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(3) Current electricity [email protected] PU2 GSS

Revised Syllabus_(JAN-2014)
Definition of electric current - Electric currents in a conductor - Definition of current
density - Ohm’s law: Statement and explanation - Dependence of electrical resistance
on the dimensions of conductor and mention of R= l/A - Electrical resistivity and
conductivity- Derivation of the relation (equivalent form of Ohm’s law) -
Limitations of Ohm’s law. Drift of electrons and origin of resistivity: Definitions of drift
velocity, relaxation time and mobility - Derivation of expression for conductivity of a
material (= ne2/m).
Color code of carbon resistors; Temperature dependence of resistivity of metals and
semiconductors.
Electrical energy and power: Mention of expression for power loss.
Combination of resistors: Derivation of effective resistance of two resistors (a) in
series combination and (b) in parallel combination.
Cells: Definitions of internal resistance of a cell, terminal potential difference and emf
of a cell -Derivation of current drawn by external resistance.
Combination of cells: Derivation of expressions for equivalent emf and equivalent
internal resistance (a) in series and (b) in parallel combination.
Kirchhoff’s rules: Statements and explanation.
Wheatstone bridge: Derivation of balancing condition – Metre Bridge.
Potentiometer: Principle - Mention of applications (a) to compare emfs of two cells
and (b) to measure internal resistance of a cell, Numerical Problems.

Current Electricity: It is the branch of physics which deals with charges in motion.
It is observed that the charges at rest (static charges) produce electric field around the
charged body , and the charges in motion constitute electric current and even magnetic
field around the conductor.
Defn.
Electric Current or current: It is the rate of flow of electric charge through a given area
of the conductor.
If is the charge flowing through given section in time seconds then current
is

Another form of current is

Further where no. of electrons crossing the given area and e is the
electronic charge.
Note : In conductors such as copper, Aluminium etc, the current flows due to the
motion of free electrons (or conduction electrons (negative)). In gases the current flows

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due to the electrons and ionized atoms (both positive and negative ions ). In liquids the
current flows due to ions (both positive and negative ions ).
Ohm’s law :
Statement: “The current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends when temp. and other physical conditions are kept
constant”.
.i.e. if is the potential difference (p.d) across the conductor and is the current
through it, then acc. to Ohms law,

Or
Or
Where is the proportionality constant called electrical resistance or simply the
resistance of the conductor.
SI unit of resistance is Ohm (or )
Defn. OHM : The resistance of a conductor is one Ohm if a of current one ampere flows
through it when a PD of one volt is applied across it.
Note: The resistance opposes the flow of current. And if the resistance is high, the
current will be low or vice versa.

** Conductance (G ): The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.

Thus conductance measured in mho ( or Siemens or ohm-1.
Resistivity or specific resistance ;

Consider a conductor of length and cross

sectional area .
Let V be the PD and be the current through
it. Its resistance is given by

Let an identical conductor be connected in

series for which the PD is to have the
same current , then resistance of the
combination is,

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Thus resistance is directly proportional to the length.

.i.e.
Now let the first conductor be cut into two halves such that area of each conductor is
and current through each is . Now the resistance of each small conductor is

.i.e
Using eqns. (3) and (5) it can be written as ,

Or
Where the constant is called resistivity or specific resistance of the material of the
conductor.
Defn. of resistivity or specific resistance :
We have
If
Thus resistivity of the material of a conductor is the resistance of that conductor of unit
length and unit crossectional area .
The SI unit of resistivity or specific resistance is
**Conductivity :
“ The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity “
.i.e.

Its SI unit is mho per metre or m-1 OR Siemen per metre.

*Other forms of Ohms law : According to Ohms law,

1)
But

Hence

Further

Hence 2 becomes

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Or
Eqns. (1), (2) & (3) are all the forms of Ohms law.

