Readings in Philippine History

A.Y. 2021-2022

MODULE 1
Meaning and Relevance of History

LESSON 3 – Content and Contextual Analysis

Schedule: 3rd Week Course Study: 1.5 hours

Allotted Time: 3 hours Coursework: 1.5 hours

*** C O U R S E S T U D Y ***

INTRODUCTION
In this Lesson will discuss the methods of data analysis in
historical research in order to develop critical and analytical skills in
determining the credibility of the primary sources.

ABSTRACTION
Content, Contextual and Subtext Analyses are methods of data analysis
in historical research.
Content/Textual Analysis
Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of
certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. text).
Using content analysis, researchers can quantify and analyze the presence,
meanings and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts. As an
example, researchers can evaluate language used within a news article to
search for bias or partiality. Researchers can then make inferences about the
messages within the texts, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and
time of surrounding the text.
Sources of data could be from interviews, open-ended questions, field
research notes, conversations, or literally any occurrence of communicative
language (such as books, essays, discussions, newspaper headlines, speeches,
media, historical documents). A single study may analyze various forms of text

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in its analysis. To analyze the text using content analysis, the text must be
coded, or broken down, into manageable code categories for analysis (i.e.
“codes”). Once the text is coded into code categories, the codes can then be
further categorized into “code categories” to summarize data even further.
Three different definition of content analysis are provided below.
Definition 1: “Any technique for making inferences by systematically and
objectively identifying special characteristics of messages.” (from Holsti, 1968)
Definition 2: “An interpretive and naturalistic approach. It is both
observational and narrative in nature and relies less on the experimental
elements normally associated with scientific research (reliability, validity and
generalizability) (from Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative
Inquiry, 1994-2012).
Definition 3: “A research technique for the objective, systematic and
quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.” (from
Berelson, 1952)
Uses of Content Analysis
Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual,
group or institution:

 Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications

 Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups
 Reveal international differences in communication content
 Reveal patterns in communication content
 Pre-test and improve an intervention or survey prior to launch
 Analyze focus group interviews and open-ended questions to
complement quantitative data
Types of Content Analysis
There are two general types of content analysis: conceptual analysis and
relational analysis. Conceptual analysis determines the existence and
frequency of concepts in a text. Relational analysis develops the conceptual
analysis further by examining the relationships among concepts in a text. Each
type of analysis may lead to different results, conclusions, interpretations and
meanings.
Conceptual Analysis
Typically, people think of conceptual analysis when they think of content
analysis. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the
analysis involves quantifying and counting its presence. The main goal is to

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examine the occurrence of selected terms in the data. Terms may be explicit or
implicit. Explicit terms are easy to identify. Coding of implicit terms is more
complicated: you need to decide the level of implication and base judgments on
subjectivity (issue for reliability and validity). Therefore, coding of implicit
terms involves using a dictionary or contextual translation rules or both.
To begin a conceptual content analysis, first identify the research
question and choose a sample or samples for analysis. Next, the text must be
coded into manageable content categories. This is basically a process of
selective reduction. By reducing the text to categories, the researcher can focus
on and code for specific words or patterns that inform the research question.
General steps for conducting a conceptual content analysis:
1. Decide the level of analysis: word, word sense, phrase, sentence, themes
2. Decide how many concepts to code for: develop pre-defined or interactive set
of categories or concepts. Decide either: A. to allow flexibility to add
categories through the coding process, or B. to stick with the pre-defined set
of categories.
 Option A allows for the introduction and analysis of new and important
material that could have significant implications to one’s research
question.
 Option B allows the researcher to stay focused and examine the data for
specific concepts.
3. Decide whether to code for existence or frequency of a concept. The decision
changes the coding process.
 When coding for the existence of a concept, the researcher would
count a concept only once if it appeared at least once in the data
and no matter how many times it appeared.
 When coding for the frequency of a concept, the researcher would
count the number of times a concept appears in a text.
4. Decide on how you will distinguish among concepts:
 Should text be coded exactly as they appear or coded as the same
when they appear in different forms? For example, “dangerous” vs.
“dangerousness”. The point here is to create coding rules so that
these word segments are transparently categorized in a logical
fashion. The rules could make all of these word segments fall into
the same category, or perhaps the rules can be formulated so that
the researcher can distinguish these word segments into separate
codes.
 What level of implication is to be allowed? Words that imply the
concept or words that explicitly state the concept? For example,
“dangerous” vs. “the person is scary” vs. “that person could cause

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harm to me”. These word segments may not merit separate

