economic Frames –When the story indicates the economic impact of disability and
unequal employment opportunity on the individual him or herself and the country as a
whole.

105
 Appendix E

Interview Guide

Interviews with editors and journalists

1. Background
- What do you think- causes of disability in general are?
- Treatments
- Prevention
- Transmission
- What is your attitude towards disability in general?
- How do you see disability, as a medical problem or as a social one?
- How do you report about it, will you get too emotional or what?
- Why do you think reporting about them is important?
- From which angle do you choose to present the article?
- What do you think the major challenges of people with disabilities in life are?
2. Pictures
- Do you think it is important to have a picture in an article?
- Which part of the picture would you like to show?
- Why do most of your articles don’t have pictures?
- Is it because it is hard to get it or because it is difficult to select a good one (an
ethical one)?
3. Themes
- What were the central ideas or issues raised in your stories?
- Why do you want to make such a theme?
- What do you want to achieve or tell the public by making that a central idea?
- Why are most of your stories from foreign people instead of Ethiopian?
- Do you think readers will take that seriously?
- What is the reason that you do not use more local stories of people with
disabilities?
Types of disability
- Which type of disability do you like to report?
- Why and what is your reason?
- Why not on other types?
4. Sources
- Who were your sources when you report about disability?
- Why people with disabilities are not used as sources?
- What is your reason for using such a source instead?
- Why do you often use researches and researchers as sources?
- Do you think the findings of the research are representative?

106
Children vs. Adults
- Do you use children as sources in your stories?
- Do you give more attention to children with disabilities or adults?
- Why?
- How much care do you give for the statements children offer you?
- What are the things you consider a lot about them?
5. Frames
- How did you construct the stories?
- Why make them appear in this manner?
- Were you aware how your stories were framed?
- What is your ethics on reporting on disability issues?
- Do you think your editorial policy or ethics had in some way affected the way you
framed the stories?
- Are there other factors affecting the way you write the story, like cultural
attitudes?

Human interest frames

- Do you think human faces are credible for this kind of report?
- Why did you use them or did not use them?
Attribution of responsibility frames
- Who do you think is responsible for solving the problem?
- Why?
Diagnostic frame
- What do you think are the causes of disability and then discrimination?
- What is the reason of not discussing other causes of disability and discrimination?
Prognostic
- What do you think the effects of negative attitudes on disability are?
- What do you think the effects of discrimination on the lives of people with
disability are?
Solution frames
- What do you think are the solutions for decreasing discrimination on disability?
- Do you think government support is a solution for discrimination and disability?
- Why?
Morality frames
- Do you tell the public what is good or bad with your stories?
- What do you think is the importance of it?
Empathy frames
- Do you regard people with disabilities as needy, unfortunate or unable to do?
- Why these words are used in the stories?
Educative frames

107
 - Do you think you need to explain on the causes of disability and how to use
medication and etc? Why?
- Do you think you have to educate the public about human rights issues? Why?
- In your stories, do you recommend on what should be done? Why?
Donation frames
- Why do you focus on donation?
- Why do you choose to report disability with this frame?
Economic frames
- Do you think disability has an influence on the countries economy?
- What do you think are the major financial implications of discrimination on the
lives of people with disability?
Media roles
- What do you think are the roles media play by reporting on disability?
- From which perspective do you think media should report such issues?

108
 Appendix F
Role of the articles
Type of Newspaper * Include all sides of the story
Type of Newspaper Include all sides of the story Total
Yes No
Addis Zemen 6 18 24
Addis Admass 7 16 23
Medical 1 8 9
Total 14 42 56

Type of Newspaper * other groups involved for the story to appear in the media
Type of Newspaper Other groups involved for the story to appear in the media Total
Yes No
Addis Zemen 5 19 24
Addis Admass 11 12 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 16 40 56

Type of Newspaper * Article define the problem ion

Type of Newspaper Article define the problem Total
Yes No
Addis Zemen 7 17 24
Addis Admass 12 11 23
Medical 4 5 9
Total 23 33 56

Type of Newspaper * Article state causes and interpret the issue

Type of Newspaper Article state causes and interpret the issue Total
Yes No
Addis Zemen 6 18 24
Addis Admass 12 11 23
Medical 6 3 9
Total 24 32 56

Type of Newspaper * Article provide moral evaluation of the problem

Type of Newspaper Article provide moral evaluation of the problem Total
Yes No
Addis Zemen 13 11 24
Addis Admass 10 13 23
Medical 2 7 9
Total 25 31 56

Type of Newspaper * Article suggest treatments

Type of Newspaper Article suggest treatments Total
Yes No
Addis Zemen 9 15 24
Addis Admass 14 9 23
Medical 3 6 9
Total 26 30 56

109
 Appendix G

Frames used in each newspaper

2. Attribution of responsibility frame
Type of Newspaper * Cultural attitude
Cultural attitude
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 4 20 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 4 19 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 8 48 56

Type of Newspaper * Social

Social
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 8 16 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 5 18 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 13 43 56

Type of Newspaper * People with disability

People with disability
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 2 22 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 3 20 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 5 51 56
Type of Newspaper * Community
Community
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 10 14 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 6 17 23
Medical 1 8 9
Total 17 39 56

