Reservoir Engineering

Fundamental of petroleum Engineering course

Peyman Maroufi
Petroleum Engineering department
LOGO
Soran university
 Reservoir Engineering

Reservoir engineering
 Reservoir engineering is a branch of petroleum engineering that applies scientific
principles to the drainage problems arising during the development and production
of oil and gas reservoirs so as to obtain a high economic recovery.
 The working tools of the reservoir engineer are subsurface geology, applied
mathematics, and the basic laws of physics and chemistry governing the behavior
of liquid and vapor phases of crude oil, natural gas, and water in reservoir rock.
 Reservoir Engineering
 Reservoir engineers often specialize in two areas:
•Surveillance (or production) engineering, i.e. monitoring of existing fields and
optimization of production and injection rates. Surveillance engineers typically use
analytical and empirical techniques to perform their work, including decline curve
analysis, material balance modeling, and inflow/outflow analysis.
•Simulation modeling, i.e. the conduct of reservoir simulation studies to determine
optimal development plans for oil and gas reservoirs. Also, reservoir engineers perform
and integrate well tests into their data for reservoirs in geothermal drilling.
Reservoir Engineering
 REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES

Saturation
 Saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore
volume occupied by a particular fluid (oil, gas, or water).
 This property is expressed mathematically by the following
relationship:

‫݀݅ݑ݈݂ ݂݋ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ ݈ܽݐ݋ݐ‬

݂݈‫= ݊݋݅ݐܽݎݑݐܽݏ ݀݅ݑ‬
‫݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ ݁ݎ݋݌‬
 REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES
‫݀݅ݑ݈݂ ݂݋ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ ݈ܽݐ݋ݐ‬
݂݈‫= ݊݋݅ݐܽݎݑݐܽݏ ݀݅ݑ‬
‫݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ ݁ݎ݋݌‬

 Applying the above mathematical concept of saturation to each reservoir

fluid gives:

‫ܸ ݈݅݋ ݂݋ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ‬௢
oil saturation ܵ௢ = =
‫݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ ݁ݎ݋݌‬ ܸ௣

‫ܸ ݏܽ݃ ݂݋ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ‬௚
gas saturation ܵ௚ = =
‫݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ ݁ݎ݋݌‬ ܸ௣

‫ܸ ݎ݁ݐܽݓ ݂݋ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ‬௪
water saturation ܵ௪ = =
‫݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ ݁ݎ݋݌‬ ܸ௣
 REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES

 The saturation of each individual phase ranges between zero to

100 percent.
 By definition, the sum of the saturations is 100%, therefore:

ܸ௢ +ܸ௚ +ܸ௪ = ܸ௣

and

ܵ௢ +ܵ௚ +ܵ௪ = 1
 REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES

Connate water saturation (ࡿࢉ࢝ )

• Connate water is the water trapped in porous spaces of the rocks during
their deposition and lithificafion, long before the oil migrated into the
reservoir rock.
• Connate water saturation (ܵ௖௪ ) is important primarily because it reduces
the amount of space available between oil and gas.
• It may or may not be irreducible.

irreducible water saturation (ࡿ࢝࢏࢘ )

• below which water cannot flow
Or
• The lowest water saturation, that can be achieved in a core plug by
displacing the water by oil or gas.
 REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES

initial oil saturation ࡿ࢕࢏

The ratio of oil volume contained in a rock at original reservoir condition to the
pore volume of that rock.

Residual oil saturation, ࡿ࢕࢘

During the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media by
water or gas injection (or encroachment) there will be some remaining oil left.
This saturation value is called the residual oil saturation, Sor.
 REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES

Rock Compressibility:

Compressibility is the ability of a soil or rock to reduce in volume with applied

pressure.
Or

A measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a

pressure (or mean stress) change.
 REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES

General Equation

1 ߲ܸ
‫=ܥ‬− ( )
ܸ ߲ܲ

C: Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility (ALWAYS positive value)

unit: 1/psia
V: Volume (unit:ft3 )
P: Pressure exerted on material (unit: psia)

 Negative sign in equation determined by ∂V/∂p term, to force the

coefficient C to be positive
 Volume is a function of pressure only (temperature is constant, and
amount of material is constant)
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

Ideal Gas Law:

 The kinetic theory of gases postulates that gases are composed of a very large number
of particles called molecules.
 For an ideal gas, the volume of these molecules is insignificant compared with the total
volume occupied by the gas.
 It is also assumed that these molecules have no attractive or repulsive forces between
them, and that all collisions of molecules are perfectly elastic\
 Based on the above kinetic theory of gases, a mathematical equation called equation-
of-state can be derived to express the relationship existing between pressure p, volume
V, and temperature T for a given quantity of moles of gas n.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 The simplest equitation of state is called the ideal gas law and is given by:

 The number of pound-moles of gas, i.e., n, is defined as the weight of the gas m
divided by the molecular weight M, or:
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 Example 1
Three pounds of n-butane are placed in a vessel at 120°F and 60 psia. Calculate
the volume of the gas assuming an ideal gas behavior.