**Drift velocity : The average velocity with which free electrons drift when the
electric field is applied is called drift velocity.
Note : drift velocity is zero if PD is not applied (or electric field is zero).
Qn. (1) Obtain an expression for the drift velocity in terms of electric field,
OR (2) Derive the relation between current and drift velocity OR (3) Deduce
Ohms Law using drift velocity and electric field in the form or

Consider a metallic conductor having N no. of free electrons. When the electric field is
not applied the average velocity of all the free electrons is zero because they have
random directions. Thus velocity of eletron is given by

Now in the presence of electric field E , the acceleration of an electron is given by

Now let be the velocity of the electron just after the collision with atom, then its
velocity after time is found by using,
.i.e.
But because just after the collision the direction of the electron is random.
Further the average time spent by electron between two successive collisions is called
relaxation time . And the average velocity gained after sec. is drift velocity .
Thus considering all electrons eqn. (3) can be written as ,

Thus

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Now let us consider the conductor of length and crossectional area to which the
pot diff. V is applied. Let be the free electron density. Now the electrons will drift
opposite to the electric field E. The current flows from + to –ve .
Now the amount of charge flowing in sec. is,
Volume of the conductor is 6)
No. of free electrons flowing in the conductor is
Now the amount of charge flowing is,
Now using the eqns. (5) and (7) we get,

Therefore

Substituting magnitude of and rearranging the terms we get,

Now eqn. 8a can be

.i.e. written as,

Also
Now eqn. (9) becomes,

Thus,

Here eqns. 11, 12 and 13 are the different forms of ohms law.

Mobility : It is the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field .

| |
.i.e

Also

SI unit of mobility is

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Limitations of OHMS law :

1,Ohms law can be applied only when temp and other physical conditions are kept constant.
2,In some devices the relationship (graph) between current I and voltage V are linear.
Here Ohms law is said to be valid and these devices are called Ohmic devices .
3,Ohms law is not valid for semiconductors (diodes , transistors), electrolytes and gases
because graph between V and I are not linear.
4, Ohm’s law is not applicable at very low temperature and very high temperature.
Temperature dependence of resistivity:

fig.2. for Nichrome

fig1(for copper)

The resistivity of the conductors is found to

vary with temp. and resistivity at any
temp T is given by ,
[ ]

Where is the resistance at temp. .

The constant is called temperature
coefficient of resistivity of the material of
the conductor. Its unit is either for
conductors and for thermistors .
Now resistivity of the material is given by,
fig .3. for semiconductor

If the temperature of the substance increases, speed of electrons increases and

relaxation time decreases. Hence resistivity increases with increase in temp.
Note : 1. If temp. coeff. of resi. is less, then resistance of the conductor
doesn’t change much with the change in temperature or vice versa . For ex. Nichrome (
an alloy of Nickel , iron and chromium ) has less
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Colour coding of resistances or resistors:

The values of resistances are not written on the resistors but they are read or measured
on the basis of colours printed on them.
The resistors have a set of four colours (sometimes 3 ) on them. The first colour
bands indicate first two digits of the resistance in ohm, the third band gives the multiplier
of power of 10 and the last band or colour indicates the tolerance (i.e. percentage
variation in resistance).If last band is absent the tolerance is 20%. For example, if the
4
four colours are orange, blue, yellow and gold, the resistance value is 36 × 10 Ω, with a
tolerance value of 5%.

Note : To remember the colour sequence we can remember the following saying as,
B B R O Y OF GREAT BRITIAN HAD VERY GOOD WIFE
Here underlined letters are the colours used in colour coding.
Electrical energy and power : (Only mention of expression for power loss)

If are the potentials at

points A and B and the potential
difference between them is
where

The work done in moving the charge from A to B is

The change in KE of the charge is

.i.e.
This KE of electrons is shared due to collision with the atoms in the conductor. The atom

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gains the energy and get heated up. The amount of heat energy dissipated is the loss in
KE.
.i.e
Electrical Power is the energy dissipated per second,
.i.e power
Other forms of electrical power are obtained by using Ohms law ,are

Resistors in series and parallel:

Qn. Define series combination of resistances. Hence obtain an expression for the
equivalent resistance of three or two resistors in series.
Series combination of resistances: Two or more resistances are said to be connected in
series if they are connected end to end so that current through each is same but P D are
different.
Expression for the equivalent resistance of three resistors in series .

