INTRODUCTION TO

Networking
Introduction
• People communicate with other people in a variety of ways. For example, we talk to people face-to-face, or
we write a letter and send it to someone and they write us a letter back. These are common forms of
communication.
• When people use computers to communicate they use a computer network.
What is a Network?
A network is a group of connected devices.
Using computers to move information from a source to a destination.
People use computers and networks for a wide variety of reasons. Three common reasons that people use
networks to send information from a source, such as a personal computer (PC), to a destination, such as a
printer, are:
o Communicate and collaborate (i.e., email and newsgroup)
o Share information (i.e., document sharing)
o Share resources (i.e., printers and servers)

Example of sharing resource are:

o Sharing computer files and disk space
o Sharing high-quality printers
o Access to common fax machines
o Access to common modems
o Multiple access to the Internet
What is a Network?
A source or destination can be any device capable of transferring information electronically from one point
(source) to another point (destination). These include:
o PCs
o Macintosh computers
o Workstations
o Printers
o Servers

Generically speaking, these devices are referred to as nodes. Nodes are the various endpoints on a network.

The connection between nodes is made using some type of connection medium. Examples of connection
mediums include:
o Copper cables
o Fiber optic cables
o Radio waves/wireless/satellite
Network Interface Card
o A NIC is the hardware component inserted into the PC or workstation that provides connectivity to a
network.
o The NIC provides the interface between the physical networking cable and the software implementing the
networking protocols.
o The NIC is responsible for transmitting and receiving information to and from a network.
Communication Signals
o Cables are used to tie network devices, such as computers, to other network devices, such as computers.
o Network cables attach to a computer via a network interface card (NIC), NICs are manufactured to work
with one or more types of cables.
o Signals that flow across these cables vary in speed and complexity.

Signals Type
o A signal is a variation of electricity that represents
coded information.
o If the information is stored in binary format, the
signal represents two values, 1s and 0s.
o Signals travel down wires or through the air
between two communicating devices.
o Two methods are use to transmit signals between
nodes: baseband and broadband.
o For LANs, broadband refers to analog transmission
of computer information, and baseband refers to
digit transmission of computer information.
Communication Signals
Baseband
o Baseband is analogous to a telegraph. Voltage levels are modulated onto a constant carrier signal.
o The Baseband transmission diagram illustrates bi-directional digital waves.

Broadband
o Broadband is analogous to TV cable transmission.
o The Broadband transmission diagram illustrates unidirectional analog wave.
Cable Types
There are three common types of cables in computer networks:
o Coaxial Cable
o Twisted Pair Cable
o Fiber Optic Cable

Coaxial Cable Twisted Pair Cable Fiber Optic Cable

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable used in data networks and LANs.
o It supports Ethernet-type networks, permit high data rates, and provide extra protection from electrical
interference.
o There are two primary options for coaxial cabling: 10Base2 and 10Base5.
Coaxial Cable
10Base2
o 10Base2 is the IEEE standard for 10 Mbps baseband Ethernet over thin, RG-
58 type coaxial cable.
o The maximum distance for this standard is 185 meters (m).
o 10Base2 is also referred to as "Thinnet," "ThinLAN," and "Cheapernet."
o 10Base2 (or Thinnet) uses twist-on connectors called BNC connectors to
attach to devices.