 Petroleum engineers are usually interested in the behavior of mixtures and rarely deal
with pure component gases.
 Because natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon components, the overall physical and
chemical properties can be determined from the physical properties of the individual
components in the mixture by using appropriate mixing rules.
 The basic properties of gases are commonly expressed in terms of : the apparent
molecular weight, standard volume, density, specific volume, and specific gravity.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 Apparent Molecular Weight

 One of the main gas properties that is frequently of interest to engineers is the
apparent molecular weight.
 If yi represents the mole fraction of the ith component in a gas mixture, the
apparent molecular weight is defined mathematically by the following equation:
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES
 Standard Volume:
 In many natural gas engineering calculations, it is convenient to measure the volume
occupied by l lb-mole of gas at a reference pressure and temperature.
 These reference conditions are usually 14.7 psia and 60°F, and are commonly
referred to as standard conditions. The standard volume is then defined as the volume
of gas occupied by 1 lb-mol of gas at standard conditions.

Applying for the standard conditions and solving for

the volume, i.e., the standard volume, gives:
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

Density:
 Density is an extremely important property of matter.
 The density of a fluid (or any other form of matter) is the amount of mass
per unit volume.
݉ܽ‫ݏݏ‬ ݉
ߩ= =
‫ܸ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ‬

ெ ݇݃ ݃ ݈ܾ௠
Dimensions: Units: ଷ ; ;
௅య ݉ ܿ݉ଷ ݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ

 Density is highly variable in gases and increases nearly proportionally to the

pressure level. Density in liquids is nearly constant. at 4 °C and 1 atm:

• Water: 1000 kg/m3;

• Mercury: 13546 kg/m3;
• Air: 1.23 kg/m3;
• Paraffin: 800 kg/m3.
 Physical properties of Hydrocarbons

Specific gravity:

Specific gravity, denoted by SG or ɤ.

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of some
standard fluid at a specified temperature and pressure.

Commonly standard fluid for liquids is Water and for gasses is Air.

ߩ௚௔௦
Specific gravity for gases ܵ‫ܩ‬௚௔௦ =
ߩ஺௜௥

ߩ௟௜௤௨௜ௗ
Specific gravity for liquids ܵ‫ܩ‬௟௜௤௨௜ௗ =
ߩ௪௔௧௘௥
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

Specific gravity of gases:

ߩ௚௔௦
ܵ‫ܩ‬௚௔௦ =
ߩ஺௜௥

P=14.7 psi = 101.325 kPa =1atm ݇݃ ݈ܾ

at ߩ஺௜௥ = 1.225 ଷ = 0.076 ଷ
݉ ݂‫ݐ‬
T= 60 °F = 15 °F = 288.15 °K

ߩ௚௔௦
ܵ‫ܩ‬௚௔௦ =
݈ܾ
0.076 ଷ
݂‫ݐ‬
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

For ideal gas:

• The density of an ideal gas mixture is calculated by simply replacing the molecular
weight of the pure component with the apparent molecular weight of the gas mixture to
give:

 Specific Gravity
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 Example 2
A gas well is producing gas with a specific gravity of 0.65 at a rate of 1.1
MMscf/day. The average reservoir pressure and temperature are 1,500 psi and
150°F. Calculate:
a. Apparent molecular weight of the gas
b. Gas density at reservoir conditions

 Example 3
A gas well is producing a natural gas with the following composition:

Assuming an ideal gas behavior, calculate:

a. Apparent molecular weight
b. Specific gravity
c. Gas density at 2000 psia and 150°F
d. Specific volume at 2000 psia and 150°F
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

Real Gas Law:
 In dealing with gases at a very low pressure, the ideal gas relationship is a
convenient and generally satisfactory tool.
 At higher pressures, the use of the ideal gas equation-of-state may lead to errors
as great as 500%, as compared to errors of 2–3% at atmospheric pressure.
 Basically, the magnitude of deviations of real gases from the conditions of the
ideal gas law increases with increasing pressure and temperature and varies
widely with the composition of the gas.
 Real gases behave differently than ideal gases.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 The reason for this is that the perfect gas law was derived under the assumption that

the volume of molecules is insignificant and that no molecular attraction or repulsion

exists between them. This is not the case for real gases.

All molecules of real gases have two tendencies:

1) to fly apart from each other because of their constant kinetic motion.

2) to come together because of electrical attractive forces between the molecules

 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 Since the volume of a gas will be less than what the ideal gas volume would be, the gas
is said to be supercompressible.
 The number, which is a measure of the amount the gas deviates from perfect behavior,
is sometimes called the supercompressibility factor, usually shortened to the
compressibility factor.
 In order to express a more exact relationship between the variables p, V, and T, a
correction factor called the gas compressibility factor, gas deviation factor, or simply
the z-factor, This dimensionless quantity varies usually between 0.7 and 1.2, a value of
:
1 representing ideal behavior
 The gas deviation factor is by definition the ratio of the volume actually occupied by a
gas at a given pressure and temperature to the volume it would occupy if it behaved
ideally, or
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 These theories qualitatively explain the behavior of nonideal or real gases. Equation
(1.6) may be substituted in the ideal gas law, an equation for use with nonideal gases or
ideal is

 where Va is the actual gas volume.

