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CH 14-1 - Basic Elements and Phasors

1) The basic elements of resistors, inductors, and capacitors respond differently to sinusoidal voltages and currents depending on the frequency. 2) Resistors have voltage and current in phase, inductors have voltage leading current by 90 degrees, and capacitors have current leading voltage by 90 degrees. 3) The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current and determines the average power delivered to a load, with purely resistive loads having a power factor of 1 and purely reactive loads having a power factor of 0.

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179 views35 pages

CH 14-1 - Basic Elements and Phasors

1) The basic elements of resistors, inductors, and capacitors respond differently to sinusoidal voltages and currents depending on the frequency. 2) Resistors have voltage and current in phase, inductors have voltage leading current by 90 degrees, and capacitors have current leading voltage by 90 degrees. 3) The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current and determines the average power delivered to a load, with purely resistive loads having a power factor of 1 and purely reactive loads having a power factor of 0.

Uploaded by

عبدالله المعتق
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The Basic Elements and Phasors

14.1 INTRODUCTION
• Response of R, L, and C elements to a sinusoidal voltage and
current with the effect of the frequency.
• Phasor notation will be introduced and employed in the analysis.

14.2 THE DERIVATIVE


𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The derivative: of the variable x is defined as the rate of change of x with respect
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
to time.
The sine wave and its derivative:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
• = 0 at 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• = max (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝) at 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0, 2𝜋𝜋
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• = max (𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) at 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝜋.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• will change gradually
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
between these values in
between.

The derivative of a sine wave is a


cosine wave
The peak value of the cosine wave is proportional to the frequency of the original
wave.
The derivative of a sine wave has the same period and frequency as the original
sinusoidal waveform.
For 𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜃𝜃 ), the derivative is:
14.3 RESPONSE OF BASIC R, L, C
1- Resistor R
For low and medium frequency up to ~100 kHz
Ohm’ Law apply even for sinusoidal voltage and
current, for 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

for a purely resistive element, the voltage across


and the current through the element are in phase,
with their peak values related by Ohm’s law.
2- Inductor L
The voltage across an inductor is directly related to the
rate of change of current through the coil.
Higher frequency ⟹ higher magnitude of vL.
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Investigating the sinusoidal


response of an inductive element.

𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎 is proportional to 𝝎𝝎
For an inductor, vL leads iL by 90o.
iL lags vL by 90o.
The quantity XL:
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝑿𝑿𝑳𝑳 = = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 (ohms, Ω)
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚

is called reactance.

For a pure inductor, the voltage across the


coil leads the current through the coil by 90°.

In an inductor there is a continual exchange of energy between the inductor and the
source.
3- Capacitor C
The current of a capacitor is directly related to the
frequency and the capacitance of the capacitor
Higher frequency ⟹ higher magnitude of iC.
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶
𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶
𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 (𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)) = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) Investigating the sinusoidal
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 response of a capacitive element.
𝒊𝒊𝑪𝑪 = 𝑰𝑰𝒎𝒎 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝝎𝝎𝝎𝝎 + 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗°)
𝑰𝑰𝒎𝒎 = 𝝎𝝎𝝎𝝎𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎

For a capacitor, iC leads vC by 90o.


vC lags iC by 90o.
The quantity XC:
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 1
𝑿𝑿𝑪𝑪 = = = (ohms, Ω)
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
is called reactance.

• Capacitive reactance is the opposition to the change in the flow of charge


• Capacitor does not dissipate energy
• There is continual interchange of energy between the source and the capacitor
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 1
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 ⟹ 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 = ∫ 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 1
𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 ⟹ 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = ∫ 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶
dc, High-, and Low-Frequency Effects on L and C
1. DC (very low frequency)
At dc the frequency is zero: 𝑓𝑓 = 0
a. Inductor: 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 0 Ω (short circuit)
1 1
b. Capacitor: 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = = =∞Ω (open circuit)
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
2. very high frequency (𝑓𝑓 ⟶ ∞)
At very high frequency: 𝑓𝑓 ⟶ ∞
a. Inductor: 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ⟹ ∞ Ω (open circuit)
1 1
b. Capacitor: 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = = ⟹0Ω (short circuit)
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Resistors R(f)
Inductors XL(f)
Capacitors XC(f)

𝑎𝑎
𝑦𝑦 =
𝑥𝑥
14.5 AVERAGE POWER AND POWER FACTOR
𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎 𝑰𝑰𝒎𝒎
The average value of the power is: 𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝜽𝜽𝒗𝒗 − 𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 )
𝟐𝟐
It is also called the real power,

it the power delivered to and dissipated by the load.

The angle (𝜽𝜽𝒗𝒗 − 𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 ) is the phase angle between v and i.

the magnitude of average power delivered is independent of whether v leads i or i


leads v. cos(−𝛼𝛼) = cos(𝛼𝛼)

define: 𝜽𝜽 = |𝜽𝜽𝒗𝒗 − 𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 |


Resistor
In a purely resistive circuit, since v and i are in phase, |𝜽𝜽𝒗𝒗 − 𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 | = 𝜽𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎°,
and 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜽𝜽 = 𝟏𝟏, so that:
Inductor
In a purely inductive circuit, since v leads i by 90o, |𝜽𝜽𝒗𝒗 − 𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 | = 𝜽𝜽 = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗°,
and 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜽𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎, so that:

Capacitor
In a purely capacitive circuit, since i leads v by 90o, |𝜽𝜽𝒗𝒗 − 𝜽𝜽𝒊𝒊 | = 𝜽𝜽 = |−𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗°| =
𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗°, and 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜽𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎, so that:
Power Factor

In the expression of the power (𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 ⁄2) cos 𝜃𝜃 the factor that has significant
control over the delivered power level is cos 𝜃𝜃

This term is called Power factor

1- Purely resistive load: 𝜽𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎 ⟹ 𝐅𝐅𝐩𝐩 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜽𝜽 = 𝟏𝟏


2- Purely reactive load: 𝜽𝜽 = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗° ⟹ 𝐅𝐅𝐩𝐩 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜽𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎

The terms leading and lagging are often used


with the power factor:
• i leads v: leading Power factor
• i lags v: lagging Power factor

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