The Lotus Sutra and the Iconography of Borobudur

with 40 pages amd 150 pictures of the walls of the Stupa highlighting the Journey of
Sudhana
DR UDAY DOKRAS

CONTENTS and SUMMARY

1. The Spread of Buddhism in Southeast Asia through the Trade Routes
2. Early Mahāyāna
3. Expansion outside of India
4. Buddhism has a long history in Indonesia
5. Antiquity
6. THERVADA & MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
7. 28 Buddhas
8. Mahayana Buddhists of Java
9. In Tantric Buddhism
10. Aniconism
11. Famed for its unique Gandharan style of art 
12. The Gandhara Kingdom was one of sixteen mahajanapadas of Buddhism.
13. Had the Hellinistic influence not percolated within the iconography of Buddhism Borubudur
would not have been possible
14. Vajrayāna
15. The Shailendra dynasty
16. The Borobudur Temple comprises three compounds - Mendut, Borobudur, and
Pawon. Mendut
17. Buddhism and the Lotus Sutra
18. The Lotus Sūtra begins, with the Buddha seated on Vulture Peak.
19. CHAPTER 11 and the Borobudur Design
Conception, planning and initiation of the construction of Borobudur and Pawon temple
20’. The Symbol of the Lotus- ARTICLE by Barbara O'Brien- 2018
21.The concepts of Slesa and Serva
22.INTERPRETATIONS-As a demonstration of Mount Meru
23. Gaṇḍavyūha, The Quest for Awakening by Anandajoti Bhikkhu
24. Introduction to the Gaṇḍavyūha Reliefs at Borobudur

The Spread of Buddhism in Southeast Asia through the Trade Routes

Religious movements and religions have had an important role on the history of the Silk Roads.
It is notably the case of Buddhism which had a considerable influence on the early trade routes.
Within these growing trade route networks, Buddhism started its development from the Indian
Subcontinent, and reached other regions along the Silk Roads. Buddhism dogma was to a greater
extent in favour of trade, and encouraged the commerce and the investment. 

In this respect, Buddhism practices changed on some aspects. For instance, Buddhist monasteries started
to set up along the developing trade routes, such as the road that was connecting Bactria (in Modern
Afghanistan) in the North to Taxila (in modern Pakistan) in the Northeast, Mathura in the Northwest, and
further along the Gangues Valley, until the Bengal Coast. Therefore, one would say that these

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installations were directly linked to the economic growth of these centres, where merchants and religious
communities traded together buying goods, such as cloth or incense oil. Ever since I read Jeffery Roger
Sundberg’s erudite research intoThe wilderness monks of the Abhayagirivihara and the origins
of Sino-Javanese esoteric Buddhism, I realized that just as the SE asian region experienced
indinization for centuries, so also the fluidity of Buddhist thought and people was similarly
impact forming and mercurial- moveing like mercury- in all directions. As the title suggests and I
need not go too much into details, the Sri-Lankan ( Ceylonese) monks from Abhayagiri Vihāra
which was a major monastery site of Mahayana, Theravada and Vajrayana Buddhism that was
situated in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka were found to have visited and lodged themselves into the
amd opened the foundation of a Javanese branch of the famous Sinhalese monastery named
Abhayagirivihara. Further giving impetus to my theorey that Borubudur design is the
crystallization of numerous influences not just Buddhist but also Hindu and one is left in the
dark due to the pauciy of material on the Site of the Borobudur as well as other archeological
finds and existing Stupa and temples of that region.

Whether due to commercial movements or serious exchanges of monks representing Buddhist

scholarship as wandering “ambassadors”; Buddhism and its people populated and left a
remarkable imprint on the region we fonly call Jawa/ Java and which boasts both Hindu temple
design scholarship and Buddhist constructional remains of equal sanctity and intricacy.

Commercial or otherwise these commercials exchanges contributed also to the improvement of

the Buddhist monks’ situation. Notably thanks to the Buddhist concept of Dāna (generosity),
which encouraged receiving contributions from the merchants and other actors of trade along the
Silk Roads. In return, monks provided spiritual guidance to the devotees for material gifts. As an
example, initially 4 categories of items were permitted to be given as alms, but by the 2 nd and
3rd centuries BC, 10 more categories were added to the list.

The development of trade amongst merchants of the region along the Silk Roads resulted in a
further expansion of Buddhism towards eastern Asian lands, especially in Thailand and
Indonesia regions; where excavations displayed the interactions of these lands with Buddhist
institutions linked to trading groups.

Diverse items of Indian origin with Buddhist features were also found in mainland and
peninsular Southeast Asian regions such as precious stones and glass beads, inscribed carnelian
and terracotta seals, ivory objects and pottery. Moreover, wooden images of the Buddha dating
from between the 2nd and 7th century CE were discovered in the Mekong Delta in south of
Vietnam. Furthermore, images of the Dīpankara Buddha were found in diverse sites in eastern
Java, some of these elements belong to the Indian Amaravati and Gupta Schools of Art. Besides,
archaeological findings in Beikthano situated in the western regions of modern Myanmar
revealed a Buddhist stupa (Buddhist monument) having similarities with a stupa in Amaravathi
in the eastern coasts of the Indian Subcontinent.

Aforementioned examples could help to see how the active trade networks and the increase of
the monastic system in the Indian Subcontinent permitted both the expansion of Buddhism
towards the east, and also reinforced the cultural interactions between the people living along the

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Silk Roads. 

Early Mahāyāna
Over time Indian Mahāyāna texts and philosophy reached Central Asia and China through trade
routes like the Silk Road, afterwards spreading throughout East Asia. Over time, Central Asian
Buddhism became heavily influenced by Mahāyāna and it was a major source for Chinese
Buddhism. Mahāyāna works have also been found in Gandhāra, indicating the importance of this
region for the spread of Mahāyāna. Central Asian Mahāyāna scholars were very important in
the Silk Road Transmission of Buddhism. They include translators like Lokakṣema (c. 167–
186), Dharmarakṣa (c. 265–313), Kumārajīva (c. 401) and Dharmakṣema (385–433). The site
of Dunhuang seems to have been a particularly important place for the study of Mahāyāna
Buddhism.
By the fourth century, Chinese monks like Faxian (c. 337–422 CE) had also begun to travel to
India (now dominated by the Guptas) to bring back Buddhist teachings, especially Mahāyāna
works.[64] These figures also wrote about their experiences in India and their work remains
invaluable for understanding Indian Buddhism. In some cases Indian Mahāyāna traditions were
directly transplanted, as with the case of the East Asian Madhymaka (by Kumārajīva) and East
Asian Yogacara (especially by Xuanzang). Later, new developments in Chinese Mahāyāna led to
new Chinese Buddhist traditions like Tiantai, Huayen, Pure Land and Chan Buddhism (Zen).
These traditions would then spread to Korea, Vietnam and Japan.
Forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism which are mainly based on the doctrines of Indian Mahāyāna
sutras are still popular in East Asian Buddhism, which is mostly dominated by various branches
of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy
has always been given to study of the Mahāyāna sūtras.
The earliest textual evidence of "Mahāyāna" comes from sūtras ("discourses", scriptures)
originating around the beginning of the common era. Jan Nattier has noted that some of the
earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra use the term "Mahāyāna", yet there is
no doctrinal difference between Mahāyāna in this context and the early schools. Instead, Nattier
writes that in the earliest sources, "Mahāyāna" referred to the rigorous emulation of Gautama
Buddha's path to Buddhahood.
Some important evidence for early Mahāyāna Buddhism comes from the texts translated by
the Indoscythian monk Lokakṣema in the 2nd century CE, who came to China from the kingdom
of Gandhāra. These are some of the earliest known Mahāyāna texts Study of these texts by Paul
Harrison and others show that they strongly promote monasticism (contra the lay origin theory),
acknowledge the legitimacy of arhatship, do not recommend devotion towards
'celestial' bodhisattvas and do not show any attempt to establish a new sect or order. A few of
these texts often emphasize ascetic practices, forest dwelling, and deep states of meditative
concentration (samadhi).
Indian Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination lineage
from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the
Mahāyāna formally belonged to one of the early Buddhist schools. Membership in these nikāyas,
or monastic orders, continues today, with the Dharmaguptaka nikāya being used in East Asia,
and the Mūlasarvāstivāda nikāya being used in Tibetan Buddhism. Therefore, Mahāyāna was

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never a separate monastic sect outside of the early schools.
Paul Harrison clarifies that while monastic Mahāyānists belonged to a nikāya, not all members of
a nikāya were Mahāyānists. From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both
Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side. It
is also possible that, formally, Mahāyāna would have been understood as a group of monks or
nuns within a larger monastery taking a vow together (known as a "kriyākarma") to memorize
and study a Mahāyāna text or texts.
Earliest Mahayana inscription

  The inscription in Brahmi script

"Bu-ddha-sya A-mi-tā-bha-sya"
"Of the Buddha Amitabha"
Inscribed pedestal with the first known occurrence of the name of "Amitabha Buddha" in
the "year 26 of Huvishka" (153 CE
The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahāyāna formulation and a mention of
the Buddha Amitābha (an important Mahāyāna figure) was found in the Indian subcontinent
in Mathura, and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear
the Brāhmī inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of King Huviṣka, ... for the Blessed
One, the Buddha Amitābha." There is also some evidence that the Kushan Emperor Huviṣka
himself was a follower of Mahāyāna. A Sanskrit manuscript fragment in the Schøyen
Collection describes Huviṣka as having "set forth in the Mahāyāna." Evidence of the name
"Mahāyāna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in
comparison to the multiplicity of Mahāyāna writings transmitted from Central Asia to China at
that time.
Based on archeological evidence, Gregory Schopen argues that Indian Mahāyāna remained "an
extremely limited minority movement – if it remained at all – that attracted absolutely no
documented public or popular support for at least two more centuries." [2 Likewise, Joseph
Walser speaks of Mahāyāna's "virtual invisibility in the archaeological record until the fifth
century." Schopen also sees this movement as being in tension with other Buddhists, "struggling
for recognition and acceptance".Their "embattled mentality" may have led to certain elements
found in Mahāyāna texts like Lotus sutra, such as a concern with preserving texts.
Schopen, Harrison and Nattier also argue that these communities were probably not a single
unified movement, but scattered groups based on different practices and sutras. One reason for
this view is that Mahāyāna sources are extremely diverse, advocating many different, often
conflicting doctrines and positions, as Jan Nattier writes;
Thus we find one scripture (the Aksobhya-vyuha) that advocates

4
both srávaka and bodhisattva practices, propounds the possibility of rebirth in a pure land, and
enthusiastically recommends the cult of the book, yet seems to know nothing of emptiness
theory, the ten bhumis, or the trikaya, while another (the P’u-sa pen-yeh ching) propounds the
ten bhumis and focuses exclusively on the path of the bodhisattva, but never discusses
the paramitas. A Madhyamika treatise (Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamika-karikas) may
enthusiastically deploy the rhetoric of emptiness without ever mentioning the bodhisattva path,
while a Yogacara treatise (Vasubandhu's Madhyanta-vibhaga-bhasya) may delve into the
particulars of the trikaya doctrine while eschewing the doctrine of ekayana. We must be
prepared, in other words, to encounter a multiplicity of Mahayanas flourishing even in India, not
to mention those that developed in East Asia and Tibet.
In spite of being a minority in India, Indian Mahāyāna was an intellectually vibrant movement,
which developed various schools of thought during what Jan Westerhoff has been called "The
Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy" (from the beginning of the first millennium CE up
to the 7th century).[54] Some major Mahāyāna traditions
are Prajñāpāramitā, Mādhyamaka, Yogācāra, Buddha-nature (Tathāgatagarbha), and the school
of Dignaga and Dharmakirti as the last and most recent. [55] Major early figures
include Nagarjuna, Āryadeva, Aśvaghoṣa, Asanga, Vasubandhu, and Dignaga. Mahāyāna
Buddhists seem to have been active in the Kushan Empire (30–375 CE), a period which saw
great missionary and literary activities by Buddhists. This is supported by the works of the
historian Taranatha.

1. According to  Reeves, Gene, trans. (2008). The Lotus Sutra: A Contemporary Translation of a Buddhist
Classic, nThe Lotus, especially the puṇḍarīka (white lotus), is used in Mahāyāna to symbolize the nature of
bodhisattvas. The lotus is rooted in the earthly mud and yet flowers above the water in the open air. Similarly,
the bodhisattva lives in the world but remains unstained by it. Middle

2. Ruins of the Nalanda Mahavihara (Great Monastery) in Bihar, a major center for the study of Mahāyāna
Buddhism from the fifth century CE to c. 1200 CE.

3. Buddhist expansion in Asia, from Buddhist heartland in northern India (dark orange) starting 5th century BCE,
to Buddhist majority realm (orange), and historical extent of Buddhism influences (yellow). Mahāyāna (red
arrow), Theravāda (green arrow), and Tantric-Vajrayāna (blue arrow). The overland and maritime "Silk
Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of
Buddhism".

The Mahāyāna movement (or movements) remained quite small until it experienced much
growth in the fifth century. Very few manuscripts have been found before the fifth century (the
exceptions are from Bamiyan). According to Walser, "the fifth and sixth centuries appear to have
been a watershed for the production of Mahāyāna manuscripts." Likewise it is only in the 4th and
5th centuries CE that epigraphic evidence shows some kind of popular support for Mahāyāna,
including some possible royal support at the kingdom of Shan shan as well as

5
in Bamiyan and Mathura.
Still, even after the 5th century, the epigraphic evidence which use the term Mahāyāna is still
quite small and is notably mainly monastic, not lay.[59] By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such
as Faxian (337–422 CE), Xuanzang (602–664), Yijing (635–713 CE) were traveling to India, and
their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where
both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together.
After the fifth century, Mahāyāna Buddhism and its institutions slowly grew in influence. Some
of the most influential institutions became massive monastic university complexes such
as Nalanda (established by the 5th-century CE Gupta emperor, Kumaragupta I)
and Vikramashila (established under Dharmapala c. 783 to 820) which were centers of various
branches of scholarship, including Mahāyāna philosophy. The Nalanda complex eventually
became the largest and most influential Buddhist center in India for centuries. Even so, as noted
by Paul Williams, "it seems that fewer than 50 per cent of the monks encountered by Xuanzang
(Hsüan-tsang; c. 600–664) on his visit to India actually were Mahāyānists."
Expansion outside of India

The use of mandalas was one new feature of Tantric Buddhism, which also adopted new deities such
as Chakrasamvara (pictured). RIGHT PIC- Buddha Amithaba is the oldest of the five cosmic Buddhas and symbolizes
the stream of life. As he rules over the western paradise (a state of consciousness called Sukhavati), his image is
placed on the west side of temples in Central Java. Similar representations once graced the Great Stupa at Borobudur
in Central Java and several other Buddhist temples of the period.

Borobudur is arguably the world's major Buddhist monument. It was constructed around the year 800 A.D. and
remained the spiritual centre of Buddhism in Java for about a century and a half. The monument, as other religious
monuments in that area, was abandoned in about 919 A.D. due to the political unrest in Central Java. The temple
precinct is vertically divided into base, body, and superstructure in accordance with the conception of the Universe
in Buddhist cosmology. Laid out in the form of a lotus, the temple compounds blend the indigenous tradition of
ancestor worship with the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana, revealed in the composition of the terraced
mountain.

A stone head of Buddha from the ninth century in Central Java, was sold in Christie's sale of 'The Collection of
Robert Hatfield Ellsworth - Part 1', in March 2015.
This large sculpture of Buddha Amithaba is seated in the vajrasana posture, deep in meditation. The high quality of
its carving produces great volumes, endowing the Buddha with a majestic presence. A fine monastic robe covers his

6
body, which appears radiant from underneath. His well delineated features express a sincere benevolence. The head
is covered in plump spiral curls. The half-closed eyelids are shaped in a curve recalling a lotus petal and the
downcast eyes suggest inner contemplation. A straight nose comes down in a strong line. The harmony of his perfect
proportions and the graciousness of his physical form represent one of the many qualities or powers of a Buddha.
This poised appearance describes the ideal picture of a Heavenly Body that is not subject to change or decay.

The Buddha can be recognised by thirty-two special features called lakshana, that identify him as a Great Person
(mahapurusha). The ushnisha or "Enlightenment Elevation" is a - usually flame-topped - elevation above the
fontanel at the top of the head. It symbolizes his attainment of reliance in the spiritual guide. The urna is a spiral or
circular dot in the centre of the forehead, called the Eye of Wisdom. This symbolizes a third eye or vision into the
divine world. It is an expression of the Buddha's ability to see past our mundane universe of suffering. The
elongated earlobes show that as a former royal prince he used to wear heavy earrings.

