Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
REGION IV-A CALABARZON
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF QUEZON PROVINCE
RECTO MEMORIAL NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL Physical Science
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT Week 3

Lesson 3: Concept of Atomic Number Leading to the Synthesis of New Elements

MELC: Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory.
Learning Objectives:
1. Describe the nuclear model, including the location of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
2. Explain how Moseley discovered the correlation between the atomic number of an element and the wavelengths of x-
rays emitted by the element.
3. Discuss how new elements are synthesized.

KEY CONCEPT:
The atomic number is the number of protons
(positively charged particles) in an atom.

The Atomic Number and the Synthesis of New Elements

 Moseley’s X-ray Spectroscopy
 Henry Gwyn-Jefferys Moseley was an English physicist who demonstrated that the atomic number (the
number of protons in an atom) determines most of the properties of an element. He began his study of
radioactivity in Ernest Rutherford’s laboratory but later decided to explore more on X-rays. In 1913, Moseley
published a paper on the arrangement of the elements in the Periodic table based on their atomic numbers.
 He used X-ray spectroscopy to determine the atomic number of an element. He bombarded a beam of
electrons to different elements and measured their X-ray spectral lines. His results clearly showed that
frequency of the X-rays given off by an element was mathematically related to the position of that element in
the Periodic table.
 The frequency is proportional to the charge of the nucleus, or the atomic number. When the elements
were arranged according to their atomic numbers, there were four gaps in the table. These gaps
corresponded to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These elements were later synthesized in the
laboratory through nuclear transmutations.

 Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation

 In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction — a reaction
involving the transformation of one element or isotope into another element. He bombarded alpha particles
from radium directed to the nitrogen nuclei. He showed that the nitrogen nuclei reacted to the alpha particles
to form oxygen nuclei. The reaction is written as:

 However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they tend to repel each
other. Therefore, instead of using fast-moving alpha particles in synthesizing new elements, atomic nuclei
are often bombarded with neutrons (neutral particles) in particle accelerators.

 The Discovery of the Missing Elements

 A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the repulsion
between the protons and the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to
synthesize new elements. In 1937, American physicist Ernest Lawrence synthesized element with atomic
number 43 using a linear particle accelerator. He bombarded molybdenum (Z=42) with fast- moving
neutrons. The newly synthesized element was named Technetium (Tc) after the Greek word "technêtos"
meaning artificial. Tc was the first man-made element.

“Making Excellence a Habit in the Spirit of Love and Care”

Address: Recto Street, Brgy. Quipot, Tiaong, Quezon
Contact Numbers: (042) 795-5525; 0949-9951769
Email Address: [email protected]
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
REGION IV-A CALABARZON
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF QUEZON PROVINCE
RECTO MEMORIAL NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL Physical Science
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT Week 3

 In the year 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered element with atomic
number 85. They bombarded atoms of bismuth (Z=83) with fastmoving alpha particles in a cyclotron. A
cyclotron is a particle accelerator that uses alternating electric field to accelerate particles that move in a
spiral path in the presence of a magnetic field. Element-85 was named astatine from the Greek word
―astatos‖ meaning unstable. The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were discovered
through studies in radioactivity. Element-61 (Promethium) was discovered as a decay product of the fission
of uranium while element-87 (Francium) was discovered as a breakdown product of uranium.

 Synthesis of New Elements

 In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an atomic number 92. Early in 1940, Edwin
McMillan proved that an element having an atomic number 93 could be created. He used a particle
accelerator to bombard uranium with neutrons and created an element with an atomic number 93 which he
named neptunium.
 At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized by Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy, and Wahl. They
bombarded uranium with deuterons (particles composed of a proton and a neutron) in a cyclotron. Element-
94 was named plutonium.
 Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are called transuranium
elements. Hence, neptunium and plutonium are both transuranium elements. They are unstable and decay
radioactively into other elements. All of these elements were discovered in the laboratory as artificially
generated synthetic elements. They are prepared using nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.

 Nuclear Transmutation
 A nuclear transmutation is a reaction involving the transformation of one element into another element.
It happens when a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle to produce a more massive nucleus. It occurs
only on special conditions such as the collision of the target nuclei with a beam of particles with high
energies.
 In 1919, the first successful transmutation was done by Rutherford. He bombarded nitrogen nuclei with
alpha particles to form oxygen nuclei. In the next decades, other nuclear reactions were discovered by
bombarding other elements with alpha particles. However, since these particles have a strong repulsive
force with the target nuclei (both are positively charged), the progress in discovering elements was slow.
Scientists then tried other particles with higher energies. In 1932, major advancements in nuclear reactions
took place. Particle accelerators, which use a projectile of high-energy particles, were invented.

 Transuranium Elements
 Transuranium elements are elements whose atomic numbers are greater than 92. They are all unstable
and undergo radioactive decay. Many of the transuranium elements were prepared using particle
accelerators, and much of this work was facilitated by a group of scientists led by the American chemist,
Glenn Theodore Seaborg, and later, nuclear scientist Albert Ghiorso in the University of California.
 The most effective way of preparing transuranium elements specifically in the lower members of the
series (elements 93 to 95), was through nitrogen bombardment. As for the heavier transuranium elements
(96 to 101), they were generally prepared with high-energy positive ions which include the use of deuterons,
carbon nuclei, and ions.