A B
A
B

V
Consider three resistors of resistances connected in series between
A and B. Let be the p.d. applied across the combination .In series combination same
current flows through all the resistors, but P D’s are different across them given as
respectively.
Now , and
The P D

.i.e
Let the combination be replaced by an equivalent resistor which produces the same
effect as that of the combination.
Thus
Equating 1 and 2 we get ,

Or for resistors

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Qn. Define parallel combination of resistances. Hence obtain an expression for the
equivalent resistance of three or two resistors in PARALLEL.
Parallel combination of resistances: Two or more resistances are said to be connected in
series if their terminals are connected between two common points, so that PD across each
is same but currents are different.

Expression for the equivalent resistance of three resistors in PARALLEL.

V
A B A
B

E,

Consider three resistors of resistances connected in parallel between

A and B. Let be the p.d. applied across the combination .In parallel combination, PD
is same across each resistor, but currents are different through them and are
.

Now , and

The main current is

.i.e ( )
Let the combination be replaced by an equivalent resistor which produces the same
effect as that of the combination.
Thus

Equating 1 and 2 we get , ( )

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Or for resistors

EMF (ElectroMotive Force) { E } : It is the work done by the cell in moving the charge of
one Coulomb through the circuit in which the cell is connected.
It is denoted by E. and measured in Volt.
For Ex. if the EMF of the cell is 6V, this means the cell does the work of 6J in
transferring the charge of one Coulomb through the ckt.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE (r) : It is the opposition offered by the cell itself for the flow
of current .

Qn. (a) Obtain an expression for the current an terminal P D when a cell is connected
across the resistance.
OR
(b) Obtain an expression for the current when the Ohms law is applied to the circuit and
hence define EMF.

Consider a cell of EMF and

internal resi. , connected across
a resistance Let be the
current through the circuit. Let P
and N be +ve and –ve electrodes.
A and B are two points in the
solution near P and N respectively.
The PD between the points P and A
ELECTROL
-YTE
is PD between the points B
and N is .

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The EMF of the cell is PD between P and N in open circuit. .

i.e emf
The terminal PD between C and D when the cell is in open circuit is given by ,

.i.e

The terminal PD between C and D when the R is in circuit is given by ,

.i.e

But
Hence

The terminal PD is given by

Note : (1). The current in the circuit will be maximum if R=0.

(2). The Pd will be maximum i.e if either

Cells in series and parallel:

Qn. Derive the expressions for the equivalent emf and equivalent resistance when a
number of cells are connected in series.

A B C A C

Consider two cells of emf’s and internal resistances connected in

series. The cells send the current . Let be the potentials at the points A,
B and C respectively.
Now the PD between the points A and B is ,

The PD between the points B and C is ,

The PD between the points A and C is ,

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Let the combination be replaced by the single cell of equivalent emf

and equivalent resistance Then

From (1) and (2),

For no. of cells in series, we get,

Note : If one or more cells are opposite then its e.m.f should be substituted as
. but resistances will always be added .

Qn. Derive the expressions for the equivalent emf and equivalent resistance when a
number of cells are connected in parallel.

A
C

Consider two cells of emf’s and internal resistances connected in

parallel, between . The currents sent by them are and sum of both
the currents is The PD is is same across both the cells .
Now PD across the cell 1 is

.i.e

And PD across the cell 2 is

.i.e

But

.i.e

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( )
Solving for we get

Let the combination be replaced by the single cell of equivalent emf,

and equivalent resistance Then

From (1) and (2) ,

Dividing 3 by 4 we get,

And

For no. of cells in parallel,

And

Note : If one or more cells are opposite then its e.m.f should be substituted as
-ve . but resistances will always be added .

KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS:

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Circuit elements: The components such as resistor, inductor, capacitor, battery etc. are
called circuit elements.
Electrical network: The electrical network is one in which the circuit elements are
connected in a complicated but appropriate manner.
Branch: It is the part of the electrical network containing one or more circuit elements .
Mesh or Closed loop: It is the closed path for the flow of current in an electrical network.
Node OR Junction : It the point in an electrical network at which two or more branches
meet.

Kirchhoff’s first law (current law oR junction law )(KCL) : At any node of an electrical
network the sum of the currents entering the node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node.
In the above ckt. The various currents are as
I2
shown. The currents flowing towards are taken as
positive and currents flowing away from the junction
J I3
J are taken as negative. Now according to
I1 I4 Kirchhoff’s current law,

.i.e Current flowing towards the junction = Current

flowing away from the junction.
I5
KCL gives law of conservation of charge.