Beginning during the Gupta (c. 3rd century CE–575 CE) period a new movement began to develop which
drew on previous Mahāyāna doctrine as well as new Pan-Indian tantric ideas. This came to be known by
various names such as Vajrayāna (Tibetan: rdo rje theg pa), Mantrayāna, and Esoteric Buddhism or
"Secret Mantra" (Guhyamantra). This new movement continued into the Pala era (8th century–12th
century CE), during which it grew to dominate Indian Buddhism. Possibly led by groups of wandering
tantric yogis named mahasiddhas, this movement developed new tantric spiritual practices and also
promoted new texts called the Buddhist Tantras.  Philosophically, Vajrayāna Buddhist thought remained
grounded in the Mahāyāna Buddhist ideas of Madhymaka, Yogacara and Buddha-nature. Tantric
Buddhism generally deals with new forms of meditation and ritual which often makes use of the
visualization of Buddhist deities (including Buddhas, bodhisattvas, dakinis, and fierce deities) and the use
of mantras. Most of these practices are esoteric and require ritual initiation or introduction by a tantric
master (vajracarya) or guru.
The source and early origins of Vajrayāna remains a subject of debate among scholars. Some scholars
like Alexis Sanderson argue that Vajrayāna derives its tantric content from Shaivism and that it developed
as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism. Sanderson argues that Vajrayāna
works like the Samvara and Guhyasamaja texts show direct borrowing from Shaiva tantric literature.
However, other scholars such as Ronald M. Davidson question the idea that Indian  tantrism developed in
Shaivism first and that it was then adopted into Buddhism. Davidson points to the difficulties of
establishing a chronology for the Shaiva tantric literature and argues that both traditions developed side
by side, drawing on each other as well as on local Indian tribal religion.
Whatever the case, this new tantric form of Mahāyāna Buddhism became extremely influential in India,
especially in Kashmir and in the lands of the Pala Empire. It eventually also spread north into Central
Asia, the Tibetan plateau and to East Asia. Vajrayāna remains the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet,
in surrounding regions

Avatamsaka Sutra, Lotus Sutra, Narratives involving Devadatta, Ajatasatru, women, and

gender

1. The Avatamsaka Sutra (Ch. Huayan Jing; Jpn. Kegon-kyo) become the basis for the

Chinese and Japanese Huayan and Kegon schools/sects. Its central deity is the cosmic
Sun Buddha, Mahavairocana. It's predominant theme is the cosmic brilliance of the light
of awakening, and in the section called the "Gandavyuha," which was originally likely
an independent sutra, the bodhisattva journey of the seeker Sudhana, who goes to visit 52
teachers, later adapted to the 52 stages of bodhisattvahood.
2. The Lotus Sutra becomes the central scripture of the Chinese and Japanese Tiantai and
Tendai schools/sects. Its central deity is Sakyamuni Buddha although in this case, he is

7
 depicted is having a very long life, nearly eternal in scope, and so quite different from the
historical Buddha of the early Nikaya literature. Two key features of the Lotus Sutra are:
a) emphasis on upaya-kausalya (Ch. fangbian; Jpn. hoben), skillful means, or the
Buddha's ability to adapt the teachings according to the varying capacities and limitations
of the student, and b) its self-referential nature, in which the Lotus Sutra  touts itself as the
supreme scripture and teaching. The parable of the burning house is often cited as an
example of upaya from the Lotus Sutra, sometimes viewed problematically, as an means
(lie) that justifies the end (save suffering beings).

Buddhism has a long history in Indonesia, and is recognized as one of six official religions in

Indonesia. Today, the majority of Buddhists in Indonesia are Chinese, however small numbers
of native (such as Javanese and Sasak) also exist.

.
Expansion of Buddhism starting in the 5th century BCE from northern India to the rest of Asia, which followed both inland
and maritime trade routes of the Silk Road. Srivijaya once served as a centre of Buddhist learning and expansion. The
overland and maritime "Silk Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great
circle of Buddhism"

8
Antiquity
Buddhism is the second oldest religion in Indonesia after Hinduism, which arrived from India
around the second century. The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history
of Hinduism, as a number of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the
same period. The arrival of Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity,
from the early 1st century, by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India.[6] The
oldest Buddhist archaeological site in Indonesia is arguably the Batujaya stupas complex in
Karawang, West Java. The oldest relic in Batujaya was estimated to originate from the 2nd
century, while the latest dated from the 12th century. Subsequently, significant numbers of
Buddhist sites were found in Jambi, Palembang, and Riau provinces in Sumatra, as well as
in Central and East Java. The Indonesian archipelago has, over the centuries, witnessed the rise
and fall of powerful Buddhist empires, such as the Sailendra dynasty, the Mataram,
and Srivijaya empires.

Borobudur Temple Compounds, located in Central Java, Indonesia

According to some Chinese source, a Chinese Buddhist monk I-tsing on his pilgrim journey to
India, witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based on Sumatra in the 7th century.

9
The empire served as a Buddhist learning center in the region. A notable Srivijayan revered
Buddhist scholar is Dharmakirti, a Srivijayan prince of the Sailendra dynasty, born around the
turn of the 7th century in Sumatra. [7] He became a revered scholar-monk in Srivijaya and moved
to India to become a teacher at the famed Nalanda University, as well as a poet. He built on and
reinterpreted the work of Dignaga, the pioneer of Buddhist Logic, and was very influential
among Brahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative in Tibet and are
studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum. Other Buddhist monks that visited
Indonesia were Atisha, Dharmapala, a professor of Nalanda, and the South Indian
Buddhist Vajrabodhi. Srivijaya was the largest Buddhist empire ever formed in Indonesian
history.
A number of Buddhist historical heritages can be found in Indonesia, including the 8th
century Borobudur mandala monument and Sewu temple in Central Java, Batujaya in West
Java, Muaro Jambi, Muara Takus and Bahal temple in Sumatra, and numerous of statues or
inscriptions from the earlier history of Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms. During the era
of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit empire, buddhism — identified as Dharma ri Kasogatan —
was acknowledged as one of kingdom's official religions along with Hinduism. Although some
of kings might favour Hinduism over another, nevertheless the harmony, toleration, and even
syncretism were promoted as manifested in Bhinneka Tunggal Ika national motto, coined
from Kakawin Sutasoma, written by Mpu Tantular to promotes tolerance
between Hindus (Shivaites) and Buddhists . The classical era of ancient Java also had produces
some of the exquisite examples of Buddhist arts, such as the statue of Prajnaparamita and the
statue of Buddha Vairochana and Boddhisttva Padmapani and Vajrapani in Mendut temple.

TH
ERVADA & MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
28 Buddhas

In Theravada Buddhism, 'Buddha' refers to one who has become enlightened through their own
efforts and insight,nends the cycle of birth and death and which brings liberation from suffering.
In the Pali canon, it is stated that Buddhas have appeared in the past and will also appear in the
future. There were also numerous enlightened Buddhas who arose in earlier world-cycles and
who preached the very same Dhamma that gives deliverance from suffering and death to all

10
mature beings. The names of these 28 Buddhas are religiously preserved by Buddhists, together
with their age, their stature, the names of the trees under which they obtained Enlightenment,
their country, and the names of their father and mother.

Mahayana  Buddhists of Java and ofcourse the Srivijaya Empire venerated numerous
Buddhas that are not found in early Buddhism or in Theravada Buddhism. They are generally
seen as living in other realms, known as Buddhafields or Pure Lands. They are sometimes called
"celestial Buddhas", since they are not from this earth.
Some of the key Mahayana Buddhas are:

 Akshobhya ("the Imperturbable")
 Amitābha (Amida Buddha, "Infinite Light"), the principal Buddha of Pure Land
Buddhism
 Amoghasiddhi (“Infallible Success”)
 Bhaiṣajyaguru ("Medicine guru") also known as "Medicine Buddha", the healing Buddha
 Ratnasambhava ("Jewel Born")
 Vairocana ("the Illuminator"), a key figure in the Avatamsaka Sutra
 Prabhūtaratna ("Many Treasures," A Buddha which appears in the Lotus Sutra)
 Samantabhadra, a Buddha who is mentioned in the Akṣayamatinirdeśa Sūtra, which
states that the bodhisattva Akṣayamati is said to be from the Buddha field of Samantabhadra.
 Lokeśvararāja, a past Buddha who is mentioned in the Larger Sutra of Immeasurable
Life
In Tantric Buddhism

Dainichi Nyorai (“Great Sun Buddha”) by Unkei, lacquered wood sculpture, 1175; in the
Enjō-ji, Nara, Japan,Asuka-en, Japan/ RIGHT Painting of Vajrayoginī (Dorjé Neljorma), a
female Buddha in Tibetan Buddhism.

11
In Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana), one finds some of the same Mahayana Buddhas along with
other Buddha figures which are unique to Vajrayana. There are five primary Buddhas known as
the "Five Tathagathas": Vairocana, Aksobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitābha, and Amoghasiddhi.
Each is associated with a different consort, direction, aggregate (or, aspect of the personality),
emotion, element, color, symbol, and mount.
Buddhist Tantra also includes several female Buddhas, such as Tara, the most popular female
Buddha in Tibetan Buddhism, who comes in many forms and colors.
Vairochana, (Sanskrit: “Illuminator”) also called Mahavairochana (“Great Illuminator”), the
supreme Buddha, as regarded by many Mahayana Buddhists of East Asia and of Tibet, Nepal,
and Java.

Some Buddhists regard Vairochana, or Mahavairochana, as a being separate from the five
“self-born” Dhyani-Buddhas, one of whom is known as Vairochana. When represented as one of
the “self-born” Buddhas, as he is in Javanese art, Vairochana occupies the chief position and is
often considered to be the progenitor of the other four Dhyani-Buddhas, or the Adi-Buddha
himself. In paintings, Vairochana is coloured white, and his hands are shown in the
dharmachakramudra (“teaching gesture”). His consort is Vajradhatvishvari or Tara, his family
Moha, his mount the dragon (or lion), his symbol the chakra (“wheel”),
his skandha (“personality component”) rupa (“matter”), his syllable a or om, his element space,
his sense perception hearing, his sense organ the ear, and his location in the human body the
head.

As the supreme Buddha, his characteristic gesture is the mudra of the six elements, in
which the index finger of the left hand is clasped by the five fingers of the right, symbolizing the
uniting of the five elements of the material world (earth, water, fire, air, and ether) with the
spiritual (consciousness).SEE RIGHT FIG BELOW
Vairocana Buddha is first introduced in the Brahmajala Sutra:

Now, I, Vairocana Buddha am sitting atop a lotus pedestal; On a thousand flowers surrounding
me are a thousand Sakyamuni Buddhas. Each flower supports a hundred million worlds; in each
world a Sakyamuni Buddha appears. All are seated beneath a Bodhi-tree, all simultaneously
attain Buddhahood. All these innumerable Buddhas have Vairocana as their original body

Buddha amitabha in borobudur sculpture

12
 File:Borobudur - Buddha Statue – 033 From Kamadhatu layer to RIGHT

1. Buddha Vairochana is regarded as one of the five Dhyani Buddha in Nepalese-Tibetan

Buddhism.
2. He represents the cosmic element of Rupa (form). His two hands are held against the
chest with the tips of the thumbs and forefingers of each hand united.
3. This mudra is called Dharmachakra Mudra which is the gesture of Teaching.
Literally, Dharma means “Law” and Chakra means wheel and usually interpreted
turning the Wheel of Law.
4. It is also a gesture of hands exhibited by Lord Buddha while preaching his first
sermon at Sarnath. SEE FIGURE ABOVE

Aniconism: Let me start off by presenting a controversial idea that before the 1 st Century AD. This
aniconic phase when the Buddha was only represented through symbols such as an empty

13
throne, Bodhi tree, a riderless horse with a parasol floating above an empty space
(at Sanchi), Buddha's footprints, and the dharma wheel was in conformity with an ancient
Buddhist prohibition against showing the Buddha himself in human form, known from
the Sarvastivada vinaya (rules of the early Buddhist school of the Sarvastivada): 
“Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray
that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant
Bodhisattva. Is that acceptable?"
The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava"".

the image of the Buddha( sakyamuni) was never represented in the human form yet in the following
period after this time zone the Gandhara or Hellinistic Indian arcitecture threw up a vast number of
Buddha images prompting some scholars like the Ananda Coomaraswamy to content that the human
Buddha form was a donation of the Greeks in India particularly those who inspired the Gupta period
1
imagery.

Famed for its unique Gandharan style of art which is heavily influenced by the classical
Greek and Hellenistic styles, Gandhara attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century
CE under the Kushan Empire, who had their seasonal capitals at Bagram (Kapisi)
and Peshawar (Puruṣapura). Gandhara "flourished at the crossroads of Asia," connecting trade
routes and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilizations; Buddhism thrived until the
8th or 9th centuries, when Islam first began to gain sway in the region. It was also the centre
of Vedic and later forms of Hinduism.
Gandhara's existence is attested since the time of the Rigveda (c. 1500 – c. 1200 BCE), as well as
the Zoroastrian Avesta, which mentions it as Vaēkərəta, the sixth most beautiful place on earth
created by Ahura Mazda. Gandhara was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the 6th
century BCE, Alexander the Great in 327 BCE, and later became part of the Maurya
Empire before being a centre of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The region was a major centre
for Greco-Buddhism under the Indo-Greeks and Gandharan Buddhism under later dynasties.
Gandhara was also a central location for the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and East Asia.
The region steadily declined after the violent invasion by Alchon Huns in 6th century, and the
name Gandhara disappeared after Mahmud Ghaznavi's conquest in 1001 CE.

The Gandhara Kingdom was one of sixteen mahajanapadas of Buddhism. The primary cities

of Gandhara were Puruṣapura (Peshawar), Takṣaśilā (Taxila), Sagala (Sialkot)
and Pushkalavati (Charsadda) - The latter remained the capital of Gandhara until the 2nd century
CE, when the capital was moved to Peshawar. Gandhara produced influential thinkers such as
the philosopher Kautilya, and Panini, whose grammar works standardized ancient Sanskrit.
Gandhara is mentioned in the Hindu epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as a western
kingdom that was founded by the Druhyu prince Gandhara who was the son of King Angara.
According to the epic poem Ramayana. In Dvapara Yuga, Gandhara prince Shakuni was the root
of all the conspiracies of Duryodhana against the Pandavas, which finally resulted in
the Kurukshetra War

14
The Mahājanapadas (Sanskrit: great realm, from maha, "great", and janapada "foothold of a
people") were sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in Northern ancient
India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE during the second urbanisation period.
The 6th–5th centuries BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history;
during this period India's first large cities arose after the demise of the Indus Valley Civilization.
It was also the time of the rise of sramana movements (including Buddhism and Jainism), which
challenged the religious orthodoxy of the Vedic Period.
Two of the Mahājanapadas were most probably ganatantras (oligarchic republics) and others had
forms of monarchy. Ancient Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya, make frequent reference
to sixteen great kingdoms and republics which had developed and flourished in a belt stretching
from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. They
included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region, and all had developed prior to the rise of Buddhism
in India.
Archaeologically, this period has been identified as corresponding in part to the Northern Black
Polished Ware culture.
Had the Hellinistic influence not percolated within the iconography of Buddhism Burudur
would not have been possible. Several scholars have suggested that the Mahāyāna originated in
the south of India and almost certainly in the Āndhra country. Early Mahayana scriptures
originated in South India.

Vajrayāna
Various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both
Buddhism and Saivism.  The spread of Buddhism' charts the movement of the religion through
Asia. Emperor Ashoka converted to Buddhism after a particularly bloody conquest, and
sent missionaries to other lands. Buddhism was mainly transmitted to other countries by
missionaries, scholars, trade, emigration, and communication networks.
The Shailendra dynasty that established itself in the Indonesian archipelago originated
from Kalinga (modern Odisha) in Eastern India. They originated in India and established
themselves in Palembang before the arrival of Srivijaya's Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. In 683,
the Shailendras moved to Java because of the pressure exerted by Dapunta Hyang and his troops.
Another theory suggests that Shailendra was a native Javanese dynasty and the Sanjaya
dynasty was actually a branch of the Shailendras since Sri Sanjaya and his offspring belong to
the Shailendra family that were initially the Shaivist rulers of the Medang Kingdom.[13] The
association of Shailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Panaraban or
Panangkaran to Buddhism. This theory is based on the Carita Parahyangan, which tells of the
ailing King Sanjaya ordering his son, Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran, to convert to Buddhism
because their faith in Shiva was feared by the people in favor of the pacifist Buddhist faith. The
conversion of Panangkaran to Buddhism also corresponds to the Raja Sankhara inscription,
which tells of a king named Sankhara (identified as Panangkaran) converting to Buddhism
because his Shaiva faith was feared by the people. Unfortunately, the Raja Sankhara inscription
is now missing.

15
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.Coomaraswamy, A. K. (1927). The Origin of the Buddha Image. The Art Bulletin, 9(4), 287–329.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3046550

16
 Buddha Vairocana in Vajryana Buddhism of Java

Bronze figure of Buddha Vairocana, from eastern Java, Indonesia, 10th century C.E., 29 cm high © Trustees of the
British Museum

A Tantric Buddhist image

Buddhism reached Indonesia by about the fifth century C.E., when the Mahayana and Vajrayana
or Tantric schools of Buddhism were predominant. In the eighth and ninth centuries the main
centres of activity were in central Java. The great Buddhist monument at Borobudur was built
around 800, both a huge stupa and a mandala. In Vajrayana Buddhism, the five Cosmic Buddhas
are identified by a particular gesture (mudra) and preside over one of the directions of space. The
Buddha Vairocana is the guardian of the centre and is identified by the gesture of teaching or the
"Turning of the Wheel of Law" (dharmacakramudra). In many Vajrayana Buddhist temples in
Java the five Buddhas are arranged in a mandala with Vairocana at the centre.\

In the Pic above, Vairocana sits on a high throne and a double lotus. His hands are in the gesture
of teaching. Behind him is an elaborate throne-back with a halo of flames and a royal parasol.
This image is similar to many of the Buddhist bronzes of eastern India. Buddhists travelled
between the monasteries of eastern India and the countries of South-east Asia. Many bronzes of
eastern Indian manufacture were taken to Indonesia but this image was locally made.
The Borobudur Temple comprises three compounds namely Mendut, Borobudur, and
Pawon. Mendut temple is located 3 km east from the Borobudur, while the Pawon Temple is
located between these two temples. Amongst the three, the Borobudur Temple is the largest.
Also, the architecture of this temple complex sets it apart from other Buddhist temples. The
structure resembles a tantric Buddhist Mandala, which symbolizes the nature of mind and
Buddhist cosmology. Meanwhile, the three tiers of the temple signify the three realms of the
Buddhism- Kamadhatu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), Arupadhatu (the
formless world).