References: Pandoma, A.A (2020). Physical Science – Grade 11/12. Self-Learning Module (SLM). Quarter 1 – Module 2:
The Atomic Number and the Synthesis of New Elements. Department of Education.

“Making Excellence a Habit in the Spirit of Love and Care”

Address: Recto Street, Brgy. Quipot, Tiaong, Quezon
Contact Numbers: (042) 795-5525; 0949-9951769
Email Address: [email protected]
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
REGION IV-A CALABARZON
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF QUEZON PROVINCE Physical Science
RECTO MEMORIAL NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT Week 4

Lesson 4: Chemical Bonding

MELC: Explain how the concept of atomic number is related in determining the valence electrons, and the oxidation number of an
element, as well as the type of chemical bond formed when combined with other elements.
Learning Objectives:
1. Determine the valence electrons and oxidation number of an element.
2. Identify and differentiate types of Chemical Bond.
3. Illustrate chemical bonds using Lewis Electron Dot Structure/Sytem.

KEY CONCEPT:
Chemical Bond -A force of attraction that holds two atoms together.
It has a significant effect on chemical and physical properties of
compounds.

A. VALENCE ELECTRONS

Valence Electrons – the electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom.

-

This Lithium + -
Atom has - + +
one
valence
electron

Counting Valence Electrons

- - -

-
-
-
+ ++ + +
+ +
- +
+
+ -
- + + - -
+ + -

+ + + +
-
-
- - -
-

Carbon Beryllium
Oxygen
4 valence 2 valence
6 valence
electrons electrons
electrons

Determining the Number of Valence Electrons by Using the Periodic Table

 Atoms of elements in Groups 1 and 2 have the same number of valence electrons as their group number.
 Atoms of elements in Group 3-12 do not have a general rule relating their valence electrons to their group
number. However, they typically have between 1 or 2 valence electrons.
 Atoms of elements in Groups 13-18 have 10 fewer valence electrons than their group number.

“Making Excellence a Habit in the Spirit of Love and Care”

Address: Recto Street, Brgy. Quipot, Tiaong, Quezon
Contact Numbers: (042) 795-5525; 0949-9951769
Email Address: [email protected]
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
REGION IV-A CALABARZON
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF QUEZON PROVINCE
RECTO MEMORIAL NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL Physical Science
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT Week 4

(Exception - helium atoms have only 2 valence electrons, even though they are in group 18)

B. THE OCTET RULE

 Atoms will combine to form compounds in order to reach eight electrons in their outer energy level.
• Atoms with less than 4 electrons tend to lose electrons.
• Atoms with more than 4 electrons tend to gain electrons.
 Be aware that there are some exceptions!
CONSIDER EIGHT A HAPPY NUMBER FOR ATOMS!

Notice how this chlorine atom has seven

valence electrons, one away from eight. It
will try to gain one more according to the
6 7
-
-
-
Octet Rule.
5
- -

- -

+
++
++++ +
- + ++ ++ -
1
+ +
4 -
++
-
-

-
1
-

-
- -

3 2
Notice how the sodium atom has one
valence electron. It is this electron that
it will try to get rid of according to the
Octet Rule.

C. Lewis Electron Dot Structure (LEDS)

 a way of drawing the outer energy level electrons (valence) of an atom. The symbol for the element
surrounded by as many dots as there are electrons in its outer energy level (valence)
Examples Where do you think Chlorine finds that one electron that it needs?

. .
Al :
.N :
. Mg :
Aluminum Nitrogen Magnesium
Making an Electron Dot Diagram
Element “X” has 8 valence electrons

“Making Excellence a Habit in the Spirit of Love and Care”

Address: Recto Street, Brgy. Quipot, Tiaong, Quezon
Contact Numbers: (042) 795-5525; 0949-9951769
Email Address: [email protected]
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
REGION IV-A CALABARZON
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF QUEZON PROVINCE
RECTO MEMORIAL NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
Physical Science
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT Week 4

D. Types of Chemical Bonds

1. Ionic - The force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
 Occurs after a transfer or loss/gain of electrons
 Usually form between atoms of metals and atoms of non-metals

2. Covalent - A force that bonds two atoms together by a sharing of electrons.

 Each pair of shared electrons creates a bond
 Usually occurs between atoms of non-metals

Types of Covalent Bond

• Different covalent bond types share a different number of electrons
Carbon Dioxide (CO ) Nitrogen (N2)
Water (H O) 2
2

- -
- - - -
-
- -
++ + - -
- + + + -
+ ++ ++
- - + + + - - +
+ + + +
+ + + +
- - -
- -

- -

Single Bonds Share 2 Electrons Triple Bonds Share 6 Electrons

Double Bonds Share 4 Electrons

“Making Excellence a Habit in the Spirit of Love and Care”

Address: Recto Street, Brgy. Quipot, Tiaong, Quezon
Contact Numbers: (042) 795-5525; 0949-9951769
Email Address: [email protected]