10Base5
o 10Base5 is the IEEE standard for 10 Mbps baseband Ethernet over thick,
RG-8 type coaxial cable.
o The maximum distance for this type of cable is 500 meters (m).
BNC Connectors
o 10Base5 is also called "Thicknet" and "Yellow Wire."
o Each attached device uses a transceiver to tap into the main cable.
o This type of cable is used as the backbone media in older Ethernet
networks.
Coaxial Cable Characteristic
o Coaxial cable typically consists of a central copper or copper-coated conductor surrounded by flexible
insulation, a shield of copper wire mesh, and an outer plastic jacket.
o The shield is the second conductor, and acts to dissipate electromagnetic interference (EMI)/radio
frequency interference (RFI).
o In thick Ethernet cable (10Base5), there are also two layers of foil shielding and an additional copper mesh
shield.
o Coaxial cable has good EMI/RFI resistance, it is bulky and relatively difficult to install through wire ducts and
other spaces within a building.
Twisted Pair Cable
o A twisted pair cable, as the name implies, consists of a pair of shielded wires twisted together as illustrated
in the Twisted Pair Cable Diagram.
o Because the wires are twisted together, electrical interference is minimized.
o This makes twisted pair cable less susceptible to signal loss than if it were not twisted.
o Twisted pair lines are suitable for very high bit rates.
o In Ethernet network installations, twisted pair distances are a maximum of 100 meters.
Twisted Pair Cable
There are three type of Twisted Pair Cable, UTP, STP and ScTP.

o Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is used extensively in

telephone and data networks.

o Shielded twisted pair (STP) cable can transfer data faster

and over greater distances than UTP cable because the
shielding provides additional protection from interference.

o ScTP also called FTP (foil twisted-pair), as a foil shield

surrounds the conductors. ScTP cable is basically STP
cabling without the individual pairs being shielded.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
UTP is the most popular LAN cabling. It is inexpensive, light, flexible,
and easy to install. Twisted pairs of wire to minimize EMI/RFI.
Ø Category 1 is for analog and digital voice (telephone) and low-
speed data applications.
Ø Category 2 is for voice, and medium-speed data up to 4 Mbps.
Ø Category 3 is for high-speed data and LAN traffic up to 16 Mbps.
Ø Category 4 is for long distance LAN traffic up to 20 Mbps.
Ø Category 5 is for 100 Mbps UTP LAN and currently recommended
for data network installation.
Ø Category 5e is for 1000 Mbps UTP LAN technologies.
Ø Category 6 is for 10000 Mbps use for Gigabit Ethernet network.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cable consists of a light-transmitting glass core surrounded by a reflective cladding layer.

Fiber optic cable can be either multimode or single-mode fiber.

o Multi-mode cable uses less expensive electronics (LEDs) to generate a light signal, and a larger diameter
glass core.
o Single-mode cable uses laser beams to generate a light signal, and a smaller diameter glass core.
Fiber Optic Media
Fiber optic cable has a number of benefits as a LAN medium.
o It is capable of supporting high data rates, theoretically as high as 50 Gbps.
o It allows long distance transmission (typically up to 2 kilometers).
o It uses light waves rather than voltage changes.
o It is immune to EMI/RFI.

The primary disadvantage of fiber optic cable is cost.

Fiber Construction
Fiber optic cable consists of three parts:
o Core
o Cladding
o Protective coating
Fiber Communication System
Transmitter
o Encoder converts the input into digital
electrical pulses (signals)
o Light source that modulates the signals
o Connector that couples the light source
to the fiber through which the light rays
travel

Receiver
o Photo detector that converts light pulses
into electrical signals
o Amplifier
o Message decoder
Types of Networks
Peer to Peer Network
o A peer-to-peer (P2P) network is created when two or more PCs are
connected and share resources without going through a separate
server computer.

Peer to Peer Network

Client - Server Network

o A computer network in which one centralized, powerful computer (called
the server ) is a hub to which many less
powerful personal computers or workstations (called clients ) are connec
ted.
Client - Server Network
o The clients run programs and access data that are stored on the server.
Network Type
Personal Area Network (PAN)
o The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless modem, a computer or two,
phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in one building.
o These types of networks are typically found in small offices or residences, and are managed by one person
or organization from a single device.