17
Vairochana Buddha at the Mendut Stupa/ Candi Mendut is a 1200 year old temple (9th century)
which is believed to have close connection with Borobudur as Candi Mendut, Candi Pawon and
Borobudur are placed on a straight line.This large (2.60meter) stone statue of Boddhisatva
Vajrapani, can be found inside the temple against the right wall. In Buddhist belief, Boddhisatva
Vajrapani is the guide and protector of Buddha and liberator from karma of thought.

18
Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. Ajaṇṭā Caves, Maharashtra, India.

There are 2 famous Buddhist scripture with given Sanskrit titles

of Vairocanabhisambodhitantra or Mahavairocanasutra. This Vairocana scripture has many
references to what the Buddhists call the 'Dharmadhatu': It is claimed in this tradition that the
acaryas' initiations (of Body, Speech, and Mind) of this scripture draw their power from the
Dharmadhatu. In Buddhism, an ācārya (Pali: ācariya) is a senior teacher or master. In Vajrayana
Buddhism, tantric masters are known as vajrācāryas. This scripture has much material on the
topic of mantra, and many illustrations, starting with Chapter two. In his book -Entering the
Dharmadhātu: A Study of the Gandavyūha Reliefs of Borobudur,J. Fontein gives a new
identifications of the 460 bas-reliefs of Borobudur illustrating the Gandavyūha, based upon a
comparison with the contents of three early Chinese translations of Sanskrit manuscripts of the
text of Central Asian or Indian provenance. 

The important role of Sakyamuni in this scripture is explainable as the Nirmanakaya of

Vairocana Buddha, while the Bodhisattva form used for Vairocana in the center of the main
mandala of Chapter Two is taken by Buddhaguhya to be the Sambhogakaya of Vairocana.
The Vairocana-tantra has many descriptions of deities, along with their gestures (mudra) and
mantras. The descriptions of the deity Vairocana are consistently that of the Bodhisattva form,
while the Dharmakaya form of this deity is apparently not susceptible to being depicted
iconographically. There is much information on both male and female deities. For example this
Tantra's depiction of Avalokitesvara and the entourage of feminine deities indicated that the later
theory and iconography of Tara divinities starts here. Vajrapani's of set feminine divinities shows
their role of bringing persons onto the Buddhist path by threats and forcible dragging.

The Gandavyūha, another sacred text of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Also known as  The Excellent
Manifestation Sūtra  or Sutra of the Tree's Display; cf. Skt "gaṇḍi", "the trunk of a tree from the
root to the beginning of the branches"  is a Buddhist Mahayana Sutra of Indian origin dating roughly
c. 200 to 300 CE. It depicts one of the world's most celebrated spiritual pilgrimages, and comprises

19
the 39th chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra, or Flower Ornament Scripture. In Buddhabhadra's
Chinese translation of the Avatamsaka, this 39th chapter is entitled "Entrance into the Dharma
Realm".The Sutra is described as the "Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth", as the sutra chronicles
the journey of a disciple, Sudhana ("Excellent Riches"), as he encounters various teachings
and Bodhisattvas until his journey reaches full circle and he awakens to teachings of the Buddha. The
journey is ofcourse symbolic- denoting the Journey of Sudhana, who visits fifty-three spiritual
mentors to receive their instruction in the Conduct of the Bodhisattva. His journey on the path
towards Enlightenment inspired the sculptors of Borobudur (9th century C.E.) to illustrate the
tale in 460 bas-reliefs on the higher galleries of this great Javanese monument. The meaning,
symbolism, and architecture of Borobudur is directly related to the  Gandavyūha..

EXTREME RIGHT PIC_ Title: The Transcendent Buddha Vairochana (?) Seated in Western Fashion
Period: Central Javanese period. 9th century, Indonesia (Java).Bronze

During full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe the annual Vesak ritual

by walking from Mendut through Pawon to Borobudur. The ritual takes the form of a mass
Buddhist prayer and pradakshina (circumambulation) around the temple in the footsteps of
Sudhana.
Followers of traditional Kejawen (Javanese mysticism) or Buddhists, came to worship in the
Mendut temple and it is believed to be able to fulfill wishes, such as deliverance from sickness.
Childless couples, for example, pray at the bas-relief of Hariti for a child, since in traditional
Javanese beliefs, Hariti is a symbol of fertility, patroness of motherhood and protector of
childrenBuilt around early ninth century AD, Mendut is the oldest of the three temples including
Pawon and Borobudur. The Karangtengah inscription, the temple was built and finished during
the reign of King Indra of Sailendra dynasty. The inscription dated 824 AD mentioned that King
Indra of Sailendra has built a sacred building named Venuvana which means "bamboo forest".
Dutch archaeologist JG de Casparis has connected the temple mentioned in Karangtengah
inscription with Mendut temple.
The temple is located about three kilometres east from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur
and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist temples, are located in one straight line. There is a mutual
religious relationship between the three temples, although the exact ritual process is unknown.
This significant and traditional holy day is observed throughout Indonesia, where it is known as
Waisak Day. At Borobudur, thousands of Buddhist monks will join to repeat mantras and

20
meditate as they circuit the temple in a ritual called "Pradaksina". This is a form of tribute to the
temple. Monks celebrate the special day by bottling holy water (which symbolises humility) and
transporting flames (which symbolize light and enlightenment) from location to location. The
monks also take part in the "Pindapata" ritual, where they receive charity from the people of
Indonesia. Waisak Day in Indonesia has been celebrated as a national public holiday every year
since 1983.

1. The ruins of Mendut temple before restoration, 1880.

2. The statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani inside the
Mendut temple
Mendut is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid sub-
district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located about three kilometres
east from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist temples, are located
in one straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the three temples, although the
exact ritual process is unknown.
The plan of temple's base is square, and measures 13.7 metre on each side, with the base level
3.7 metre above the ground . The 26.4 metre tall temple is facing northwest. The stairs projecting
from the northwest side square elevated base is adorned with Makara statue on each sides, the
side of the stairwall carved with bas-relief of Jataka fable narrating the animal story of Buddhist
teaching. The square terrace surrounding the body of the temple was meant
for pradakshina or circumambulating ritual, walking clockwise around the temple. The outer
walls is adorned with bas-reliefs of Boddhisattvas (Buddhist divinities), such
as Avalokitesvara, Maitreya, Cunda, Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Mahakarunika
Avalokitesvara, Vajrapani, Manjusri, Akasagarbha, and Boddhisattvadevi Prajnaparamita among
other buddhist figures. Originally the temple had two chambers, a small chamber in the front,
and the large main chamber in the center. The roof and some parts of the front chamber walls are
missing. The uppermost part of the roof is missing, it supposed to have a stupa pinnacle with size
and style probably just like the one in Sojiwan temple. The inner wall of front chamber is
adorned with bas-relief of Hariti surrounds by children, Atavaka on the other side, Kalpataru,
also groups of devatas divinities flying in heaven.

21
Location three Buddhist temples, Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut, in one straight line across Progo
River. RIGHT The bas-relief of Hariti on inner northern wall of Mendut

The main room has three carved large stone statues. The 3 metres tall statue of Dhyani
Buddha Vairocana was meant to liberate the devotees from the bodily karma, at the left is statue
of Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara to liberate from the karma of speech, at the right is
Boddhisatva Vajrapani to liberate from karma of thought.

Borobudur Temple Mendut Temple

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PAWON TEMPLE ….Named after the flower, the Lotus Sutra provides solutions to life's
manifold sufferings.

Buddhism and the Lotus Sutra

"In general, Buddhism is viewed as a static religion, epitomized by the image of a meditating or
sitting Buddha, but the true image is one of a dynamic walking Buddhist, an active Buddhist. The
Buddha is another name for a person of unceasing struggle [who] continuously takes action to
construct happiness for people."1--Daisaku Ikeda

The Essence of Buddhism

Buddhism is a 2,500-year-old religious philosophy, though it is only during the last century that
it has become widely known outside of Asia.

Though there are many different schools and traditions of Buddhism, all are said to stem from
the teachings of Shakyamuni, Buddhism's founder (circa 500 BCE). Different schools arose over
the centuries as Buddhism spread throughout Asia and interacted with the various cultures of the
continent. Differences between these schools often reflect cultural, social and historical
conditions and influences. An ideal common to Buddhism in all its various forms, however, is
liberation from suffering.

Buddhism began as a personal response to human suffering. It was Shakyamuni's search for a
way to free people from the inevitability of suffering that led to his enlightenment or
"awakening." According to tradition, this awakening occurred while Shakyamuni was seated in
meditation under a pipal tree. He perceived clearly how all phenomena are ceaselessly changing
within a complex web of mutual interrelationship. He saw that underlying and guiding this
23
process of ceaseless change was an enduring law or principle, which is inherent within all life
and phenomena--including, of course, the lives of human beings. By awakening to this law and
grasping the true nature of life, Shakyamuni taught, people could free themselves from anguish
and bring their lives to a full and creative flowering. The life of a person thus awakened would
be characterized by compassion and an encompassing wisdom.

Relief of King Ashoka's pilgrimage to Buddagaya, where Shakyamuni attained enlightenment

Since this law does not exist separately from our own lives, Buddhism sees the ultimate truth or
value in human life itself. There is no transcendent value or power that can justify the sacrifice or
denigration of human life.

In Buddhism, compassion is inseparable from enlightenment. In the tradition of Nichiren

Buddhism practiced by members of the SGI, courage is seen as concomitant with true
compassion. Courageous action to challenge and transform our individual and collective realties
is seen as essential to breaking through fundamental delusions. This dynamic linkage of inner
change and concrete action to bring a better world into being is at the heart of Nichiren
Buddhism. Ikeda stresses this as the core formula for human revolution.

Ikeda's philosophy can thus be understood as an effort to develop a means for contemporary
humanity to confront the rampant suffering of our age and to make the social and cultural
diversity of our world a source of creativity and joy for all.

The Lotus Sutra

Lotus Sutra, Sanskrit Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra, (“Lotus of the Good Law [or True

Doctrine] Sutra”), is one of the earlier Mahāyāna Buddhist texts venerated as the quintessence of
truth by the Japanese Tendai (Chinese T’ien-t’ai) and Nichiren sects. The Lotus Sutra is regarded
by many others as a religious classic of great beauty and power and one of the most important
and most popular works in the Mahāyāna tradition, the form of Buddhism predominant in East
Asia. In China it is called the Miao-fa lien-hua ching or Fa-hua Ching and in Japan, Myōhō
renge kyō or Hokekyō.

In the Lotus Sutra the Buddha has become the divine eternal Buddha, who attained perfect
Enlightenment endless eons ago. His nature as the supreme object of faith and devotion is
expressed partly through the language of wondrous powers (e.g., his suddenly making visible
thousands of worlds in all directions, each with its own Buddha). In keeping with this exalted
Buddhology, the Hīnayāna goals of emancipation and sainthood are reduced to inferior
expedients: here all beings are invited to become no less than fully enlightened Buddhas through

24
the grace of innumerable bodhisattvas (“Buddhas-to-be”).

The sutra, composed largely in verse, has a total of 28 chapters and contains many charms
and mantras (sacred chants). It was first translated into Chinese in the 3rd century AD and
became extremely popular in China and Japan, where common belief held that the simple act of
chanting it would bring salvation. The 25th chapter, which describes the glory and special
powers of the great bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokitiśvara (Chinese Kuan-yin; Japanese
Kannon), has had an important separate life under the name of Kuan-yin
Ching (Japanese Kannon-gyō).

Shakyamuni's teachings have been preserved in numerous collections called sutras. Among
these, one of the most widely influential has been the Lotus Sutra. This sutra is the basis of
Nichiren Buddhism and Daisaku Ikeda's philosophy.

Concepts such as the eternity of life, the interdependence of all life and the sanctity of all life
receive particular emphasis in this sutra. One of the most important ideas clarified by the Lotus
Sutra is the principle of the fundamental equality of all people--including women, "evil people"
and others often discriminated against in other teachings. The basis of this equality is the
universally inherent potential of all people to manifest the life condition of Buddhahood or
enlightenment. From the perspective of the Lotus Sutra, Buddhahood is not some final static
state of attainment but a potential that all individuals can bring forth from their lives. It is the
dynamic unfolding of the qualities of wisdom, compassion and courage amid the realities of the
lives of women and men. The objective of Buddhism is to bring forth this inherent potentiality.

Among Ikeda's writings on Buddhism, that which deals most extensively and specifically with
the Lotus Sutra is the six-volume The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra series. In this work, Ikeda, in
dialogue with members of the SGI's study department, explores the relevance of the sutra to
today's world and unpacks its profound principles from the perspective of Nichiren Buddhism.

In essence, the Lotus Sutra could be described as a proclamation of the infinite potential and
dignity inherent in the life of each human being. It is a guide to unleashing the transformative
potential of each individual's life.

Ikeda's philosophy could in turn be expressed as, first, the effort to clarify and apply these
principles within the context of contemporary society, and further, through the practice of
dialogue, to clarify shared, universal human values that accord with the core value of the sanctity
of life; and finally to promote mutual understanding, cooperation and peace as the basis for a
new human civilization.

25
The dragon king's daughter offers her priceless pearl to the Buddha. The narrative of her
instantaneous attainment of Buddhahood was understood as a promise of the enlightenment of
women.[16] Frontispiece of a 12th century Lotus Sutra handscroll.

The Lotus Sūtra begins, like so many Buddhist sūtras, with the Buddha seated on Vulture
Peak. He is surrounded by a huge audience of monks, nuns, and deities, many of whom are
named; those names include the most famous figures of the tradition. Also present is a huge
audience of bodhisattvas. This immediately indicates that this is a Mahāyāna sūtra, where the
bodhisattva—one who has vowed to follow the long path to buddhahood—is extolled over
the arhat, the ideal of the early Buddhist tradition, who follows a much shorter path to nirvāṇa.

The Buddha delivers a discourse, whose content is not described, and then enters a state of deep
meditation. He emits a ray of light from between his eyes, illuminating all the realms to the east,
from the highest heavens to the lowest hells. One of the bodhisattvas in the audience—Mañjuśrī,
the bodhisattva of wisdom—reports that he once witnessed the same miracle in the far distant
past, after which the Buddha of that age taught the Lotus Sūtra. He thus speculates that
Śākyamuni, the Buddha of the present age, is about to do the same.

The Buddha now speaks, praising the wisdom of the buddhas, which he describes as superior to

26
that of those who follow the path of the śrāvaka (disciple) or pratyekabuddha (privately
enlightened) to become arhats. He goes on to say that he has taught the dharma using skillful
means (upāya) in order that the beings of the world might overcome attachment. He addresses
this statement to one of the arhats in the audience, indeed, the wisest of the arhats, the monk
Śāriputra. The Buddha’s statement is disconcerting to Śāriputra; as an arhat, he is “one who has
nothing further to learn.” And yet the Buddha is praising a wisdom beyond his comprehension
and using a term—skillful means—that he had not heard before.

The Buddha eventually agrees to explain what he has said, but before he can do so, five thousand
members of the audience get up and walk out—a remarkable moment in a Buddhist text.
Describing them as arrogant, the Buddha announces that he is now about to teach the “true
dharma,” the saddharma, which forms the first word in the Sanskrit title of the sūtra. He explains
that the buddhas appear in the world for one reason: to lead beings to buddhahood. In the past, he
had taught three paths or “vehicles” (yāna): the path of the śrāvaka that leads to the nirvāṇa of
the arhat, the path of the pratyekabuddha that leads to the nirvāṇa of the arhat, and the path of the
rare bodhisattva that leads to the distant state of buddhahood. However, those paths were skillful
means. In fact, there is only one path, one vehicle (ekayāna): the path to buddhahood, the buddha
vehicle (buddhayāna). He explains that if he had revealed this single path from the beginning,
many would have felt incapable of following it. Therefore, he devised a skillful method to
accommodate them, teaching a shorter and simpler path, the path to the nirvāṇa of the arhat.
Now, he is revealing that there is only one path and that that path is available to all.

CHAPTER 11 and the Borobudur Design

Conception, planning and initiation of the construction of Borobudur and Pawon temple
Dharanindra or commonly known as King Indra was the ruler of the Sailendra dynasty who was the
Emperor of Central Java and Srivijaya. Dharanindra was the successor of Panangkaran, he ruled the
kingdom in the period 775—800. He was mentioned as a great conqueror and credited for Sailendra's
overseas campaign. He was also probably responsible for the conception, planning and initiate the
construction of Borobudur and Pawon temple.
He was mentioned in Kelurak inscription (dated 782) in his formal reign name Sri Sanggrama
Dhananjaya. In this inscription he was hailed as Wairiwarawiramardana or "the slayer of courageous
enemies". The similar title also found in Ligor B inscription discovered in Southern Thailand Malay
Peninsula; Sarwwarimadawimathana, which suggest it referred to the same person. Dharanindra seems to
be a warlike character, as he embarked on military naval expedition overseas and has brought Sailendras'
control on Ligor in Malay Peninsula. After conquering and taking Ligor back from Water Chenla, he also
launched raids against Champa in 774 and 770, and conquered Southern Cambodia in Mekong delta in
early 9th century. During this time, Jayavarman II from Java (Malay Peninsula), was probably the
commander of the Srivijayan army. At the behest of Maharaja Srivijaya (Dharaindra), Jayavarman II was
installed as a new Cambodia king and Angkor Dynasty was founded. King Indra seems to continue the
builder tradition of his predecessor.

