Hydrothermal Alteration in
Geothermal System
SCGL603525 - Geologi Panas Bumi
Geoscience, Faculty of Mathematics & Natural Sciences
Universitas Indonesia
2018
E-mail: [email protected]
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References
• Wohletz, K. and Heiken, G. (1992) Volcanology and geothermal
energy, Berkeley, United States: University of California Press
• Browne, P.R.L., Hydrothermal alteration as an aid in
investigating geothermal field, 1970.
• Henneberger, R.C., Browne, P.R.L., Hydrothermal Alteration
and Evolution of the Ohakuri Hydrothermal System, Taupo
Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, 1988.
• Pat Shanks, W.C., Hydrothermal Alteration, USGS, 2012.
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Last week we covered about …
• The importance of understanding hydrothermal
alteration in geothermal system
• Hydrothermal alteration process
• Typical Alteration Mineral based on fluid types
• Altered Mineral as indicators of physical
properties
• Intensity and Ranks
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This week, we will cover some of these
topics…
• Hydrothermal alteration in geothermal systems
• Alteration zone
• Mapping alteration mineralogy
• Discussion on assignment
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Geological observations
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weathering
Adapted from Browne
Rain water 0-30 °C
Primary Secondary
minerals minerals HYDRO = WATER;
THERMAL = HEAT
hydrothermal alteration
Thermal fluid 30-370 °C
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Hydrothermal alteration
• Hydrothermal alteration is a general term embracing the
mineralogical, textural, and chemical response of rocks to a changing
thermal and chemical environment in the presence of hot water,
steam, or gas (Henley and Ellis, 1983).
Unaltered Altered Rock
Rock
Fluid composition 2
Fluid migration
Fluid
composition 1
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Hydrothermal cycle
• The cycle of solution for rocks
during water/rock interaction and
the deposition of hydrothermal
minerals in pore space, both of
which greatly affect the physical
properties of reservoir rocks and
make up the hydrothermal cycle
(Elders, 1981)
• Leaching and fracturing reduce the
bulk density and increase porosity
and permeability
• deposition of hydrothermal minerals
increases the bulk density and
decreases porosity
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Hydrothermal Alteration in Geothermal System
• Browne (1977) described 51
hydrothermal minerals found in
active geothermal systems,
where some of these minerals
also occur in low-grade
metamorphic rock.
• It is common that water/rock
interaction in geothermal system
is the result of volcanic glass
alteration followed by sequence
of mineral phases
• Replacement or leaching or direct
deposition
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Hydrothermal Alteration in Geothermal System
• Browne (1977) described 51 hydrothermal minerals found in
active geothermal systems, where some of these minerals also
occur in low-grade metamorphic rock.
• Browne (1970) found that the most important minerals in
hydrothermal surveys are the feldspars, which are sensitive to
temperature and permeability
• It is common that water/rock interaction in geothermal system
is the result of volcanic glass alteration followed by sequence
of mineral phases
• Replacement or leaching or direct deposition
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Common minerals found in geothermal field
Chlorite, pyrite, Mordenite, siderite,
Epidote Clays
calcite, quartz cristobalite
• Stable over a wide • Form at low • Forms at high • guides to
temperature range temperature temperature, not permeability
• Calcite strongly greatly affected by
affected by permeability
underground CO2
pressure
• The most important minerals in hydrothermal surveys are the feldspars, which are sensitive to temperature
and permeability
• Good production zones abundant secondary quartz, adularia, and calcite
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Hydrothermal Alteration in Geothermal System
• The two basic types of alteration
associated with volcanic
geothermal systems, acid-
sulfate and adularia- sericite
• Acid-sulfate alteration occurs
within the uppermost parts of a
volcano or along caldera ring
fractures where there is abundant
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Hydrothermal Alteration in Geothermal
System
• Adularia-sericite alteration
occurs within a flow regime
high above or adjacent to a
deep heat source and is
characterized by neutral pH
and alkali chloride waters
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Hydrothermal alteration & metal deposits
in geothermal system
• Formed in veins where
hydrothermal fluid flows thru an
open fissure and precipitates
minerals along the flow path. Water contains gold, mercury, cadmium
• Chloride fluid are said to carry
minerals from the earth’s crust such Arsenic deposits
as As, Li, Rb, Cs, B
• Deposited on the bottom or the rim of
surface manifestation
• Acidic water may contain volatile
gas with Hg, Au, Cd, Sb, Bi, W, Tl,
Sn
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Activity Diagrams 3
1
2
• Activity diagram can
show alteration
pathway
• 1 decrease in K &
Na
• 2 constant K,
decrease in Na
• 3 increase in K &
decrease in Na
NaAlSi3O8 + K+ ⇋ KAlSi3O8 + Na+
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Rock properties to support alteration
• Secondary permeability:
• Faults;
• Normal faults creates open spaces where
reverse faults are compressional.