Type of Newspaper * Medical

Medical
Yes No Total

110
 Type of Addis Zemen 9 15 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 12 11 23
Medical 3 6 9
Total 24 32 56

Type of Newspaper * NGO, Government

NGO, Govt.
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 16 8 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 8 15 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 24 32 56

Type of Newspaper * Other

Other
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 4 20 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 6 17 23
Medical 2 7 9
Total 12 44 56

3. Diagnostic frame
Type of Newspaper * presence of poverty
presence of poverty
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 0 23 23
Newspaper Addis Admass 2 21 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 2 53 55

Type of Newspaper * poor health

poor health
Yes No 22 Total
Type of Addis Zemen 3 21 0 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 5 17 1 23
Medical 0 9 0 9
Total 8 47 1 56

Type of Newspaper * drug addiction

111
 drug addiction
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 1 23 24
Newspaper
Addis Admass 5 18 23
Medical 1 8 9
Total 7 49 56

Type of Newspaper * traditional practices

traditional practices
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 0 24 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 1 22 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 1 55 56

Type of Newspaper * traditional medicine

traditional
medicine
No Total
Type of Newspaper Addis Zemen 24 24
Addis Admass 23 23
Medical 9 9
Total 56 56

Type of Newspaper * reckless driving

reckless driving

No Total
Type of Newspaper Addis Zemen 24 24
Addis Admass 23 23
Medical 9 9
Total 56 56

Type of Newspaper * other diseases

other diseases
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 2 22 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 5 18 23
Medical 2 7 9
Total 9 47 56

Type of Newspaper * other

other
Yes No Total

112
 Type of Addis Zemen 5 19 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 7 16 23
Medical 4 5 9
Total 16 40 56

4. Prognostic frames
Type of Newspaper * effect of negative attitude
effect of negative attitude
Yes No 22 Total
Type of Addis Zemen 11 13 0 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 8 14 1 23
Medical 1 8 0 9
Total 20 35 1 56

Type of Newspaper * lack of equal treatment

lack of equal treatment
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 11 13 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 9 14 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 20 36 56

Type of Newspaper * dropouts from work place

dropouts from work place

Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 0 24 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 6 17 23
Medical 1 8 9
Total 7 49 56

Type of Newspaper * needy due to discrimination

needy due to discrimination

Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 6 18 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 6 17 23
Medical 1 8 9
Total 13 43 56

Type of Newspaper * effects of disability, suicide

effects of disability, suicide

Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 1 23 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 7 16 23

113
 Medical 2 7 9
Total 10 46 56

5. Solution frame
Type of Newspaper * medical improvement
medical improvement
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 7 17 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 12 11 23
Medical 4 5 9
Total 23 33 56

Type of Newspaper * behavioral change

behavioral change
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 10 14 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 10 13 23
Medical 1 8 9
Total 21 35 56

Type of Newspaper * government support

government support
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 13 11 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 9 14 23
Medical 1 8 9
Total 23 33 56

Type of Newspaper * other

other
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 5 19 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 8 15 23
Medical 2 7 9
Total 15 41 56

6. Moral frames
Type of Newspaper * moral message
moral message
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 14 10 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 10 13 23
Medical 3 6 9

114
 Total 27 29 56

Type of Newspaper * social prescription

social prescription
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 4 20 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 7 16 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 11 45 56

Type of Newspaper * tell readers

tell readers
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 11 13 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 9 14 23
Medical 1 8 9
Total 21 35 56
Type of Newspaper * other
other
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 7 17 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 4 19 23
Medical 1 8 9
Total 12 44 56

7. Empathy frame
Type of Newspaper * helpless
helpless
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 9 15 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 10 13 23
Medical 2 7 9
Total 21 35 56

Type of Newspaper * Women, children and elders disability

Women, children and
elders disability
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 5 19 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 14 9 23
Medical 5 4 9
Total 24 32 56

Type of Newspaper * Words refers to disability

115
 Words refers to disability
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 6 18 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 4 19 23
Medical 3 6 9
Total 13 43 56

8. Educative or Advocacy frame

Type of Newspaper * Explain causes of disability
Explain causes of
disability

Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 6 18 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 13 10 23
Medical 4 5 9
Total 23 33 56
Type of Newspaper * Talk about human rights, equal opportunity and employment
Talk about human
rights, equal opportunity
and employment

Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 8 16 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 7 16 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 15 41 56
Type of Newspaper * Information on how to better see people with disability
Information on how to
better see people with
disability

Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 6 18 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 9 14 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 15 41 56

Type of Newspaper * Suggest policy changes

Suggest policy changes

Yes No Total

116
 Type of Addis Zemen 2 22 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 6 17 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 8 48 56
Type of Newspaper * State accessibility for people with disability
State accessibility for
people with disability
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 6 18 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 4 19 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 10 46 56
Type of Newspaper * State the need for societal change in attitude
State the need for
societal change in
attitude

Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 6 18 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 6 17 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 12 44 56
Type of Newspaper * Other
Other
Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 1 23 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 0 23 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 1 55 56
9. Donation frames
Type of Newspaper * Involves donations or charities made by NGOs or Government
Involves donations or
charities made by NGOs
or Government

Yes No Total
Type of Addis Zemen 14 10 24
Newspaper Addis Admass 1 22 23
Medical 0 9 9
Total 15 41 56

117