27
There can be no doubt that this chapter No. 11 of the LOTUS Sutra influenced Gunadharma the
architect of Borubudur and the Shailendra masters of his design destiny.

Chapter Eleven contains one of the most fantastic (in the original sense of that word) scenes in
Buddhist literature. The traditional structure that houses the relics of the Buddha is
the stūpa (from which the English word tope derives), a large mound. According to the
traditional account of his final days, the Buddha instructed his disciples to cremate his body and
place his remains in a stūpa. Over the course of the history of Buddhism in India, such
reliquaries became increasingly elaborate, taking the form of the pagoda in East Asia and
the chedi in Thailand.

As the chapter opens, a massive stūpa, miles high and miles wide, emerges from the earth and
floats in the air above the assembly. A voice inside is heard praising the Lotus Sūtra. At the
request of his disciples, the Buddha rises into the air and opens the door of the stūpa to reveal not
relics but a living buddha, named Prabhūtaratna, who explains that he vowed long ago that after
his passage into nirvāṇa, wherever the Lotus Sūtra is taught, his stūpa would appear there. He
then invites the Buddha to sit beside him. This image of two buddhas seated side by side inside a
stūpa would be widely depicted in Buddhist art over the centuries. Among the doctrinal
revelations that this scene intimates is that a buddha does not die after he passes into nirvāṇa.

Women play minor roles in the Lotus. Among the many arhats to whom the Buddha offers
prophecies of future buddhahood are two nuns: his stepmother, Mahāprajāpatī, and his wife,
Yaśodharā. The most famous scene involving a female occurs in Chapter Twelve, in which the
bodhisattva Mañjuśrī introduces an eight-year-old nāga princess (often depicted as half human,
half snake) and says that she will attain buddhahood. When Śāriputra disputes this, saying that
women have five obstructions that prevent their attainment of buddhahood, the nāga princess
instantaneously achieves buddhahood, but only after first turning into a male.

Billions of bodhisattva had arrived from other universes to witness the stūpa that emerged from
the earth. At the beginning of Chapter Fifteen, they volunteer to remain in this world to preserve
and promote the Lotus after the Buddha has passed into nirvāṇa. The Buddha politely declines,
saying that there are sufficient bodhisattvas from his own world for the task. At that point,
another remarkable scene occurs, as billions of golden bodhisattvas emerge from beneath the
earth. When the bodhisattva Maitreya asks who these bodhisattvas are, the Buddha explains that
they are his disciples, whom he placed on the path to buddhahood aeons ago. Maitreya is puzzled
by this because he knows that the Buddha only achieved enlightenment forty years ago.

It is at this point that the Buddha makes the second great revelation of the Lotus Sūtra (the first
being that there is only one vehicle). In the next chapter, the Buddha explains that the world
believes that he was born as a prince, left the palace in search of enlightenment, practiced
austerities for six years, and achieved buddhahood near the city of Gayā. In fact, he achieved
buddhahood incalculable aeons ago, and the life story that is so well known is yet another case of
his skillful means; he was enlightened all the time, yet feigned those deeds to inspire the world.

28
Not only was he enlightened long ago, his passage into nirvāṇa is not imminent. His lifespan is
1
immeasurable: “I abide forever without entering parinirvāṇa.”

Another literary vehicle is the The Mantra of Light, also called the Mantra of the Unfailing
Rope Snare, is an important mantra of the Shingon and Kegon sects of Buddhism, but is not
emphasized in other Vajrayana sects of Buddhism. It guides towards the LOTUS design of the
elements of the Buddha’s iconographic dynasty. It is taken from the Amoghapāśakalparāja-
sūtra (Chinese translation Taisho ed. no. 1092) or Sutra of the Mantra of the Unfailing Rope
Snare of the Buddha Vairocana's Great Baptism and is chanted as follows:
Roman script: om̐ amogha vairocana mahāmudrā maṇipadma jvāla pravartāya hūm̐
Devanagari: ॐ अमोघ वै रोचन महामु दर् ा मणिपद्म ज्वाल प्रवर्ताय हँ ू Am amogha vairochan
mahamudra mani padma jwal pramartya hoo
The translation of this mantra, according to Professor Mark Unno, is roughly:
Praise be to the flawless, all-pervasive illumination of the great mudra [or seal of the Buddha ].
Turn over to me the jewel, lotus and radiant light.

Initially, the mantra received little mention in East Asian Buddhist texts, and
although Kukai brought the sutra to Japan in the 9th century, there are no records that he ever
utilized it in tantric practices. Records show gradually increasing use in the Heian Period, until
the 13th century when it was popularized in medieval Japanese Buddhism by Myōe, and later
by Shingon monks Eison and Ninshō in their ministries. Both the Mantra and the nembutsu were
often incorporated by medieval Buddhists at one time or another, often in the same service. A
common practice for the Mantra of Light was to sprinkle pure sand, blessed with this mantra, on
the body of a deceased person or their tomb, based on teachings expounded in the Sutra. The
belief was that a person who had accumulated much bad karma, and possible rebirth
in Hell would be immediately freed and allowed a favorable rebirth into the Pure Land of
Amitabha Buddha. This practice is known as dosha-kaji (土砂加持) in Japanese.

The Symbol of the Lotus- ARTICLE by Barbara O'Brien- 2018

The lotus has been a symbol of purity since before the time of the Buddha, and it blooms
profusely in Buddhist art and literature. Its roots are in muddy water, but the lotus flower rises
above the mud to bloom clean and fragrant.
In Buddhist art, a fully blooming lotus flower signifies enlightenment, while a closed bud
represents a time before enlightenment. Sometimes a flower is partly open, with its center
hidden, indicating that enlightenment is beyond ordinary sight.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.https://www.lionsroar.com/what-happens-in-the-lotus-sutra-unpacking-the-events-in-this-famous-
buddhist-scripture/
The mud nourishing the roots represents our messy human lives. It is in the midst of our human
experiences and our suffering that we seek to break free and bloom. But while the flower rises
above the mud, the roots and stem remain in the mud, where we live our lives. A Zen verse says,
"May we exist in muddy water with purity, like a lotus."

29
Rising above the mud to bloom requires great faith in oneself, in the practice, and in the
Buddha's teaching. So, along with purity and enlightenment, a lotus also represents faith.

The Lotus in the Pali Canon

The historical Buddha used the lotus symbolism in his sermons. For example, in the Dona Sutta
(Pali Tipitika, Anguttara Nikaya 4.36), the Buddha was asked if he was a god. He replied,
"Just like a red, blue, or white lotus—born in the water, grown in the water, rising up above the
water—stands unsmeared by the water, in the same way I—born in the world, grown in the
world, having overcome the world—live unsmeared by the world. Remember me, brahman, as
'awakened.'" [Thanissaro Bhikkhu translation]

In another section of the Tipitaka, the Theragatha ("verses of the elder monks"), there is a poem
attributed to the disciple Udayin:

As the flower of a lotus,

Arisen in water, blossoms,
Pure-scented and pleasing the mind,
Yet is not drenched by the water,
In the same way, born in the world,
The Buddha abides in the world;
And like the lotus by water,
He does not get drenched by the world. [Andrew Olendzki translation]
Other Uses of the Lotus as a Symbol

The lotus flower is one of the Eight Auspicious Symbols of Buddhism.

30
 1. According to legend, before the Buddha was born, his mother, Queen Maya, dreamed of
a white bull elephant carrying a white lotus in its trunk.
2. Buddhas and bodhisattvas are often portrayed as either seated or standing on a lotus
pedestal. Amitabha Buddha is nearly always sitting or standing on a lotus, and he often
holds a lotus as well.
3. The Lotus Sutra is one of the most highly regarded Mahayana sutras.
4. The well-known mantra Om Mani Padme Hum roughly translates into "the jewel in the
heart of the lotus."

5. In meditation, the lotus position requires folding one's legs so that the right foot is resting
on the left thigh, and vice versa.

6. According to a classic text attributed to Japanese Soto Zen Master Keizan Jokin (1268–

1325), "The Transmission of the Light (Denkoroku)," the Buddha once gave a silent
sermon in which he held up a gold lotus. The disciple Mahakasyapa smiled. The Buddha
approved Mahakasyapa's realization of enlightenment, saying, "I have the treasury of the
eye of truth, the ineffable mind of Nirvana. These I entrust to Kasyapa."
Significance of Color

In Buddhist iconography, the color of a lotus conveys a particular meaning.

 A blue lotus usually represents the perfection of wisdom. It is associated with the

bodhisattva Manjusri. In some schools, the blue lotus is never in full bloom, and its center
cannot be seen. Dogen wrote of blue lotuses in the Kuge (Flowers of Space) fascicle
of Shobogenzo.

"For example, the time and place of the opening and blooming of the blue lotus are in the midst
of fire and at the time of flames. These sparks and flames are the place and time of the blue lotus
opening and blooming. All sparks and flames are within the place and time of the place and time
of the blue lotus opening and blooming. Know that in a single spark are hundreds of thousands of
blue lotuses, blooming in the sky, blooming on the earth, blooming in the past, blooming in the
present. Experiencing the actual time and place of this fire is the experience of the blue lotus. Do
not drift by this time and place of the blue lotus flower." [Yasuda Joshu Roshi and Anzan Hoshin
sensei translation]

 A gold lotus represents the realized enlightenment of all Buddhas.

 A pink lotus represents the Buddha and the history and succession of Buddhas.
 In esoteric Buddhism, a purple lotus is rare and mystical and might convey many things,
depending on the number of flowers clustered together.
 A red lotus is associated with Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. It also is
associated with the heart and with our original, pure nature.
 The white lotus signifies a mental state purified of all poisons.

O'Brien, Barbara. "The Symbol of the Lotus." Learn Religions, Aug. 26, 2020,
learnreligions.com/the-symbol-of-the-lotus-449957.

31
 The The compJex iconography of Borobudur has attracted scholars from the time of the
first discovery of the monument to the present day. Yet, in spite of so much attention,
Borobudur remains one of the most controversial monuments in the Buddhist world. Its
stunning architectural conception and aesthetic beauty have elicited comment from many
authors, ranging from the Buddhologically erudite to, unfortunately, the Buddhologically
ignorant and romantic fantasizers. In spite of several attempts, none of thèse scholars, in
my opinion, has actually solved the great riddle of .the overall significance of
Borubudur.' In contrast to the study of major monuments in India, the Himalayan
areas, and East Asia, the study of the Borobudur stupa is at a disadvantage. In spite of the
identification of the scènes in the galleries around the lower terraces according to
either known texts (or to text familier), the primary text (or text family) for Borobudur has
not been incontrovertibly established.

The iconography of Borobudur

Slesa : To return to Borobudur, it must first be understood that the Borobudur stupa is a
multivalent monument that is capable of getting many applications, interpretations, meanings, or

32
values for its design and architecture. This is not surprising since Mahayana Buddhist literature
is deeply rooted in Sanskrit grammar, and one of the twelve limbs of composition .in Sanskrit is
Slesa or double meaning. The other word is Serva.

Slesa frankly it means embrace (Called slesa,) the literary device was used by Sanskrit poets
from the sixth century to as late as the 20th. The same text can be read multiple ways
simultaneously. Slesa's literal meaning, “embrace,” signifying fusing two narratives into one
text, and the technique guides—and embraces—readers as they go.

Serva is the other word borrowed from Sanskrit सर्व (sárva) and is a doublet of सब (sab). It means

whole, entire, all, every of all sorts, manifold, various, altogether, wholly, completely, in all
parts, everywhere This concept is so well known that.it need not ,be discussed here except to
note that it is implicit that Buddhist, literature commonly may be read at completely
different levels and that Buddhist art is often similarly structured. Indeed, there may be as
many as three or more levels of interpretation possible in literature and, in the art, an equal
number are expected and even more are possible. Multivalency is the norm, not the exception,
and, in major monuments such as Borobudur. it is to be expected throughout.

In his text Barabudur : archaeological description as far back as 1927 the Dutch scholar
N.J. Krom(The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff, 1927 ) persuaded the readers to the
idea thate though Borobudur as a multivalent monument has numerous meanings, it
also: has one overriding meaning: it is a demonstration of the absolute universality of
the buddhadharma as defined in the Avatargsakasotra. But it also has a number of
other meanings. Most obviously, it is specifically Mount Meru and all Mount’ Merus
in the Buddhist cosmological model. Secondly, around the galleries .of'the, lower
five.terraces, as has been shown in detail by Krom (1927), it is the nirmanakaya
jataka (former births) and life of Sakyamuni Buddha, the pilgrimage of Sudhana
and the envimnments of the Bodhisattvas, Maitreya and Samantabhadra, and all such
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas who will, by definition, live identical lives in tlte infinite
Buddhaloka throughout the universe. Further, the fifth terrace is also a manifestion of
the Akanista heaven(s), highest of the rupacacara heavens to which Sakyamuni retired
to preach the Mahavairocanasutra immediately after his enlightenment. The whole
monument, as will be seen, is also a generalized.

33
 Fig. Section of, the. Borobudur stupa showing ’levels', 'térraces', And' 'galleries’. From:
Krom (1923, III:pl. 26).

INTERPRETATIONS
As a demonstration of Mount Meru, the monument rises in a series of terraces. Early counts
of nine levels apparently neglected the stupa at the summit, which constitutes a tenth
structural level and which, Buddhologically is the culmination of fruition stage —
literally the most important of all the stages and therefore is absolutely necessary to
include in any count. It is even conceivable that the monument must be viewed as
having eleven stages since the ground upon which the monument rests is also counted in
some Buddhological systems. For the purposes of this article, the 'levels' will be counted
from the lowest structural level, while, to avoid confusion, the 'terraces’ and 'galleries’
will follow Krom's enumeration (see fig. above). Probably, but unprovably, the ten stages
represented the dasabhumi( translated from Sanskrit as the Land of the disciple) but also
meaning or tenth stage. The eleven stages represented the dasabhumi plus the final realization
.1
stage (as defined in the Avatamsakastotra) demonstrated by the stupa at the summit
By any known definition of the Mount Meru iconology, the lowest stages are the mundane
worlds typified by Jambudvrpa and Uttarakuru. At the peak of Mount Meru is,
conceptually, the primordial three-footed spiral from which all movement arises.
Seated exactly in this location, the yogin rises through the heavens to the final
transcendent or uplifting stage- the top.

Dhyani-Buddha, in Mahayana Buddhism, and particularly in Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism,

any of a group of five “self-born” celestial buddhas who have always existed from the beginning
of time. The five are usually identified as Vairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha,

34
and Amoghasiddhi.

A Dhyani-Buddha on one of the stupa terraces at Borobudur, Java, 8th century.

Courtesy of the Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam
Scholars in recent years have pointed out that the term Dhyani-Buddha does not appear in the
original texts, but the nomenclature continues to be commonly used, particularly in describing
groups of images composed of five meditating buddhas—as in mandalas (ritual meditation
designs), on the four sides and top of votive stupas (commemorative monuments), or on the
terraces of the great monument at Borobudur in Indonesia.
_____________________________________________________________________
1.ANCIENT INDONESIAN SCULPTURE, MARIJKE J. KLOKKE(Royal lnstitute of Linguistics and
Anthropology).Leiden,The Netherlands

The five are almost identically represented in art, all dressed in monastic garments, seated with
folded legs, with the same hairdress and long-lobed ears, but are distinguished by characteristic
colours, symbols, poses of hands, and the directions they face. The five eternal Buddhas are
correlated to other groups of five, so that the entire cosmos is seen as divided between them and
as emanating from them. Thus, each represents one of the five skandhas, or mental and
physical aggregates that make up the whole of cosmic as well as individual existence

According to the full exposition of this scheme, most of the other deities in the vast Buddhist
pantheon are related to one of the five buddhas as members of his “family”; reflect his
distinguishing characteristics, such as colour, direction, and symbol; and when represented in art
often carry an image of the “parent” buddha in their crown. Each of the “self-born” buddhas is
also said to have manifested himself as an earthly buddha and as a bodhisattva (buddha-to-be).
Each has his own consort, mount, sacred syllable, natural element, particular sense organ,
special sense perception, and symbolic location in the human body.

In order to counter any tendency toward polytheism suggested by the fivefold scheme, some
sects elevated one of the five, usually Vairochana, to a position of an Adi-Buddha (first, or
primal, buddha). Sometimes a sixth deity is worshiped as the Adi-Buddha. Tibetan Buddhists
identify the Adi-Buddha as Vajradhara; some Buddhist sects of Nepal give this position to
Vajrasattva.