 The deviation factor of natural gas is commonly measured in the laboratory on

samples of surface gases.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 Studies of the gas compressibility factors for natural gases of various compositions
have shown that compressibility factors can be generalized with sufficient accuracies
for most engineering purposes when they are expressed in terms of the following two
dimensionless properties:

• Pseudo-reduced pressure
• Pseudo-reduced temperature
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES
 Sutton also conducted a regression analysis on the raw data and obtained the
following equations over the range of specific gas gravities with which he worked
-0.57 < ɤ < 1.68:

 Having obtained the pseudocritical values, the pseudo reduced pressure and temperature
are calculated. The gas deviation factor is then found by using the correlation chart of Fig.
1.5.
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 Example 4
Calculating the gas deviation factor of the Bell Field gas from its specific gravity.

Given:
Specific gravity = 0.665
Reservoir temperature = 213°F
Reservoir pressure = 3250 psia
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

Example 5:
A gas reservoir has the following gas composition: the initial reservoir pressure and temperature
are 3000 psia and 180°F, respectively. Calculate the gas compressibility factor under initial
reservoir conditions.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 Example 6
Using the data in Example 2 and assuming real gas behavior, calculate the density of the
gas phase under initial reservoir conditions. Compare the results with that of ideal gas
behavior.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR:

 The gas formation volume factor is used to relate the volume of gas, as measured
at reservoir conditions, to the volume of the gas as measured at standard
conditions, i.e., 60°F and 14.7 psia.
 This gas property is then defined as the actual volume occupied by a certain
amount of gas at a specified pressure and temperature, divided by the volume
occupied by the same amount of gas at standard conditions. In an equation form,
the relationship is expressed as
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 Applying the real gas equation-of-state, i.e., Equation 2-11, and substituting for
the volume V, gives:

Assuming that the standard conditions are represented by psc =14.7 psia and Tsc = 520,
the above expression can be reduced to the following relationship:
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 In other field units, the gas formation volume factor can be expressed in bbl/scf, to
give:

 The reciprocal of the gas formation volume factor is called the gas expansion factor
and is designated by the symbol Eg, or:

In other units:
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 Example:
A gas well is producing at a rate of 15,000 ft3/day from a gas reservoir at an average
pressure of 2,000 psia and a temperature of 120°F. The specific gravity is 0.72. Calculate
the gas flow rate in scf/day.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

GAS VISCOSITY:
 The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal fluid friction (resistance)
to flow. If the friction between layers of the fluid is small, i.e., low viscosity,
an applied shearing force will result in a large velocity gradient.
 As the viscosity increases, each fluid layer exerts a larger frictional drag on
the adjacent layers and velocity gradient decreases.
 The viscosity of a fluid is generally defined as the ratio of the shear force
per unit area to the local velocity gradient.
 Viscosities are expressed in terms of poises, centipoise, or micropoises.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 METHODS OF CALCULATING THE VISCOSITY OF NATURAL

GASES
Two popular methods that are commonly used in the petroleum industry are the:
• Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows Correlation Method
• Lee-Gonzalez-Eakin Method
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

 The Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows Correlation Method:

The computational procedure of applying the proposed correlations is summarized in
the following steps:
Step 1. Calculate the pseudo-critical pressure, pseudo-critical temperature, and apparent
molecular weight from the specific gravity or the composition of the natural gas. Corrections
to these pseudocritical properties for the presence of the nonhydrocarbon gases (CO2, N2, and
H2S) should be made if they are present in concentrations greater than 5 mole percent.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES
Step 2. Obtain the viscosity of the natural gas at one atmosphere and the temperature of
interest from Figure 2-5. This viscosity, as denoted by m1, must be corrected for the
presence of nonhydrocarbon components by using the inserts of Figure 2-5. The
nonhydrocarbon fractions tend to increase the viscosity of the gas phase. The effect of
nonhydrocarbon components on the viscosity of the natural gas can be expressed
mathematically by the following relationships:
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

Step 3. Calculate the pseudo-reduced pressure and temperature.

Step 4. From the pseudo-reduced temperature and pressure, obtain the viscosity ratio
(mg/m1) from Figure 2-6. The term mg represents the viscosity of the gas at the
required conditions.
Step 5. The gas viscosity, mg, at the pressure and temperature of interest is calculated
by multiplying the viscosity at one atmosphere and system temperature, m1, by the
viscosity ratio.

Example 2-13
Using the data given in Example 2-12, calculate the viscosity of the gas.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

The Lee-Gonzalez-Eakin Method:

Lee, Gonzalez, and Eakin (1966) presented a semi-empirical relationship for
calculating the viscosity of natural gases. The authors expressed the gas viscosity in
terms of the reservoir temperature, gas density, and the molecular weight of the gas.
Their proposed equation is given by:

The proposed correlation can predict viscosity values with a standard deviation of 2.7%
and a maximum deviation of 8.99%. The correlation is less accurate for gases with
higher specific gravities. The authors pointed out that the method cannot be used for
sour gases.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES

Example 2-14
Rework Example 2-13 and calculate the gas viscosity by using the
Lee-Gonzalez-Eakin method.