Local Area Network (LAN)

o LANs are the most frequently discussed networks, one of the most common, one of the most original and
one of the simplest types of networks.
o LANs connect groups of computers and devices together across short distances (within a building or
between a group of two or three buildings in close proximity to each other) to share information and
resources.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

o Functioning like a LAN, WLANs make use of wireless network technology, such as WiFi.
o Typically seen in the same types of applications as LANs, these types of networks don’t require that devices
rely on physical cables to connect to the network.
Network Type
Campus Area Network (CAN)
o Larger than LANs, but smaller than metropolitan area networks, these types of networks are typically seen
in universities, large school districts or small businesses.
o They can be spread across several buildings that are fairly close to each other so users can share resources.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

o These types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs and incorporate elements from both
types of networks. MANs span an entire geographic area (typically a town or city, but sometimes a campus).

Wide Area Network (WAN)

o Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across longer physical distances.
This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be remotely connected to each other over one large
network to communicate even when they’re miles apart.
o The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around the world.
Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by multiple administrators or the
public.
Network Type
Storage Area Network (SAN)
o As a dedicated high-speed network that connects shared pools of storage devices to several servers, these
types of networks don’t rely on a LAN or WAN.
o Instead, they move storage resources away from the network and place them into their own high-
performance network..

Enterprise Area Network (EAN)

o These types of networks are built and owned by businesses that want to securely connect its various
locations to share computer resources.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

o By extending a private network across the Internet, a VPN lets its users send and receive data as if their
devices were connected to the private network – even if they’re not.
o Through a virtual point-to-point connection, users can access a private network remotely.
Network Design
Bus Topology
o A bus topology is a network setup in which each computer
and network device are connected to a single cable
or backbone.
o Depending on the type of network card used in each
computer of the bus topology, a coaxial cable or an RJ-
45network cable is used to connect them together.

Advantages Bus Topology

v It works well when you have a small network.
v It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.
v It requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages
v It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
v It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
v Bus topology is not great for large networks.
v Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
v Additional devices slow the network down.
v If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.
Network Design
Star Topology
o Star topology is one of the most common network setups.
o In this configuration, every node connects to a central network device,
like a hub, switch, or computer.
o The central network device acts as a server and the peripheral devices
act as clients.
o Depending on the type of network card used in each computer of the
star topology, a coaxial cable or an RJ-45 network cable is used to
connect computers together.
Advantages Star Topology
v Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer, hub, or switch.
v Easy to add another computer to the network.
v If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally.

Disadvantages
v May have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the central network device.
v The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the network can handle.
v If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all computers are disconnected from the
network.
Network Design
Ring Topology
o A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections
create a circular data path. Each networked device is connected to two
others, like points on a circle. Together, devices in a ring topology are
referred to as a ring network.
o In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next
until they reach their destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to
travel only in one direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others
permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.
Advantages
v All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
v A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each workstation.
Ring Topology
v Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
v Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.

Disadvantages
v All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the network, which can make it
slower than a star topology.
v The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
v The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than Ethernet cards and
hubs/switches.
Network Design
Mesh Topology
o A network setup where each computer and network device is
interconnected with one another, allowing for most transmissions to
be distributed even if one of the connections go down. It is a topology
commonly used for wireless networks.

Advantages
v Manages high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data simultaneously. Mesh Topology
v A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
v Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.

Disadvantages
v The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable option.
v Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
v The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential for reduced efficiency.
Network Design
Tree Topology
o A tree topology is also known as a star bus topology. It incorporates
elements of both a bus topology and a star topology. Below is an
example network diagram of a tree topology, in which the central nodes
of two star networks are connected to one another.

Hybrid Topology
o A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more Tree Topology
differing network topologies. These topologies include a mix of bus
topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star topology, and tree topology.