The primary iconographic theme of Borobudur may thus be charted as seen in fig. above The
unfinished Buddha in the core of the central stupa is the dharmadhatu Vairocana/ Sakyamuni, primarily
demonstrating Sakyamuni at the moment of enlightenment just as he is about to teach the
Avatamasaka Sutra. The Xharmachakra mudras Buddhas of the 72 see-through stupa are primarily

35
Mahavairocana of the Pañcajina mandala (which Buddhologically demonstrates the state of
Sakyamuni’s attainment of the five gyana- knowledge) from the Mahavairocana cycles, either
dharmakaya or sambhagakaya but which is impossible to determine without specific textual
references. The mandala is completed by the four Jinas of the terraces (each also an aspect of
Sakyamuni's attainment as one of the 5 gyanas). The Buddha on the fifth terrace, making Vitaraka
mudra is Sakyamuni/Vairocana in Akanista heaven teaching the Mahavairocana-cycle texts. Not only is
the symbolic cycle complete, but it is doubly self-referent providing a redundancy meaning that literally
reiterates its own them- Sakyamuni/Vairocana as in the dharmadhatu expounds the primary text of
the Avatamsakasutra while AkanishtaSakyamuni/Vairocana expounds the Mahavairocana-cycle texts.
All the rest, even though it is conceptually intended to demonstrate the totality of the cosmos, is
simply ancillary to these profound events. 1

Depending on only two closely related texts, both of which are known to have been practiced in Java
at the time and that are demonstrably identifiable at Borobudur itself, and depending only on closely
related documents for interpretative material, the pieces of the Borobudur puzzle finally fall into place:
Borobudur is nothing less than a reictifcation of the concept of universal totality of Buddhahood as
defined by the Avatamsaka and the Mahavairocanasutras. The builders of Borobudur, perhaps the
Sailendras themselves, had built one of the fullest expressions of the ultimate realization of
Buddhahood possible- literally the totality of the Buddhist cosmos which has no creator god to
explain the origin of the universe. Instead, it teaches that everything depends on everything else:
present events are caused by past events and become the cause of future events. In Buddhism this
happens naturally without the intervention of gods. Central to Mahayana ideology is the idea of the
bodhisattva, one who seeks to become a Buddha. ... For Mahayana Buddhism, awakening consists in
understanding the true nature of reality. While non-Mahayana doctrine emphasizes the absence of the self
in persons, Mahayana thought extends this idea to all things.

36
37
 ABOVE
The Wheel of Life (Bhavachakra) The Pic at right though from TIBT resembles the Borubudur structurfe which
implies that the design is more Buddhological and Cosmological towards Buddhism

Certainly it is to the credit to the Buddhist advisors to the Srivijay Kings that they were able to
discern the complexities of the Lotus Sutra and other relevant Sutral jumbled together and
described above to reach a final design stage of the model Borobudur. In fact that itself is going
to be open to much criticism reflecting the words to the Buddha (In Chapter Ten, for example)
where he warns that devotees of the Lotus will face mockery and disparagement after he has
passed into nirvāṇa.

Seated Avalokiteshvara bodhisattva. Gandharan, from Loriyan Tangai. Kushan period, 1st – 3rd century CE.

Indian Museum, Calcutta.

38
Borobudur contains more than a thousand exquisitely carved relief panels extending along its
many terraces for a total distance of more than a kilometer. These are arranged so as to take the
visitor on a spiritual journey to enlightenment, and one ascends the monument past scenes
depicting the world of desire, the life story of Buddha, and the heroic deeds of other enlightened
beings—finally arriving at the great circular terraces at the top of the structure that symbolizes
the formless world of pure knowledge and perfection. The Lotus Sutra, wherein the Buddha
honestly discarded expedient means, says that one can “gain entrance through faith alone.” And
the Nirvana Sutra, which the Buddha preached in the grove of sal trees on the last day of his life,
states, “Although there are innumerable practices that lead to enlightenment, if one teaches faith,
then that includes all those practices.”

Thus faith is the basic requirement for entering the way of the Buddha. In the fifty-two
stages of bodhisattva practice, the first ten stages, dealing with faith, are basic, and the first of
these ten stages is that of arousing pure faith. Though lacking in knowledge of Buddhism, a
person of faith, even if dull-witted, is to be reckoned as a person of correct views. But even
though one has some knowledge of Buddhism, if one is without faith, then one is to
be considered a slanderer and an icchantika, or person of incorrigible disbelief.
1. The monk Sunakshatra observed the two hundred and fifty precepts, mastered
the four stages of meditation, and was versed in all the twelve divisions of the
scriptures, while 
2. Devadatta memorized the sixty thousand non-Buddhist teachings and the eighty
thousand Buddhist teachings, and could manifest eighteen miraculous powers4 with
his body. And yet it is said that these men, because they had knowledge but no faith,
are now in the great citadel of the Avīchi hell. 
3. Mahākāshyapa and Shāriputra on the other hand lacked knowledge but had faith,
and the Buddha accordingly predicted that they would become the Thus Come Ones
Light Bright and Flower Glow, respectively. The Buddha stated, “If one should
harbor doubt and fail to believe, one will fall at once into the evil paths.”5 These
words refer to those who have knowledge but are without faith.

4. The first volume of the Lotus Sutra states, “Throughout incalculable, innumerable

kalpas it is rare that one may hear this Law.” And

5. the fifth volume says, “As for this Lotus Sutra, throughout immeasurable numbers of
lands one cannot even hear its name.”

Thus it is an extremely rare thing to hear the name of the Lotus Sutra.

Though the Buddhas Sushānta and Many Treasures made their appearance in the world,

they did not utter so much as the name of the Lotus Sutra. And though the Thus Come
One Shakyamuni made his advent expressly for the purpose of preaching the Lotus Sutra, he
kept the name of that sutra a secret and never referred to it for a period of forty-two years. It was
only when he reached the age of seventy-two that he first began to intone Myoho-renge-kyo,
the daimoku of the sutra.

39
 Thus, encountering this sutra is as rare as the blossoming of the udumbara flower, which
occurs but once in three thousand years, or the one-eyed turtle finding a floating piece
of sandalwood, which happens only once in innumerable, boundless kalpas.

I am most fortunate to come across this pictoral review of the Borobudur Walls Anandajoti
Bhikkhu that comprehensively maps the carvings on the walls from all 4 directions and I
reproduce it here in most humility and abundant thankfulness at my good fortune and the
Blessings of my learned ones.

aṇḍavyūha, The Quest for Awakening Text and Photographs by Anandajoti Bhikkhu

Level 2, Inner Wall

1. Meetings with Spiritual Friends- 53 disciples
Potographs from Borobudur, Java, illustrating the Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra, which tells about the
Bodhisattva Sudhana and his search for Awakening by questioning 53 Masters, together with
further information.Reliefs on this Level

East Wall    South Wall    West Wall    North Wall    East Wall
 
Introduction to the Gaṇḍavyūha Reliefs at Borobudur
Level 2, Inner Wall
Meetings with Spiritual Friends
East Wall (Center to South)
The Scene in Jetavana
1. The Buddha in Jetavana
The Buddha is seen sitting in the pinnacled building in
the Jetavana monastery in Śrāvastī sitting on a lion seat
(siṁhāsana) with two rampant lions. Below him, on
either side, can be seen Bodhisattvas, while on the
clouds above are gandharvas with musical instruments,
and other devas.
The Buddha, who in our text is Śākyamuni in his
Dharma-body as Vairocana (the Illustrious), is shown in
teaching posture (vitarka-mudrā), though throughout
the sūtra he does not speak, but simply allows those
disciples who are capable to have visionary experiences

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 01 The Buddha in Jetavana
 
2. An Assembly gathers Round
Part of the assembly gathered in Jetavana is shown
in this panel: some of those on the lower part of the
panel are the Lords of the World (Lokendra), who
had served previous Buddhas.
Those with short, or shaved, hair are the śrāvakas,
the monastic disciples who had listened to the
teachings of the Buddha. Those with crowns are the
Bodhisattvas, who will see the revelations of the
Buddha.

02 An Assembly gathers Round

 
3. The Buddha reveals the Dharmadhātu
The panel is quite badly damaged. We can see
enough of the Buddha to understand that he is now
in the Expansive Lion concentration (siṁha-
vijṛmbhita-samādhi), during which he reveals the
true nature of the Dharmadhātu, or absolute reality,
to those whose wholesome roots are developed
enough to see it.
In the Dharmadhātu the whole universe is
contained within an atom, and an atom reveals the
whole universe; all times are equally present. Only
the highly developed Bodhisattvas, however, are
able to see this.

03 The Buddha reveals the Dharmadhātu

 
It is unclear what the following ten reliefs actually depict, the most convincing explanation I have seen is
that they are the Bodhisattvas of the ten directions, and I follow that here, and translate the first of the
verses attributed to each of them.

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 4. The Bodhisattva of the East
The Bodhisattva of the East speaks a verse in front of
the Buddha: Paśyadhvaṁ sattva-sārasya Buddha-
bodhir-acintiyā jeta-dhvaje nidarśeti Jino Buddha-
vikurvitam; See the best of beings in the decorated Jeta
(Grove), through his inconceivable Awakening to
Buddhahood the Victor manifests the transformations
of the Buddhas!

The reliefs show variations on a theme which presents

the Buddha looking straight at the viewer, while around
him gather various Bodhisattvas, monastics and lay,
and above them various ranks of devas sit atop the
clouds.

5. The Bodhisattva of the South

The Bodhisattva of the South speaks a verse in front of the
Buddha: Puṇya-garbhān mahā-prajñān bodhi-caryāgatiṁ-
gatān kṣemaṁkarān sarva-loke paśyadhvaṁ
sugatātmajān; See the way of those born of the Fortunate one,
who have a store house of merit, great wisdom, arrived at the
conduct of Awakening, the maker of security in all the worlds!
The Buddha is in all but one of these ten reliefs shown as
holding the teaching posture (vitarka-mudrā). He teaches silently
though, or through his proxies, as he is not recorded as having
said anything himself. On the bottom left we see nuns
(bhikṣunis) and on the bottom right monks (bhikṣus).

6. The Bodhisattva of the West

The Bodhisattva of the West speaks a verse in front
of the Buddha: Paśyadhvaṁ sattva-sārasya
vipulaṁ jñāna-maṇḍalam kālākālam-abhijñāya
Dharmaṁ deśeti prāṇinām; See the Best of
Beings, whose circle of knowledge is extensive,
knowing the right and wrong times, teach the
Dharma to living creatures.
On the right of the relief we see a gathering of
monastics, who can be identified by their shorn
hair. Bodhisattvas on the other hand generally wear
crowns, as can be seen on the left. The Buddha sits
in a pavilion which has stūpas on the top of it.

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 06 The Bodhisattva of the West
 
7. The Bodhisattva of the North
The Bodhisattva of the North speaks a verse in
front of the Buddha: Yathāpi parvataḥ śaila
udviddho vajra-saṁbhavaḥ sarva-loka-
paritrātā Buddho loke tathodgataḥ; Like a rocky
mountain that has arisen, made of diamonds, the
Buddha appeared in the world, protecting all the
worlds.
As mentioned, the Buddha is normally shown in
teaching posture (vitaka-mudrā), but in this
particular relief he is shown holding Dharma-
cakra-mudrā. Why this is different to the others is
unknown. Two bhikṣunis sit on the left of the
Buddha, amongst others who are looking on.

8. The Bodhisattva of the North-East

The Bodhisattva of the Northeast speaks a verse in
front of the Buddha: Yathā-pīhendra-nīlena eka-
varṇā diśaḥ kṛtāḥ bodhi-varṇaḥ prajām-evaṁ
kurute Buddha-darśanam; Just as through the
colour of the emerald all directions appear the same
colour, so the vision of the Buddha makes this
generation have the colour of Awakening.
Devotees gather round, both lay and monastic, one
man is on his knees and hands, another has a grand
plate of offerings. The five monastics on the left are
all bhikṣunis. The guardian devas sit on clouds
above on either side of the building.

08 The Bodhisattva of the North East

 
9. The Bodhisattva of the South-East
The Bodhisattva of the Southeast speaks a verse in front
of the Buddha: Ye ’dhvatraye vinīyante śrāvakāḥ
paramarṣiṇā na kramot-kṣepa-nikṣepaṁ
Saṁbuddhasya vidanti te; The disciples, (although)
trained in the three times (past, present and future), do
not understand the rising and falling of the steps of the
Perfect Buddha.
The decoration of both the peaked roof building the
Buddha sits in and of the trees is particularly fine in the
relief, which must have been carved by a master. Under
the tree on the left sit five monks, two of whom hold
lotuses. Notice the parasols above the trees.

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 09 The Bodhisattva of the South East
 
10. The Bodhisattva of the South-West
The Bodhisattva speaks a verse in front of the
Buddha: Asaṅga-jñāna-kāyat-vāda-śarīrāḥ
svayaṁbhuvaḥ acintya-jñāna-viṣayāḥ
śakyaṁ cintyayituṁ na te; The body of
teachings that is the collection of unobstructed
knowledge is self arisen, the realm of
inconceivable knowledge is not to be conceived
by them.
Bodhisattvas stand on the right of the relief,
some holding lotuses, a symbol of purity. Four
male monastics sit on the floor on the left . The
gods also have plates of offerings, and one of
them plays a flute.

010 The Bodhisattva of the South West

11. The Bodhisattva of the North-West
The Bodhisattva of the Northwest speaks a verse in
front of the Buddha: Amūḍha-smṛtayaḥ śuddhā
dharmodgata-suniścitāḥ acintya-mati-mantas-te
akṣayā Bodhisāgarāḥ; Those having unconfused
mindfulness, who are pure, Dharma-born, resolved,
with inconceivable intelligence, are imperishable
oceans of Awakening.
We see the usual gathering of Bodhisattvas, gods,
monastics and lay gathered around the Buddha.
Note that two bhikṣus sit in their own pavilion on
the right, while three others stand on the left. On
the top right we see two nāgas, and a garuḍa, and
below them three brahmins.

 
12. The Bodhisattva of the Nadir
The Bodhisattva of the nadir speaks a verse in front
of the Buddha: Sudurlabho Buddha-śabdaḥ
kalpa-koṭī-śatair-api kiṁ punar-darśanaṁ
sarva-kāṅkṣā-chedanam-uttamam; The sound
‘Buddha’ is very hard to find, even in a hundred
million aeons, why, even more so the supreme
vision (of Buddha), which cuts off all desires.
There is a very nice harmony about the relief here,
with the usual three layers, gods atop the clouds,
Bodhisattvas in the middle and four monastics, one
offering incense, on the left, and laymen on the
right.

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 13. The Bodhisattva of the Zenith
The Bodhisattva of the zenith speaks a verse in
front of the Buddha: Ananta-guṇa-saṁpannaṁ
dṛṣṭvā śākya-rṣabhaṁ munim
pariṇāmayatāṁ cittaṁ mahāyāne
viśudhyati; After seeing the sage, the leader of
the Sakyans, who is endowed with endless
virtues, the mind of the one developing the Great
Vehicle (Mahāyāna) is purified.
In the last of these scenes we see Bodhisattvas
holding lotuses sitting on either side of the
Buddha, who sits on a lotus throne. Above the
clouds the gods look on at the proceedings
below. Three monks sit under a tree on the left
holding flowers, and one has a censor.

 
14. Samantabhadra explains the Buddha’s
Samādhi
The Bodhisattva Samantabhadra now explains in
ten ways to other Bodhisattvas the Expansive Lion
concentration which the Buddha has been
exhibiting, and praising the Buddha, spoke this
verse:
Sarvă-kṣetra-paramāṇusādṛśā eka-romi jină-
kṣetra-sāgarāḥ Bodhisattva-parṣat-parīvṛtas-
tatra Buddhă sthitu Buddha-āsane; The atoms
of all (Buddha) fields appear, the oceans of
Victors’ fields on a single hair, surrounded by the
assembly of Bodhisattvas, the Buddha abides there
on the Buddha seat.

 
15. The Buddha and Bodhisattvas on Lotuses
The Buddha is seen seated under the Bodhi tree,
and in the midst of twelve Bodhisattvas, all of
whom are seated on lotus seats, some on raised
stalks, others on the ground.
There are also others figures in the relief: two
support the Buddha’s lotus seat; two, at floor
level, witness the spectacle worshipfully; and two
gods, who are seen on either side of the Bodhi
tree, worship those present.

South Wall

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 16. Mañjuśrī instructs Sudhana and the Monks
This panel shows two scenes: In the centre is the
Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī (kalyāṇa-mitra, no. 1), and on the
left are monks, led by Śāriputra. Mañjuśrī explains the
practices of the Great Vehicle (Mahāyāna) to them and
they attain to a samādhi whereby they can see the
Buddhas and their assemblies in all ten directions.
On the right Sudhana is seen standing under an parasol.
He is the hero of the story and is shown here for the first
time. His name, Good Wealth, is indicated by the three
money bags under his feet. Mañjuśrī picks him out from
the crowds who have come, and sends him out on his
journey in search of the spiritual friends (kalyāṇa-mitra)
who will guide him on his pilgrimage.

Meetings with Three Monks

17. The Monk Meghaśrī
After receiving instructions from Mañjuśrī (1), Sudhana
starts out on his quest to understand the Bodhisattva
practices, and meets with the monk (bhikṣu) Meghaśrī
(2) on a mountain, who explains to him how he can see
an incalculable number of Buddhas. He then sends him
on to the next spiritual friend, which is how all these
meetings end.
In the relief Meghaśrī himself is sat in an elaborate
pavilion, but there is no indication of the mountain.
Sudhana is standing on the right under a parasol held by
one of his attendants. In the air can be seen the gods, two
are bearded and therefore male, two are female. On the
ground are devotees holding up lotus flowers as
offerings.

18. The Monk Sāgaramegha

Reflecting on Meghaśrī’s words, and full of faith,
Sudhana approaches the next spiritual friend, the
monk (bhikṣu) Sāgaramegha (3), who describes the
great lotus that appeared to him, made of precious
jewels, atop of which was a Buddha, who taught
him the Dharma Instruction of the Universal Guide.
Sāgaramegha himself is also seen sitting on a lotus,
displaying the fearless posture (abhaya-mudrā),
Sudhana sits with arms crossed listening to the
teaching. In the sky we see celestial musicians –
notice the tree growing from the clouds between
them.

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\19. The Monk Supratiṣṭhita
Sudhana approaches his next friend, the monk
Supratiṣṭhita (4) on the southern path to Śrī Laṅkā,
who was walking in the sky, surrounded by
celestial beings. He describes to Sudhana the
liberation he has attained, from which he has
gained spiritual power (ṛddhi).
Curiously in the relief Supratiṣṭhita is not shown
in the sky, but sitting on a bolster under a tree.
Sudhana – unusually on an inner wall – is shown
on the left, and is kneeling with his hands in
greeting. Celestials are shown above the clouds in
the sky holding offerings.