• The age of fault is important; younger fault
is better, old fault may be self-sealed
• Hydraulic fracturing
• Fracturing due to over pressure created
by water in voids of rocks
• Joints
• Due to post silicification
• Hydrothermal leaching
• Mineral dissolution can decrease rock
volume For plumbing system for fluid to circulates
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Typical alteration product:
temperature-indicating minerals
• Some minerals that were formed
from fluid-rock interaction where the
fluid is at specific temperature
• Epidote is commonly found in active
geothermal field (>250 °C)
• Found abundantly in Iceland, El
Salvador, Philippines
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Typical alteration product: permeability-
indicating minerals
• Important minerals relating Low permeability Andesine (Na,Ca)SiAl4O8
permeability to alteration is
feldspars.
• Adularia is an indicator for high
permeability
• Quartz and calcite also indicate high
permeability found in vein and Albite
fracture infill
• For a geothermal system, NaAlSi3O8
impermeable rocks are not good
host rocks due to the inability to
move fluid
Albite / adularia
• Pyrrohotite (FeS) indicates poor
permeability; although the fluid is
hot but the rocks are impermeable
QUESTIONS: Do you think that this sequence
is similar to Bowen reaction series? If so, Why?
High permeability Adularia KAlSi3O8
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Hydrothermal alteration can infer the
condition of a geothermal system
Direct Deposition Leaching Mineral Replacement
• by fluids into rock • the dissolution of • the changes in
pores and fracture primary mineral primary minerals due
zones without replacement to the interaction
minerals between fluids and
parent/surrounding
rocks
Can see the changing Can see the direct fluid- Can see the change in
fluid composition rock interaction the reservoir
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Alteration Zone
• Argillic alteration: occurs where low
temperature groundwater becomes
acidic, usually < 200 °C, primary
minerals are converted to clay
minerals
• Advanced argillic alteration: occurs
when more acidic clays are abundant
• Phyllic alteration: occurs in a
permeable rock that has been affected
by the circulation of hydrothermal
fluids, usually between 200-320 °C.
• Propylitic alteration: rock dominated
alteration, characterized with
temperature-dependent mineral.
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Mapping alteration mineralogy
• By mapping alteration mineral assemblages at the surface (but more
commonly within drill holes), it is possible to locate the zones with (all
of which are important in geothermal exploration):
• highest temperatures,
• pressures, or
• Permeabilities
• Alteration zones supply additional information that points out the
areas of greatest temperature and permeability.
• Most desirable targets may make up as little as 5% of the entire
geothermal system.
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Indicate the predominant marker minerals
• as
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Surface Alteration study helps determine fluid
flow & fractures
• Alteration distribution
shows the fluid flow
pathway based on the
structural geological
data & mineralogical
data.
• Alteration can occur if
fractures are
presence; for fluid to
flow
Yoga et al (2019)
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Hydrothermal alteration facies
• Here we can see the abundance
of alteration minerals
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Stimac et.al. (2008)
Subsurface Facies
• We can see
alteration trend and
interpolate alteration
at depth to see the
boundaries of clay
cap and reservoir
depth.
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Hydrothermal alteration facies
• Decide depths of production casing and well depth
• Scaling potential
• Corrosion
• Determine the condition of the reservoir (i.e. heating up, cooling
or thermally stable)
• Determine the productivity of the well
• Identify aquifers and aquitards
• Locate depths of boiling
Discussion