Linear Bus Topology

o Linear bus topology is a type of network topology in which each device is connected one after the other in
a sequential chain. In this case, the bus is the network connection between the devices, and if any link in
the network chain is severed, all network transmission is halted. It works well for small networks because
it is simple to set up and utilizes shorter cables since each device is connected to the next. However, it is a
poor solution for larger networks, as the entire network relies on each connection, and network speed is
reduced as more devices are added.
OSI Model
The OSI model, consisting of seven layers, falls logically into two parts: Application Layer
o Layers 1 through 4, the lower layers are concerned with communication
of raw data.
o Layers 5 through 7, the higher layers, are concerned with the Presentation Layer
networking of applications.
Session Layer
The layers of the OSI model provide a view of networking layers,
from the abstract Application layer, where user applications such as e-mail Transport Layer
programs and Web browsers reside, to the concrete Physical layer, which
deals with forming bits and transmitting them across a physical medium
such as a cable. Network Layer

Data Link Layer

Physical Layer

The OSI Model

OSI Model
Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules and guidelines for communicating
data. Rules are defined for each step and process during
communication between two or more computers. Networks
have to follow these rules to successfully transmit data.

Similar to programming languages, protocols are based on

specific rules and regulations for computing and are designed
for efficiency. Each rule is defined in different terms and is
assigned a unique name. Protocols specify the standards for
communication and provide detailed information on
processes involved in data transmission. Such processes
include:
q Type of task
q Process nature
q Data flow rate
q Data type
q Device management
Protocols
o TCP/IP Transport Control Protocol / Internal Protocol
o UDP User Datagram Protocol
o SMTP Simple Mail Transport Protocol
o POP Post Office Protocol
o ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol
o HTTP Hyper Text Transport Protocol
o IPX Internet Packet Exchange
o SLIP Serial Line Interface Protocol
o PPP Point to Point Protocol
o ARP Address Resolution Protocol
o BGP Border Gateway Protocol
o Telnet Terminal Networking Protocol
o FTP File Transfer Protocol
o NNTP Network News Transport Protocol
o AppleTalk Protocol Suite for Apple Macintosh
Protocols
TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
TCP/IP is the language a computer uses to access the internet. It consists of a suite of protocols designed to
establish a network of networks to provide a host with access to the internet.

SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SMTP is a service that is used as a means to transport email messages in between different email hosting
services, servers and/or domains.

POP – Post Office Protocol

POP is a type of computer networking and Internet standard protocol that extracts and retrieves email from a
remote mail server for access by the host machine.

ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol

To ping a destination node, an ICMP echo request packet is sent to that node. If a connection is available, the
destination node responds with an echo reply.

FTP – File Transfer Protocol

FTP is a client/server protocol used for transferring files to or exchanging files with a host computer.
Protocols
HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
HTTP is an application-layer protocol used primarily on the World Wide Web. HTTP uses a client-server model
where the web browser is the client and communicates with the webserver that hosts the website.

SLIP/PPP – Point to Point Protocol

PPP is a computer network protocol used to transfer a datagram between two directly connected (point-to-
point) computers.

ARP – Address Resolution Protocol

ARP poisoning is a form of attack in which an attacker changes the Media Access Control (MAC) address and
attacks an Ethernet LAN

BGP – Border Gateway Protocol

BGP is a routing protocol used to transfer data and information between different host gateways, the Internet
or autonomous systems.
Network Ports
o A port is an endpoint of communication.
o Physical as well as wireless connections are terminated at ports of hardware devices.
o At the software level, within an operating system, a port is a logical construct that identifies a
specific process or a type of network service.
o The software port is always associated with an IP address of a host and the protocol type of the
communication. It completes the destination or origination network address of a message.
o Ports are identified for each protocol and address combination by 16-bit unsigned numbers, commonly
known as the port number.

Service Port Number

FTP 21
SMTP 25
DNS 53
WWW 80
POP3 110
IMAP 143
IP Address
IP Address
o An IPv4 address has a size of 32 bits, which limits
the address space to 4294967296 (232) addresses.
o Of this number, some addresses are reserved for
special purposes such as private networks (~18
million addresses) and multicast addressing (~270
million addresses).
o IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-
decimal notation, consisting of four decimal
numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by
dots, e.g., 172.16.254.1.
o Each part represents a group of 8 bits (an octet) of
the address.
IP Address
Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine-
grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were defined as
the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for universal unicast addressing. Depending
on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address.
Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of
hosts in the higher order classes (B and C).