A Miscellany of Friends

20. The Physician Megha

Sudhana next meets with the grammarian Megha
(5) in the Dravidian lands (southern India).
Understanding that Sudhana is a Bodhisattva, he
gets down from his lion seat and worships him,
before explaining he understands the speech of all
beings.
In the relief Megha is seen teaching under
an aśvattha, or Śākyamuni’s Bodhi tree, and
Sudhana sits on a lower seat on the right. Behind
him his companions are holding offerings. In the
sky, as is regularly seen, are devas and kinnaras.
Flowers and garlands tumble down.

 
21. The Merchant Muktaka
When Sudhana met with the wealthy
merchant Muktaka (6) and asked about the
Bodhisattva practices, Muktaka entered into a
deep concentration, and his body became
purified and manifested the many Buddhas in
the Buddha fields, giving Sudhana his first
glimpse of the Dharmadhātu.
Muktaka sits in an elaborate pavilion, and is
marked by a nimbus. Sudhana is standing on
the right, with his companions behind him. On
the left we see eight women, who may be
Muktaka’s wives. In the sky there are
pictured devas, variously holding offerings or
worshipping.

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 22. The Monk Sāradhvaja
The monk Sāradhvaja (7) is meditating when
Sudhana arrives. Contemplating his body Sudhana
has many visions of great people, of various
divinities, of Bodhisattvas and Buddhas.
Sāradhvaja is sat on a seat under a splendid tree,
which is flowering and fruiting. Two of his
disciples, including another monk, are behind him.
Sudhana sits under a parasol held by an attendant.
Sāradhvaja appears to be teaching, while Sudhana
listens intently. Elsewhere are the normal crowd of
devotees and gods who bring offerings and offer
worship.

 
23. Queen Āśā
Sudhana next meets with Queen Āśā (8), the sight of
whom is healing in itself. She is surrounded by an
large retinue of devotees who have all benefited from
her presence.
In the relief Āśā is seen inside a pavilion, and Sudhana
is pictured kneeling before her. Other devotees are
also represented under a tree. The gods,
including kinnaras, are above the clouds in the sky.
Three blocks under the Queen have never been carved.

 
24. The Seer Bhīṣmottaranirghoṣa
The seer Bhīṣmottaranirghoṣa (9) lays his hand on
Sudhana’s head and takes his right hand enabling
him to have a vision of all the Buddhas in the
Buddha fields, and to understand their attainments.
Bhīṣmottaranirghoṣa is kneeling under trees, and
on a mat, his right hand is held forward as he
moves to place it on Sudhana. On the left of the
panel we see three women standing, and three men
sitting. Devas are seen above the clouds.

Note here that the brahmin Jayoṣmāyatana (10), one of the spiritual friends who is mentioned
as coming before Maitrāyaṇī in the Gaṇḍavyūha is omitted in both sequences on Level 2 at
Borobudur. There is no adequate explanation for this omission.

48
 25. The Princess Maitrāyaṇī
Princess Maitrāyaṇī (11) is sat teaching
inside the palace surrounded by tens of
thousands who listen to her. She allows
Sudhana to have visions of the Buddhas
and their teachings from each and every
object he looks at in the palace.
In the relief Maitrāyaṇī is pictured twice,
once in meditation posture in the pavilion
in the centre, and then again standing on
the left and teaching. Both have nimbi or
halos around their heads. Her devotees on
the left are all women. Sudhana stands on
the right, and the gods play music above
the clouds.

26. The Monk Sudarśana

Sudhana next meets with the monk Sudarśana (12),
who, even at a young age, has developed to such a
point, that all the Buddhas’ teachings and
purifications are apparent to him.
The text says that Sudarśana was walking in the
forest, and that Sudhana saw the many deities
surrounding him, but although in the relief we see
the forest, Sudarśana is sitting on a simple seat,
while the devas are less in abundance here than we
have seen elsewhere. Behind Sudarśana we see two
other bhikṣus. An elephant with a mahout and two
horses can be seen behind Sudhana’s companions.

27. The Boy Indriyeśvara

The next friend Sudhana meets is the young boy
Indriyeśvara (13) who had been taught writing,
mathematics and all the practical arts and sciences
by Mañjuśrī himself. He uses his extensive
knowledge to lead people to the truth.
Indriyeśvara is marked as young by the crescent
behind his head, and he also has a nimbus. Some of
Indriyeśvara’s young friends are also pictured with
him. Sudhana is shown on the left side of the panel,
and above him is a very finely carved co conut tree,
and behind him are attendants, some with offerings.
On the right are Indriyeśvara’s devotees.
 

49
 28. The Lay Woman Prabhūtā
The lay woman Prabhūtā (14), through her roots of
goodness, has a vessel with which she is able to
feed as many beings as desire to eat, without the
vessel ever emptying, and she is also able to satisfy
any other material need they have.
It is curious that in the relief the vessel, which
would be so easy to include, has been omitted.
Prabhūtā is plainly clothed, though the building she
is in is very elaborate. In antechambers on either
side of her are two female attendants. Sudhana sits
on the right, with his companions behind him.

9. Sudhana departs from Prabhūtā

Prabhūtā directs Sudhana to his next spiritual friend.
We first see Sudhana sitting next to Prabhūtā, but on
the opposite side to the previous panel. We then see
him departing on his onward pilgrimage.
This panel was identified by Fontein as being the
meeting with Vidvān, but the sex of the friend is
hard to make out, and it makes better sense to see it
as a departure panel.

30. The Householder Vidvān

As with the lay-devotee Prabhūtā, the householder
Vidvān (15) is able to satisfy all the needs of those who
come to him. He has only to look up, and food and other
necessities stream down from the skies.
This is one of the most beautiful of the panels in the
series, with very fine detail still well-preserved. The
decorated trees and the fine vase stand out. Vidvān is
seated on a high pedestal as stated in the text. Note the
three elephants and two lions under his seat, and the
birds in the trees and sky.

 
31. Ratnacūḍa shows Sudhana his Residence
On his next visit Sudhana meets with Ratnacūḍa (16), who
shows him his ten-story mansion, which, on the first floors
display generosity, and whose upper floors are full of
Bodhisattvas and Buddhas teaching the Dharma. Ratnacūḍa
stands in the centre of the panel and gestures, with Sudhana
and his party behind him.
In the relief only five stories are shown. It is often the case that
the high numbers indicated in the text have to be represented
on the galleries symbolically, rather than literally. Note that
under the building are nine pots holding the wealth of the
householder indicating his riches, and on the top left of the
building sits a peacock.

50
 031 Ratnacūḍa shows Sudhana his Residence
32. The Appearance of a Buddha
Clearly, what we see in this panel is a Buddha,
stood on a lotus, with a halo behind him. The
correspondence to the text, however, is not so
sure. Fontein believes it to be Ratnacūḍa
meeting in a previous life with the Buddha
Dharmarāja.
If so the character at the Buddha’s feet would be
Ratnacūḍa, with his attendants behind him. In
the sky are six devas, some holding offerings,
and one ringing a bell. It appears the figure to
the left of the Buddha was a monk.

33. The Perfumer Samantanetra

Next Sudhana visits the perfumer Samantanetra
(17) who sits in a pavilion. He is a great teacher,
well-versed in Dharma, who can counteract all
defilements with his teaching. He is also able to
produce the finest incenses, acceptable to all
Buddhas.
There is a fine balance in the composition of this
relief. The building stretches across the whole
relief, and a protective kāla is shown over the
centre of it. Two devotees are seen on the left in an
antechamber. Sudhana sits respectfully below his
friend, inside the same pavilion.

34. Sudhana travels on Foot

Every time Sudhana is directed to a new spiritual
friend he has to undertake a journey. In the text in
this place it says that he went from country to
country, village to village, district to district in
search of his next friend.
Sudhana is pictured with many companions on
the trip, most of them armed. They are protected
by gods who look out from on high to care for
him. The procession scenes at Borobudur are
always pleasing.

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 35. King Anala
When Sudhana visits his next friend, King Anala (18),
he is initially unsure about the King’s status, as he is
surrounded by torturers punishing criminals in the most
cruel way. All that he sees is, however, only an
apparition to frighten people into acting righteously, and
none of it is real.
Sudhana’s doubt is expressed well in the relief as he
looks, not at the King, but at the suffering going on
around him. The King eventually explains his purpose
and remarks that he would rather go to hell himself than
hurt even the tiniest being. Above the beings on the right
is a fine coconut tree.

36. King Mahāprabhā

We now have two reliefs which are hard to reconcile
with the text. In the story as we receive it the next friend
Sudhana visited was King Mahāprabhā (19). It is
possible that either of the reliefs is meant to represent
this visit, but it seems the setting, which in the text, is
said to have taken place under trees is not shown.
Perhaps as Fontein maintains the bells which are
depicted in the relief and mentioned in the text do, in
fact, indicate that this is the visit to King Mahāprabhā. If
so, Sudhana sits at the King’s feet. The attendants in this
scene would then be, unusually, all women.

 
37. Sudhana visits an Unknown Person
Another scene from the story, in which all people,
creatures and even trees bow down towards the King
when he enters a certain concentration is also missing. It
is uncertain then if this or the previous relief represent
this visit, or perhaps other visits known to the sculptors,
but missing from our text.
Sudhana is pictured in much the same fashion as the last
relief, sitting below his friend. Between them is a tray
with garlands on it. To left and right sit attendants, some
under the trees.

38. The Lay Woman Acalā

In this relief we seem to be back into synchronicity
with the text, which describes a visit to the lay
woman Acalā (20). She is seen seated only slightly
higher than Sudhana, although his attitude is one of
reverence, as usual.
Acalā’s beauty in the text is described as second
only to that of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and
she allows Sudhana to see many miracles while she
visualises them. In the upper right corner notice
the kinnara, who is holding a garland of flowers.

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 39. The Wanderer Sarvagāmī
The wanderer Sarvagāmī (21) is described in the
text as being more radiant than even the Brahmā
gods who surround him, and because of his
radiance he is found by Sudhana on a mountain top
shining forth.
We clearly see that rocks and mountains, and many
trees are represented. The wanderer sits on the left
and Sudhana, holding his hands in reverence, is on
the right. Between them is a vase with flowers
rolled round.

40. The Perfume Merchant Utpalabhūti

Sudhana meets with the perfumer Utpalabhūti (22) who
has mastered the art of aromatics, and knows all the
fragrances and their benefits, both on earth and in
heaven, and applies his knowledge to help living beings.
The relief is unfortunately rather damaged, but we see
that they meet in the merchant’s decorated shop. We
might have expected to see pots holding incense around,
but that is not so. Sudhana sits with his arms folded, with
his companions behind him. A section above
Utpalabhūti is missing now.

 
41. The Slave and Mariner Vaira
The slave Vaira (23) lives in a coastal city and works as
a mariner who takes merchants to places where they can
find the riches they desire, and along the way he teaches
them the alternative and greater riches of the Dharma.
The panel is divided into two scenes, in the first Sudhana
sits only slightly lower than Vaira, whose building is
also much more humble than the elaborate buildings we
have seen before. On the right we see Vaira taking the
vessels out from port and sailing the seas.

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 42. Jayottama travels in a Palanquin
It is hard to account for this panel. Fontein identifies it
as Sudhana traveling in a palaquin, but then he omits the
visit to the next friend, the Merchant Jayottama (24),
who in the text is said to go everywhere to teach Dharma
for the welfare of living beings.
The relief shows a large ensemble of people undertaking
a journey, with someone being carried in a large
palaquin. I tend to think it must be Jayottama, but the
fact that Sudhana is not shown meeting with him, puts
the panel in doubt. Perhaps it is meant to be Jayottama
on his missions.

43. The Nun Siṁhavijṛmbhitā

Sudhana next meets with the nun (bhikṣuṇī)
Siṁhavijṛmbhitā (25) in a park, where she is seen in
many bodies sitting under different trees, teaching
Dharma to various gods, Bodhisattvas and devotees
according to their capacities.
Unfortunately this is one of the most damaged of the
reliefs retelling Sudhana’s pilgrimage, and we can
hardly make out the nun or Sudhana himself. We might
have expected the sculptors to have portrayed
Siṁhavijṛmbhitā under more than one tree, but this is
not so. Two nuns and another female sit on the left of
the panel.

44. The Devotee Vasumitrā

It would seem that the panel must represent the meeting
with the courtesan Vasumitrā (26), though Fontein
thinks the friend is male, it is hard to make out.
Vasumitrā in the story uses her arts to lead people from
passion to dispassion, via her skilful means (upāya).
Again Sudhana sits only slightly lower than his
benefactor. Around we see many people, but, unusally,
there are no gods in this scene, although in the text she is
stated to teach the gods also.

45. Sudhana and Veṣṭhila at a Stūpa

The householder Veṣṭhila (27) knows all the Buddhas of
the various world systems, and he can see an untold
number of Buddhas through the power of his
concentration, both in the past, the future and the
present.
We see on the right side of the stūpa Sudhana, and on
the other side Veṣṭhila, they are both paying homage to
the Buddha relics enshrined there. The stūpa appears to
be inside another building, and some of the characters
stand outside, their exact relationship being uncertain.
The multiple-layered umbrella (chatra) on top of
the stūpa is impressive

54
  
46. Sudhana travels in a Carriage
This is one of the panels where we see Sudhana on
his journey or pilgrimage. Here he is pictured as
traveling from one friend to another by horse-
drawn carraige. He is surrounded by an entourage.
There seems to be no special reason why we should
have this scene here. Note that the Borobudur
sculptors seem to have been adept at picturing all
sorts of vehicles and processions.

 
.47. The Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
Sudhana meets next with one of the best known of
the Mahāyāna Bodhisattvas, Avalokiteśvara (28).
In the text he is sat on a mountain top teaching
other Bodhisattvas. He speaks about his attainment
of Great Compassion without Delay.
The relief however, does not picture it as in the
text. Here Avalokiteśvara, recognisable by the icon
of Amitābhā on his crown, is sat on a raised dias
inside a pavilion. There are plenty of people
around, but none of them seem to be portrayed as a
Bodhisattva. Sudhana kneels on one knee is front
of the Bodhisattva. On the left are female devotees,
and on the right are the companions.

 
West Wall
48. Mahādeva
In the text Sudhana next visits Ananyagāmī (29),
but this is omitted in the reliefs. It is curious that
we had a ‘filler’ just two panels ago, and then here
we have to omit a visit! In the repetition series this
Bodhisattva is included, so it isn’t because of a
difference in the text available to the sculptors.
This relief then represents the visit to Mahādeva
(30) (the god Śiva), as it clear from the picture of
his mount, Nandī, shown under his throne.
Mahādeva is pictured as having four arms, as it
states in the text. He encourages generosity and
counters wrong-doing
.

55
 49. The Goddess Sthāvarā
We now come to a series of meetings with
goddesses mainly at the scene of the Awakening at
Bodhgaya. The first of these goddesses is Sthāvarā
(31) who leads thousands of goddesses in an uproar
when Sudhana appears at the site.
In the relief we see many trees and the goddess sat
under one of them, and five people guard the
treasure chest under her seat. Between Sthāvarā and
Sudhana is a basket with a lotus protruding from it,
it perhaps represents the gifts the goddess gives
Sudhana so he can do good works.

Eight Night Goddesses

Because of the similarity of the characters in the story, it is hard to be certain of the night goddess
Sudhana is meeting with, and there are a couple of odd panels in the sequence which are hard to explain.
In writing the captions I have therefore simply followed the textual sequence and tried to give an idea of
their teaching.

50. A Night Goddess

Sudhana next meets with the night goddess Vāsantī (32),
she is in the skies over Kapilavastu, however, where the
Buddha’s family lived, and not at Bodhgaya. When he
sees her, he also sees all the beings she has helped save
from the tribulations of saṁsāra emanating from the
pores of her skin.
The relief is curious in that it presents the two persons
present as sitting almost on the same level. Because of
this Fontein doubted it was a visitation scene at all. But
the idea that it is a scene from a previous life as a queen
finds little support in the text, and I tend to think it is as
we expect it to be: Sudhana visiting Vāsantī.

56
 51. A Night Goddess
There now begins a sequence of meetings with
night goddesses who are situated around the Bodhi
tree. In the text the first goddess Sudhana meets is
Samanta-gambhīra-śrī-vimala-prabhā (33), who
can see all Buddhas in the three times.
The relief is again well-balanced and attractive, we
see Sudhana prostrate himself before the goddess
who is seen under a Bodhi tree in a park of trees,
including a palm tree. There are pots in front of
him, though they are not mentioned in the story.

 
52. A Night Goddess
Sudhana’s next encounter is with the night goddess
Pramudita-nayana-jagad-virocanā (34), who can
project herself in myriad forms from every pore of
the skin, and teaches the good Dharma in various
ways.
The meeting seems to take place in a decorated
palace, and not under the trees, as expected.
Sudhana appears to be holding a gift which he
presumably will offer to the goddess. Notice the
treasure chest under the goddess’ seat.

53. A Night Goddess

The fourth night goddess Sudhana meets around
the Bodhi tree is Samanta-sattva-trāṇojaḥśrī (35),
who emanates a light from the circle of hair
between her brows, which pervades Sudhana’s
entire body.
Again we see one of the magnificently sculpted
trees in the park. Behind Sudhana one of his
entourage holds an parasol over his head. The
goddess’ attendants sit and stand on the left of the
panel.