Kirchhoff’s second law (Voltage law oR KVL) : The algebraic sum of the products of
currents and resistances in a closed loop is equal to the sum of the EMF’s in that loop.

Consider the above network .

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Applying KVL to loop abcha we get,

Or

And applying KVL to loop afeda we get,

Or

Note : While applying KVL, suppose we are moving in anticlockwise direction then use the
following rules,
1. If current is flowing in the direction of traverse,( .i.e anticlockwise) then IR
product is taken as negative.
2. If we move from +ve to –ve terminal, into the battery then emf E is taken as
negative and should be written on LHS of the equation.
3. If we move from -ve to +ve terminal, into the battery then emf E is taken as
positive and should be written on LHS of the equation.

Qn. Obtain the balancing condition for the Wheatstone’s network ( ).

It is a network used to either find the unknown resistance or to compare the resistances.
The circuit diagram is as shown below.
Consider four resistors of resistances
along the arms of
the network. Various currents due to cell
of emf E are as shown in the diagram.
The current in the galvanometer is .
Applying KCL’s at nodes B and D we get,

And
Applying KVL to mesh, ADBA

Applying KVL to mesh, BDCB

Now either one or two or three or all the

resistances are adjusted so that the
current through the galvanometer
becomes zero. Then the network is
balanced.
Now substituting ,in all the eqns. we
get,

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Dividing eq. 7 by eq 8. We get

Substituting for and in eq. 9 we get,

This is the balancing condition for the Wheatstone’s network

Qn. Explain how a meter bridge is used to determine the unknown resistance.
Answer :The meter bridge is a device used for measuring the resistance of the given
components.
The meter bridge
contain a uniform
metallic wire of
length 1m, fixed
on the wooden
board. At the
ends of the wire
two L shaped
metallic strips are
connected. One
more strip is
placed between
two L strips with
some gap in

between. The unknown resistance R is connected in the left gap and the standard known
resistance. The galvanometer is connected to the jockey. To begin with the plug key is
closed and the jockey is moved on the metallic wire until galvanometer shows zero(null )
deflection. The bridge is said to be balanced.The balancing length is noted. Now
comparing it with Wheatstone’s network the balancing condition is ,

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[ ]
Thus by knowing the value of the unknown resistance is found.

Question : Explain how Emf or internal resistance of a cell is determined using a

potentiometer?
Answer : Potentiometer is a device used to determine the internal resistance and the
emf’s of the cells.
To determine or compare the e m f of cell : (only mention of expression and application )

Potentiometer in its
simplest form contains
the long wire AC across
which a primary cell is
connected through a
rheostat . The cells of
EMF’s in
which is unknown are
connected in parallel
through a two way key
and a galvanometer. The
free end of the
galvanometer is connected
to the jockey J.

When the current flows through the wire the p d across the wire AC is given by,

Where is the voltage per unit length.

To compare the emf’s the first cell is included in the circuit by connecting points 1 and 3.
The jockey is moved along the wire upto point until the galvanometer shows zero
deflection. The balancing length is noted down. Applying KVL to the loop we
get,

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Similarly for other cell balanced at length we can write,

Dividing 2 by 3 we get ,

Thus we can find using above relation.

To determine the internal resistance of the cell(Only mention of expression & application)
In its simplest form
it contains the long
wire AC across
which a primary cell E
is connected through
a rheostat R. The
cells of EMF’s
internal resistance
is connected in
parallel with resi box Rh
and in series with a
galvanometer. The
free end of the
galvanometer is
connected to the
jockey J.

When the current flows through the wire the p d across the wire AC is given by,

Initially the plug key is kept open, the jockey is moved on the wire upto until
the galvanometer shows zero deflection. The balancing length is noted,
Applying KVL o the loop AEN1A we get

Now the key is closed , resistance R is unplugged and balancing length is noted. If
V is the terminal p.d then,

Dividing 2 by 3 , we get

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But
Hence eqn. (4) becomes,

Hence

This gives the value of internal resistance of the cell.

__________________________()__________:)____________:)________------------
Note: All derivations are important

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