57
 54. A King pays homage to a Buddha
In the story the eight goddesses are situated
next to each other surrounding Vairocana,
who sits at the foot of the Bodhi tree. It
makes no sense then to identify this as
Sudhana on his travels between friends, as
Fontein does.
Rather I think this must be an illustration of
part of a story told by the goddess Samanta-
sattva-trāṇojaḥśrī in which she tells of a past
life in which a king is ruling when a Buddha
reaches Awakening, and who then goes out
with his entourage to pay honour to him. The
three horses and the elephant are very well
drawn in this relief.

55. A King and Queen

This is an unusual panel, in that we do not see
Sudhana paying homage to one of his spiritual
friends. Here again I tend to think that, as
previously, what we have here is an illustration of
part of a story told by the same night goddess in
which the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra appears and
everybody’s glory is diminished by his radiance.
The two people in the pavilion in front of the
Bodhisattva would then be the King and his Queen.
Their attendants are behind them.

 
 
56. A Night Goddess
The night goddess Sudhana is directed to next is
Praśānta-ruta-sāgara-vatī (36), who is described as
surrounded by millions of other night goddesses.
As with the other friends she spends her time
teaching Dharma to others, and helping her
disciples generate energy for the min set on
Awakening (Bodhicitta).
Sudhana is seen on his knees leaning towards his
friend, the goddess meanwhile is in teaching
attitude. The eagerness with which Sudhana listens
to the teaching seems to be put into visual form
here. Unusually, holding up the pilasters of the
pavilion appear to be human-type figures.

58
 57. A Night Goddess
Sudhana now meets with the night goddess Sarva-
nagara-rakṣā-saṁbhava-tejaḥ-śrīḥ (37) who is also in the
area of the Bodhi tree. She has realised and teaches the
true nature of the Dharmadhātu to all beings.
The scene takes place under various trees, including
what appears to a small tree behind the pot between
Sudhana and his spiritual friend. On the left of the friend
is a much larger pot, guarded by a yakṣa. The
composition is pleasing and comparatively well-
preserved.
58. Sudhana travels on Foot
The panel shows Sudhana in transit surrounded by
a large entourage on the ground, one of whom
holds an umbrella over him. Gods (devas) are
shown in the sky.
In the story at this point, however, Sudhana really
only goes from one night goddess to another and
they are pictured as near to each other, sat around
Vairocana under the Bodhi tree. Note that many in
the entourage carry weapons.

59. A Night Goddess

The next night goddess Sudhana meets, Sarva-vṛkṣa-
praphullana-sukha-saṁvāsā (38), like the other
goddesses, having served the Buddhas herself, and
seeing the benefits of their teaching, spends her time
teaching others in whatever way they can receive it.
This is another well-preserved relief. Sudhana holds a
particularly worshipful attitude in front of this goddess
as they kneel inside a pavilion. On the left are the
goddess’ attendants, and outside on the right are
Sudhana’s attendants.

60. A Night Goddess

The last of the night goddesses Sudhana meets with
is called Sarva-jagad-rakṣā-praṇidhāna-vīrya-
prabhā (39), ‘one having the light and energy to
aspire to the safety of all beings’. She projects her
body to all beings (translocation), proclaiming the
Dharma.
Sudhana and the goddess are seen together in a
palace-like structure, the goddess is kneeling and
Sudhana sits at a lower level. On the left and right a
low decorated ceiling is seen over devotees. In the
sky gods fly above the clouds.

59
 61. Nocturnal Scene
A lone figure, evidently not Sudhana but perhaps a
Bodhisattva, sits cross-legged in a pavilion.
Outside there is a finely drawn elephant, and
below him four attendants who are sleeping.
In the sky are two devas, one holding a garland,
and the other a tray of offerings. I cannot find any
passage corresponding to this scene in the text.

A Miscellany of Spiritual Friends

62. The Lumbinī Goddess
Sudhana is next advised to go to the scene of the
Buddha’s birth, Lumbinī, and speak to the
goddess Sutejo-maṇḍala-rati-śrī (40) who lives
there. She explains how Bodhisattvas get reborn
in a good family and become Buddhas.
The goddess sits in a palace, with attendants
pictured on the left of the panel, while Sudhana
is seen outside and paying respects. In the skies
are divine musicians playing a variety of musical
instruments.

63. The Young Girl Gopā

Sudhana nexts meets with the young girl Gopā
(41) in Kapilavastu, this is Siddhartha’s future
wife. She explains to Sudhana the ten things
necessary for a Bodhisattva to practice.
Gopā is seen inside her palace, and has
attendants on either side of her, while other
women are seen on the left. Sudhana is sitting
outside and one standing attendant holds the
parasol over him, while two other sit. In the skies
are the devas, one of whom rings a bell.

60
 64. An Unknown Person
What is pictured here is not clear. Fontein suggests
it is meeting with the Gatekeeper of the
Bodhimaṇḍa, but to my mind nothing in the relief
really supports that. The picture shows Sudhana in
an antechamber, while the person he is worshipping
is inside the main room, on an elevated pedestal.
To the left of this person we see another figure who
is also in an antechamber and worshipping, while
on the right three people are pictured outside the
palace. In the skies overlooking the scene are the
gods (devas).

65. Queen Māyā

We see Sudhana meeting with one of his most
important friends, the Buddha Śākyamuni’s
mother, Queen Māyā (42), who explains to him that
she has been the Mother of the appearance body
(nirmāṇakāya) of all Buddhas in the three times.
Queen Māyā sits on a throne that is more elevated
than normal, and has lions at the base. They are
together inside the palace, and the Queen’s
attendants are behind her. Outside, in an
antechamber are some of Sudhana’s entourage. The
gods rejoice in the sky.

66. The Divine Female Surendrābhā

The next friend that Sudhana meets with is
Devakanyā Surendrābhā (43), she is not on earth,
but in the Heaven of the Thirty-(three). She
witnessed, and is able to keep in mind, all the deeds
of the Buddhas of all times.
The relief is rather worn down and not as clear as
we would like, but still we see Surendrābhā
apparently kneeling on the throne, with her ladies-
in-waiting behind her. Sudhana sits at a fair
distance, with his companions standing and sitting.

61
 67. The Boy Viśvāmitra
The next meeting described in the Gaṇḍavyūha is
the shortest of the meetings Sudhana has. It is with
the boy Viśvāmitra (44), who simply tells him he
has learned to write, and sends him on to the
teacher who taught him.
We see Viśvāmitra seated inside a pavilion by
himself, with Sudhana unusually positioned on the
left. When doing circumambulation of the
monument these reliefs are on our right, and
normally Sudhana is pictured on the left of the
person he is worshipping, so we see Sudhana first
and then the friend.

 
68. A Night Goddess visits a Royal Couple
This scene appears to be unconnected to Sudhana’s
visits, as he doesn’t appear in it. Rather what seems
to be happening is a visit at night of a goddess to a
royal couple, probably announcing the Awakening
of a Buddha.
The composition is very fine here: on the left,
outside the gates, sit a couple of guards who are
sleeping, indicating the time. The goddess flies
effortlessly through the air to the royal palace, and
the royal couple inside are attentive.

69. The Householder Ajitasena

It appears that several of Sudhana’s friends (46-48),
which are, in any case, described in cursory form in
the text, are omitted on the walls now. We are not
on sure ground again until the next relief.
We can take it that this is the visit to Ajitasena (49).
Sudhana sits outside the magnificent building,
while his attendant holds an umbrella over him.
Inside the interlocutor has females on either side of
him. Above the building are devas.

62
 
70. The Brahmin Śivarāgra
As we can clearly see that the friend in
this relief is a brahmin, we can identify
him as Śivarāgra (50). Again the meeting
is short, but the brahmin asserts a truth
saying that no Bodhisattvas have ever
fallen from the path.
Again a pleasing composition is seen.
The brahmin sits inside his temple, with
a fire altar on the right. Sudhana is
outside and worshipful. An umbrella is
held over him, and there is a beautiful
tree above his companions. Above the
temple are devas riding the clouds.

71. The Girl Śrimatī

The friends Sudhana next visits are a
boy and a girl. In the text they are
presented together and voicing the same
teaching at the same time. It may be
here on the reliefs they have been
separated. If so, the young girl Śrimatī
(51) is presented here.
The friend appears to be teaching and
sits on a high dias, which is supported
by lions. Inside the same building is
Sudhana, while in an enclosed
antechamber sit his companions. A
number of birds are pictured in the trees
outside.

72. The Boy Śrīsambhava

It may be that this is the boy Śrīsambhava
(51). The scene, though, with him
surrounded by two females inside the
building, and Sudhana standing outside, is
not described like this in the text.
Sudhana stands, rather than sits, and is
worshipping. His companions are seated on
the floor behind him. Inside the building the
male character makes a gesture, evidently
explaining something to his visitor.

63
  The Second Series
The all-important visit to Maitreya is not pictured at this point, but comes up at the end of the second
series of representations with the friends, which are begun now. This time round we are not presented
with visits to nearly all of the spiritual friends, unlike the first series, but apparently only to a selection.
There appears to be a definite emphasis on the feminine in the scenes chosen for representation this time
73. A Procession of Divinities
We now have what seems to be a second set of
visits to more or less the same spiritual friends.
Why it was planned like this is unknown, and
why it seems to start, not at the beginning, but
with a scene that is evidently from the fourth of
his friends is also not clear.
We see in the relief a large collection of male and
female devas walking in the clouds, which is only
mentioned in the visit to the monk Supratiṣṭhita
(4) on the way to Śrī Laṅkā. However, the panel
doesn’t show the monk or Sudhana, only
the devas on the clouds, and so must be doubtful.

74. The Monk Sāgaramegha

While on his visit to the monk Sāgaramegha
(3), the latter describes one of his visions in
which a great lotus springs up from the ocean
floor with an embodiment of the Buddha sat on
it.
No mention in the text is made of Bodhisattvas
emerging in a similar fashion, but this is almost
certainly the scene being presented. We see here
the ocean, signalled by waves and fishes, the
giant lotus, and the Buddha sat atop, and two
Bodhisattvas sat on similar lotuses on either
side.

Seemingly the next three friends (5-7), the grammarian Megha, the wealthy merchant Muktaka and the
monk Sāradhvaja are omitted this time round.
75. The Buddha extends his Right Hand
This appears to be the first of a series of scenes
described by Queen Āśā (8), in which she speaks
of the good deeds she did in the past. Here, then,
would be the scene where she is paying homage
to Buddha Dīpaṅkara.
We see in the panel five women who are
pictured sitting, and four who are standing. The
Buddha stretches forth his hand in blessing. The
whole appears to be set above a lotus pond,
which has fish and tortoises pictured in it.

64
 76. Women pay Homage to a Buddha
Again we have a scene in which principally
women are worshipping a Buddha, who, this
time, is stood on a lotus. I think this could
be Āśā visiting the Buddha Vimala, the
Buddha who preceded Buddha Dīpaṅkara.
The women hold many offerings for the
Buddha which is one of the principal ways
of accumulating merit. In the skies the gods
rain down floral offerings over the Buddha,
and eight devas fly above the clouds with
offerings.

77. Queen Āśā

Here we see Sudhana on his visit to Queen Āśā.
Why her descriptions occur before the scene of the
visit has baffled people, but I would suggest it
stands in the middle of a series of reliefs, all
devoted to the Queen.
Sudhana stands with his hands held together in
reverence, and his companions sitting behind him.
On the left we see four ladies, who are also
revering the Queen.

 78. Homage to a Buddha

Stylistically this and panel 76 are so similar
that they must be related. Again we see a
Buddha standing on a lotus; and again the
women in the scene hold flowers on plates as
tribute. In the skies the gods pour down floral
offerings.
We also see one of the women holding what
appears to be an offering of lights or fire. It
has been suggested by Fontein that the
character on the Buddha’s left might be
Sudhana, but I don’t think so as it lacks the
usual markers, and is analoguous to the
characters standing in the same position in
76.

65
 79. Visit to a Queen
Again we see a visit to a Queen, who sits in
meditation, and has a halo behind her head. It
may be the same Queen Āśā who is being given
extraordinary prominence in this series.
Sudhana is seen inside the palace, and the
Queen is pictured on a lion throne.
Sudhana’s companions are in the antechamber,
and either side of the Queen are her attendants
holding flywhisks. An unidentified character sits
at the same level as Sudhana on the other side of
the throne.

North Wall
80. Visit to a Queen
We have a rather similar scene to the
previous one here, and again it could be
Queen Āśā. Until someone comes up with
a better identification this seems the most
satisfactory solution.
The Queen sits on a high throne, with
attendants on either side, and more
onlookers are sitting on the floor on the
Queen’s right. She raises her hand in the
fearless gesture (abhaya-mudrā). It is not
clear if Sudhana is amongst the attendants
on the right, I rather think not.

81. A Buddha and Four Monks

It is not really possible to satisfactorily identify
this scene with any story in the textual account.
To the left of Sudhana sits a sage, who Fontein
suggests might be the ṛṣī Bhīṣmottaranirghoṣa (9).
However, never is Sudhana pictured as
being above his friends, so I do not see how this
can be the case here.
The relief presents a Buddha seated on a lotus and
in a palace. Outside and to his left are four monks
under a tree. On the left sits Sudhana, and behind
him one of his companions holds a parasol over
him.

66
 82. The Princess Maitrāyaṇī
This depicts for the second time
Sudhana’s visit to Princess Maitrāyaṇī
(11). She is described in the text as
having very black eyes, very black hair
and golden skin, sat on a magnificent
throne, and surrounded by five
hundred girls who are listening to her
teachings.
The princess is seen seated in her
palace, with Sudhana and his
companions standing outside, behind
her are the young ladies listening to
her teachings. Some of the pieces from
this scene are missing, but we can still
see devas looking on from the sky.

082 The Princess Maitrāyaṇī

 
The monk Sudārśana (12) and the boy
Indriyeśvara (13) appear to have been omitted.
83. The Lay Woman Prabhūtā
The next relief appears to depict Sudhana’s
meeting with the lay woman Prabhūtā (14).
Once again we seem to have an emphasis on
the female friends Sudhana visits.
Prabhūtā, who has a nimbus behind her head, is
seen sitting sideways on a simple seat, facing
Sudhana, who sits outside with hands folded in
respectful salutation. Prabhūtā is spoken of as
being surrounded by thousands of women, who
all practice the same way as she does, but only
a handful are represented in the relief.

 
84. A Spiritual Friend
Sudhana next visits five male spiritual friends
(15-19) in succession, all of which are in
similar circumstances, being well-off and
having high status. Exactly which one of these
five pictured here is not known.
The interlocutor sits cross legged on a raised
dias and again is inside the pavilion while
Sudhana and his companions are shown as
outside under a beautifully sculpted tree. For
some reason Sudhana is adorned with two
parasols in this relief. An elephant stands
behind his companions.

67
 85. The Lay Woman Acalā
We see for a second time the visit to the lay
woman Acalā (20). She is described as being so
beautiful that she is only surpassed by Buddhas
and Bodhisattvas. Sudhana praised her on the
occasion of his visit with this verse:
Śīlaṁ sadā yadamalaṁ parirakṣitaṁ te
kṣāntir-yataḥ suvipulā paribhāvitā ca vīryaṁ
ca vajram-iva yad-dṛḍhamāsthitaṁ te
tenodgatā jagati bhāsyacalendra-kalpā; Always
protecting her virtue on all sides, developing all
round forbearance, establishing energy firm as a
diamond, she shines forth in the world like the
lord of the mountains.

86. An Unknown Friend

In the text the next friend Sudhana visits is the
wanderer Sarvagāmī (20). The scene is described
as being on a mountain top, and Sarvagāmī is
surrounded by 10,000 brahmā gods.
Here, however, the friend seems to be inside a
cave, and there are no gods around at all. I am
therefore doubtful that this can be the wanderer,
who seems to be dressed more as a member of the
elite, than as an ascetic.

87. An Unknown Friend

Here also it is not clear who Sudhana is
visiting. Fontein believes it is the perfumer
Utpalabhūti, but the next relief would seem to
fit that meeting better.
In the scene the friend is sat on a mat on a
raised seat and inside a beautiful pavilion. He
is decorated with jewels on his head, neck and
ankles. The depiction of Sudhana is damaged,
but we can see that he sits holding his hands in
respectful salutation. Above them parrots fly
in the sky.

68
 
88. The Perfumer Utpalabhūti
This appears to be the expert perfumer
Utpalabhūti (22), who knows fragrances that
cure diseases, both of the body and of the
mind; and fragrances that give rise to thoughts
similar to those the Buddhas and the
Bodhisattvas have.
The scene shows Sudhana on his knees in
front of his friend with his companions behind
him. The friend sits on a simple seat, and
below him is a large treasure chest. On the left
of the friend are many people with offerings,
and in the sky are the devas who fly through
the sky.

89. The Merchant Jayottama

I tend to think this is the visit to the
merchant Jayottama (24). If this
identification is correct then the slave Vaira
(23) has been omitted from the sequence.
Evidently it is a rich man, sitting in his own
decorated house, and with many attendants
around, including four pictured as sitting
under his seat. Notice the nine pots above
the building, and the treasure chest below it.
On the right is Sudhana, worshipful as ever,
and his companions; and in the skies are
the devas.

90. The Nun Siṁhavijṛmbhitā

Here we are back on firm ground again, as this
can only be the nun Siṁhavijṛmbhitā (25). She is
shown with shorn hair, and a sitting cloth over her
shoulder, and sitting on a simple raised dias, with
a treasure chest underneath. An indication of her
name is given in the lions (siṁha) under the
pilasters.
Sudhana is in an antechamber, and outside sit his
companions under a tree. Siṁhavijṛmbhitā
appears to be teaching, and on the left of the
panel stands another nun, and three lay women sit
on the floor alongside her.
 

69
 91. The Devotee Vasumitrā
We begin now a series of reliefs in which the
devotee of the Lord (bhāgavatī) Vasumitrā (26)
appears, either in the present or in past lives.
Vasumitrā is portrayed in the text as exceedingly
beautiful, and uses her charms to bring people to
dispassion.
Here we see the initial meeting with Sudhana,
who sits outside her home, his hands held in
respectful salutation (añjali), under a tree and a
parasol. Behind him stand his companions
holding offerings. On the left of Vasumitrā are
her ladies-in-waiting.

92. Vasumitrā brings to Dispassion

Fontein sees this as showing a previous life of
Vasumitrā’s as Sumatī, along with her merchant
husband. I tend to think myself this is simply an
encounter that Vasumitrā has with one of the
people she leads to dispassion.
In the relief we see a male and female sitting
together within a decorated building. At the foot of
the supports notice the lions. On either side people
gather sitting around expectantly. Birds are seen
flying across the skies to the lovely trees. It may be
Sudhana who sits under the parasol on the right, but
he lacks the usual nimbus.
 

 
93. Mañjuśrī walks through the Streets
Now we are certainly seeing a scene from
Vasumitrā’s past life. Here we can see Mañjuśrī,
an earlier incarnation of whom is described as
being in the Buddha’s entourage. People gather
around him with offerings, and in worshipful
posture.
Mañjuśrī is evidently distributing gifts with the
help of his attendants. On the ledge above the
garlanded pavilion sit a whole string of birds.

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94. Sumatī and her Husband
Here we have a picture of Vasumitrā’s
earlier incarnation Sumatī and her
husband meeting with the Buddha
Atyuccagāmī and making offerings to
him. The Buddha stands on a lotus and
above him two gods hold the pavilion
up. To the left are two of his monastic
followers.
Flowers rain down from the skies,
while Sumatī’s husband kneels on one
knee and respectfully greets the
Buddha. Behind him people hold
offerings, one of the main ways of
making merit and becoming worthy to
be a Bodhisattva later. The gods in the
sky also offer flowers.

 
 
95. Vasumitrā bids Farewell
At the end of the meetings inevitably the current
spiritual friend confesses that they know only so
much, and for Sudhana to make further progress he
must go to the next friend and seek their advice.
Here we seem to see Vasumitrā still in conversation
with Sudhana, and she is probably now advising
him to meet with his next friend. This is one of the
plainer of the panels in the series, and the lower
row of stones has not been carved.

 
96. The Householder Veṣṭhila
We seem to see the householder Veṣṭhila (27)
making offerings at the Shrine of the Buddha
Candanapīṭha. As the next relief is a traveling
scene, Fontein suggests this maybe depicts the
recommendation of that friend made by Vasumitrā.
If that were the case it might explain why we see
Sudhana stands on the opposite side and is looking
on while Veṣṭhila makes the offerings.
The stūpa itself is very elaborately decorated, and
is supported by lions.

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 97. Sudhana travels to see Veṣṭhila
What we see here is Sudhana in a traveling
scene, and as it is followed by a relief showing
Veṣṭhila, it must be the journey he takes to see
that friend.
The relief is nicely arranged, with a very
finely drawn elephant, and a mahout atop
leading the way. The elephant has bells on his
neck and saddle. Sudhana is portrayed as
under a parasol, and around are his
companions, both male and female. In the
skies the gods look on.

98. Veṣṭhila at a Buddha Stūpa

Here we see someone worshipping. It is
probably Veṣṭhila at the Shrine of the
Buddha Candanapīṭha. If so it is repeating
the scene we saw in 96.
The parasol (chatra) over the stūpa has
thirteen sections and is particularly
emphasised in this depiction, and
the stūpa appears to be housed. Around the
base are depicted tortoises. In the skies the
gods float on the clouds while watching
what is happening on earth.

 99. Veṣṭhila enters Samādhi

This appears to be again Veṣṭhila, this time set
apart by the pavilion, after entering a deep level
of meditation in which he can see the lineage of
the Buddhas of the past, present and future, and
their attainments.
Sudhana is again present at the scene and we
are to understand that he partakes of the visions
he attends simply by his presence as they are
presented. The face of Sudhana in this relief is
particularly sublime.

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100. The Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
This is the first of three reliefs dedicated to
Sudhana’s visit to the Bodhisattva
Avalokiteśvara (28). In the first two the
friend appears with four arms, one holding
a lotus, another a rosary, and two with the
palm facing out on the knees giving
blessings (vara-mudrā).
In all three reliefs he is also shown as
sitting on a lion seat, and here deer are
pictured on either side of Avalokiteśvara,
maybe emphasising his teaching aspect.
Sudhana approaches from the right, with
his companions behind him.

101. The Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara

Avalokiteśvara is pictured in the text as
being sat cross-legged on a seat made
of various jewels in a clearing inside a
great forest, and expounding a Dharma
exposition known as the Arising of the
Entrance to Great Loving-Kindness and
Great Compassion.
He is also said to have been surrounded
by Bodhisattvas who are listening and
learning from his teaching, as it appears
to show here, with the Bodhisattvas
pictured on many levels and attentive to
the teacher
 .
102. The Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
Sudhana then explains his purpose and that he
is seeking guidance on the path of the
Awakening ones, and Avalokiteśvara gives
him a special teaching on Entering Great
Compassion without Delay, in which he relates
how he appears to all beings in a form they can
accept and then leads them further along the
path.
Avalokiteśvara is seated on a lion throne again,
but this time has six arms. Sudhana looks back
at his companions, presumably to see if they
have comprehended the teaching being given.
On the far left stand a group of Bodhisattvas,
and in the sky are devas, all of whom are also
benefitting from the teaching.

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 103. The Bodhisattva Ananyagāmī
In this scene Sudhana meets with the
Bodhisattva Ananyagāmī (29), who is pictured
in teaching posture (vitarka-mudrā) seated
under a magnificent spreading tree, with
various devas on either side.
Sudhana looks on with hands folded in añjali,
and, unusually, looks out at the spectator,
rather than at the spiritual friend he is meeting
with. The meeting with this Bodhisattva was
omitted in the first sequence.

104. Sudhana visits Mahādeva

Sudhana is here meeting with Mahādeva
(Śiva) (30), who looks remarkably similar
to Avalokiteśvara pictured on the three
earlier reliefs. He is four-armed and holds a
rosary in one hand, a lotus in another, while
this time two of the hands are folded on his
lap as he sits in meditation. He has a snake
as a sacred string running across his chest.
Notice his vehicle, Nandi the bull, under the
throne, and the trident, a well-known
attribute, on his right side. In the sky are
many gods, and devotees gather round.

Goddesses
We now have a series of reliefs in which Sudhana meets with ten goddesses (31-
40). Unfortunately it is hard to correlate them with the text, as there are not
enough reliefs alloted for them all and there are no good visual hints as to who
we are looking at. I therefore describe here only the scenes pictured on the
reliefs, having said something about their teaching in the first set of reliefs.

105. A Night Goddess

The scene appears to be a palace, which is being
decorated by the gods. In the sky celestials,
including musicians (gandharvas) and kinnaras,
look on. Two waiting ladies stand and sit on the far
left.
The night goddess sits in a pavilion to the side of
the palace and faces Sudhana as he sees the vision
she is describing, his hands folded in reverence.
Sudhana and his companions outside sit under
trees.

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 106. A Night Goddess
Some panels, maybe because of their balance and
clarity, are very striking, and this is one of them.
The night goddess sits with folded legs on a seat
inside a pavilion. Behind her are ladies in waiting.
She looks out at Sudhana who is seen standing
under a tree outside, along with his companions.
There are two devas in the trees on either side of
the building. The building itself is decorated with
two tridents on top of the pilasters and one on the
top.

107. A Night Goddess

Mainly the buildings we see are enough to separate
the spiritual friend and highlight his or her presence
as the centre of the relief. Sometimes Sudhana is
seen to be inside the same room, or in an
antechamber.
Here, though, we have a very different building,
with five descending arches encasing the night
goddess at the centre. Behind her are female
attendants, and in the skies we see the usual ranks
of devas witnessing the proceedings. Also the usual
configuration is reversed, with Sudhana on the left,
and the friend’s female attendants on the right.

108. A Night Goddess

We see the night goddess sitting holding a
lotus in a seperate building, while behind her
stand attendant ladies under a tree.
Sudhana and his companions are on the right,
and stand under a tree. In the clouds above
and either side of the pavilion are two devas.
There is a naïvity about the scene which is
endearing.

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 109. A Night Goddess
This time Sudhana is seen sitting under a
tree, with his companions behind him. In
the pavilion sits the night goddess, and
behind her a group of ladies sit on the floor.
On the clouds are the usual array
of devas who fly above the scene enacted
below.
The panel is quite worn and appears – like
many of the panels – unfinished in parts,
such as the blocks under the pavilion the
main character sits in.

110. A Night Goddess

Again the goddess is set apart by being
placed in a pavilion, though in the text no
buildings are ever mentioned, and they are
pictured as sitting next to each other and
surrounding Vairocana, who is sitting
under the Bodhi tree.
In this scene Sudhana seems to have a ball
or something in his hand, and is gesturing
to the goddess, who sits with her legs
folded behind her.

111. An Unknown Friend

This is possibly simply another night
goddess, but it may also be the visit to the
young girl Gopā (40), who was Siddhartha’s
wife. If it is not, then it seems she has been
skipped in this repeat sequence, which seems
unlikely given the importance of her
position.
The scene is similar to ones that have gone
before, with the female interlocutor set apart
in a pavilion, and Sudhana and his entourage
under the trees. And other female devotees
also under the trees, and two gods pictured
protecting the building.

East Wall (North to Center)

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 112. Sudhana visits Queen Māyā
Fontein identifies this as the meeting with Queen
Māyā (42), mainly because that meeting has to
precede the next scene which we are quite sure
about. If so, then Queen Māyā is seen in a simple
pavilion, not a palace, as might be expected, and
the scene appears to be again in a park of trees.
Sudhana respectfully listens to his friend, while the
gods look on from the skies. On the left a sturdy
building is seen, but its connection to the scene is
unknown.

113. The Buddha Vimaladhvaja

Here we seem to be on safe ground again, as in
only one of the stories is it told of a Buddha who
was assaulted by a Māra and his host of demons,
and that was related by Queen Māyā, who told of
a Buddha in past ages called Vimaladhvaja. He
was saved by the good King at the time who sent
his forces to fight off Māra, as we see in the
panel.
The scene on the relief is, of course, very
dramatic and striking as we see the fighting
between the two sides, with the King’s men near
to the Buddha and Māra’s army being defeated.
At the bottom right of the relief we see Māyā in
her previous birth as Netraśrī. The Buddha sits
on a lion throne (siṁhāsana).

114. Sudhana approaches a Temple

There is no really satisfactory
identification for this scene from the text.
What we see is Sudhana and his
companions on the right under trees, and
they are standing near to a closed palace,
which is protected by two devas.
On the left of the panel stand more
people, also crowned, as is Sudhana. The
scene is very similar to other scenes that
take place around the Bodhi tree, but here
we do not see the expected spiritual
friend.

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 115. An Unknown Friend
Although this can easily be identified as a
visit to a spiritual friend, it is hard to
correlate it with the text as the figure is
male, and the next male in the sequence
should really be much later in the series.
The scene is set outside under the trees and
skies. Above the clouds the gods fly
through the air and look on. The friend is
sat on a cloth on a raised dias under a
magnificent tree, and Sudhana sits on the
floor, as do his companions.

116. An Unknown Friend

Fontein suggests this may be the departure
from Queen Māyā, but if that were so we
would expect to be able to identify the two
preceding scenes from her narrative, and
we are not able to do that.
All we can say for sure is that this is
another visit to a female spiritual friend,
who is sat in a pavilion, while Sudhana and
his companions are outside under the trees.
The usual array of gods fill the skies. The
panel is unfinished.

117. Two Women

This relief is even more baffling as Sudhana
here visits seemingly not just one, but two
female friends, who are sitting in a palace.
As no such scene is ever described we do not
really know what this is supposed to
illustrate.
Sudhana stands with two companions under
a tree, while another kneels and holds a
parasol in front of him. The palace is
protected by two gods, as we often see, and
under the tree on the left more people look
on.

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 118. The Boy Viśvamitra
It appears we can correlate the reliefs again with
the text from here to the end of the gallery. This
then would be the visit to the boy Viśvamitra (44)
who gives no teaching, but simply passes
Sudhana on to his teacher, who is the next friend
he meets.
Viśvamitra sits in a decorated palace, while the
others in the scene are outdoors under the trees.
Sudhana sits with his hands folded in respectful
salutation (añjali), and has his companions behind
him.

119. The Boy Śilpābhijñā

This is the visit to Śilpābhijñā (45) who was
Viśvamitra’s teacher. He has the ability to
pronounce syllables and through their
association with Bodhisattvas to enter the door
into various perfections of wisdom (prajñā-
pāramitā).
Śilpābhijñā is sat on a raised seat, and his
attendants sit on either side of him. Sudhana is
seen standing, along with his companions
under a tree outside. Notice the pavilion this
time is decorated with small human figures. In
the skies sit the gods. A few blocks under the
main character are left uncarved.

120. The Lay Woman Bhadrottamā

The next spiritual friend Sudhana meets with
is the laywoman Bhadrottamā (46) who
explains that she knows and teaches an
exposition of the Dharma called the sphere of
non-clinging.
Bhadrottamā sits on a raised dias and explains
the teaching to Sudhana who is in an
antechamber. His companions on the
pilgrimage sit outside under a tree. In and
around an antechamber on the left side sit
many people listening to the exposition. Birds
sit atop the building.

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 121. The Goldsmith Muktāsāra
The next of these short visits is to the
goldsmith Muktāsāra (47). He knows the
Bodhisattva liberation called the Array of
Unattached Mindfulness, and he seeks the
Dharma at the feet of all Buddhas.
Muktāsāra sits on raised seat, and the back
on the chair has two human figures
supporting it. The top of the bulding has
a stūpa-shaped structure. Sudhana
approaches on the right and stands in an
antechamber with his companions.
Muktāsāra, unusually, looks directly out at
the viewer, rather than inwards at the actors
in the relief.

 
122. The Householder Sucandra
The meeting with the householder
Sucandra (48) is again very brief. He has
attained a liberation known as the
Splendour of Pure Knowledge. It is not
explained in the text what this knowledge
consists of though.
Sucandra sits casually inside the building
while Sudhana looks on attentively. His
companions sit behind him under trees,
above which are the usual array of devas,
most of whom are holding musical
instruments.

123. The Householder Ajitasena

Sudhana visits the householder Ajitasena
(49) who explains the particular
Bodhisattva liberation (vimokṣa) he has
attained which is called the Characteristic
of the Indestructible, and which gives him
a treasury of visions of the Buddhas.
The relief shows Ajitasena sitting in his
decorated home, with two female
attendants in antechambers. Sudhana and
his companions are all outside, but listen to
him respectfully and attentively. Above the
companions on the right sit two kinnaras.

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 124. The Brahmin Śivarāgra
The next visit is to the brahmin Śivarāgra (50) who
lives determined solely on the truth. By his
asservation of the truth that no Bodhisattvas ever
fell away, or ever will fall away, he is able to fulfil
all his works.
Śivarāgra sits with his legs drawn up on a stool,
and another brahmin sits behind him. Sudhana and
his entourage are under the skies and clouds, above
which the kinnaras look on heedfully.

125. The Boy Śrīsaṁbhava and the girl

Śrīmati
In the first series of reliefs Sudhana is shown
visiting the boy Śrīsaṁbhava and the girl
Śrīmati (51) separately, which is odd, as in the
text they speak together to Sudhana. In this
second set of reliefs we see they are both
present at the meeting.
The boy and the girl sit highlighted in
pavilions, while Sudhana is looking back at his
companions. In the sky the devas hold many
gifts. This is the last of the minor meetings with
spiritual friends, and next Sudhana will meet
with Maitreya, who will reveal the absolute
reality of the Dharmadhātu to him.

126. Maitreya’s Palace

The last three reliefs on this level show the
meeting with Maitreya, just before he opens the
door to the Tower and lets Sudhana in. This is
where he will come to understand the true
nature of the cosmos.
In the first scene Sudhana is shown on his
knees before Maitreya’s tower, although
Maitreya himself is not shown in this relief.
Women sit under a tree on the right of the
relief, and devas look on from above.

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 127. Circumabulating the Tower
Sudhana is said to have circumambulated the
tower hundreds of thousands of times before he
ever was allowed entry, and once again we
witness Sudhana’s respect and devotion which
carries him eventually to the highest levels.
In the relief Sudhana and his companions are
doing circumambulation (pradakṣiṇa) around the
tower, just as people today do circumambulation
around Borobudur itself. The tower is still closed
at this point.

128. The Bodhisattva Maitreya

In the last of the reliefs on this level we see
Maitreya (52) sitting atop a lion throne inside the
tower while beings of all sorts gather round him.
The heavenly musicians (gandharva) are in
abundance. On the bottom right sit yakṣas and
a garuḍa. Nāgas are pictured on the middle left.
Sudhana is perhaps indicated by the small person
holding his hands in añjali. Once inside the tower
himself Sudhana will understand things very
differently from how he understands them up to
now, as the great cosmic truths are revealed to
him by Maitreya.

https://dharma-records.buddhasasana.net/texts/update-of-the-gandavyuha-reliefs-at-borobudur

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