categories, due the implicit meaning of “dangerous”.
5. Develop rules for coding your texts. After decisions of steps 1-4 are
complete, a researcher can begin developing rules for translation of text into
codes. This will keep the coding process organized and consistent. The
researcher can code for exactly what he/she wants to code. Validity of the
coding process is ensured when the researcher is consistent and coherent in
their codes, meaning that they follow their translation rules. In content
analysis, obeying by the translation rules is equivalent to validity.
6. Decide what to do with irrelevant information: should this be ignored (e.g.
common English words like “the” and “and”), or used to reexamine the
coding scheme in the case that it would add to the outcome of coding?
7. Code the text: This can be done by hand or by using software. By using
software, researchers can input categories and have coding done
automatically, quickly and efficiently, by the software program. When
coding is done by hand, a researcher can recognize error far more easily
(e.g. typos, misspelling). If using computer coding, text could be cleaned of
errors to include all available data. This decision of hand vs. computer
coding is most relevant for implicit information where category preparation
is essential for accurate coding.
8. Analyze your results: Draw conclusions and generalizations where possible.
Determine what to do with irrelevant, unwanted or unused text: reexamine,
ignore, or reassess the coding scheme. Interpret results carefully as
conceptual content analysis can only quantify the information. Typically,
general trends and patterns can be identified.
Relational Analysis
Relational analysis begins like conceptual analysis, where a concept is
chosen for examination. However, the analysis involves exploring the
relationships between concepts. Individual concepts are viewed as having no
inherent meaning and rather the meaning is a product of the relationships
among concepts.
To begin a relational content analysis, first identify a research question
and choose a sample or samples for analysis. The research question must be
focused so the concept types are not open to interpretation and can be
summarized. Next, select text for analysis. Select text for analysis carefully by
balancing having enough information for a thorough analysis so results are not
limited with having information that is too extensive so that the coding process
becomes too arduous and heavy to supply meaningful and worthwhile results.
There are three subcategories of relational analysis to choose from prior
to going on to the general steps.

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 Affect extraction: an emotional evaluation of concepts explicit in a text. A

challenge to this method is that emotions can vary across time,
populations, and space. However, it could be effective at capturing the
emotional and psychological state of the speaker or writer of the text.
 Proximity analysis: an evaluation of the co-occurrence of explicit
concepts in the text. Text is defined as a string of words called a
“window” that is scanned for the co-occurrence of concepts. The result is
the creation of a “concept matrix”, or a group of interrelated co-occurring
concepts that would suggest an overall meaning.
 Cognitive mapping: a visualization technique for either affect extraction
or proximity analysis. Cognitive mapping attempts to create a model of
the overall meaning of the text such as a graphic map that represents the
relationships between concepts.
General steps for conducting a relational content analysis:
1. Determine the type of analysis: Once the sample has been selected, the
researcher needs to determine what types of relationships to examine and
the level of analysis: word, word sense, phrase, sentence, themes.
2. Reduce the text to categories and code for words or patterns. A researcher
can code for existence of meanings or words.
3. Explore the relationship between concepts: once the words are coded, the
text can be analyzed for the following:
 Strength of relationship: degree to which two or more concepts are
related.
 Sign of relationship: are concepts positively or negatively related to each
other?
 Direction of relationship: the types of relationship that categories exhibit.
For example, “X implies Y” or “X occurs before Y” or “if X then Y” or if X is
the primary motivator of Y.
4. Code the relationships: a difference between conceptual and relational
analysis is that the statements or relationships between concepts are coded.
5. Perform statistical analyses: explore differences or look for relationships
among the identified variables during coding.
6. Map out representations: such as decision mapping and mental models.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability: Because of the human nature of researchers, coding errors can
never be eliminated but only minimized. Generally, 80% is an acceptable
margin for reliability. Three criteria comprise the reliability of a content
analysis:

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1. Stability: the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data
in the same way over a period of time.
2. Reproducibility: tendency for a group of coders to classify categories
membership in the same way.
3. Accuracy: extent to which the classification of text corresponds to a
standard or norm statistically.

Validity: Three criteria comprise the validity of a content analysis:

1. Closeness of categories: this can be achieved by utilizing multiple
classifiers to arrive at an agreed upon definition of each specific category.
Using multiple classifiers, a concept category that may be an explicit
variable can be broadened to include synonyms or implicit variables.
2. Conclusions: What level of implication is allowable? Do conclusions
correctly follow the data? Are results explainable by other phenomena?
This becomes especially problematic when using computer software for
analysis and distinguishing between synonyms. For example, the word
“mine,” variously denotes a personal pronoun, an explosive device, and a
deep hole in the ground from which ore is extracted. Software can obtain
an accurate count of that word’s occurrence and frequency, but not be
able to produce an accurate accounting of the meaning inherent in each
particular usage. This problem could throw off one’s results and make
any conclusion invalid.
3. Generalizability of the results to a theory: dependent on the clear
definitions of concept categories, how they are determined and how
reliable they are at measuring the idea one is seeking to measure.
Generalizability parallels reliability as much of it depends on the three
criteria for reliability.
Advantages of Content Analysis

 Directly examines communication using text

 Allows for both qualitative and quantitative analysis
 Provides valuable historical and cultural insights over time
 Allows a closeness to data
 Coded form of the text can be statistically analyzed
 Unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
 Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language
use
 When done well, is considered a relatively “exact” research method
 Content analysis is a readily-understood and an inexpensive research
method

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 A more powerful tool when combined with other research methods such
as interviews, observation, and use of archival records. It is very useful
for analyzing historical material, especially for documenting trends over
time.
Disadvantages of Content Analysis
 Can be extremely time consuming
 Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is
used to attain a higher level of interpretation
 Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw
meaningful inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a
study
 Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
 Tends too often to simply consist of word counts
 Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state
of things after the text is produced
 Can be difficult to automate or computerize
Contextual Analysis
A contextual analysis is simply an analysis of a text (in whatever
medium, including multi-media) that helps us to assess that text within the
context of its historical and cultural setting, but also in terms of its textuality –
or the qualities that characterize the text as a text.
A contextual analysis combines features of formal analysis with features
of “cultural archeology,” or the systematic study of social, political, economic,
philosophical, religious, and aesthetic conditions that were (or can be assumed
to have been) in place at the time and place when the text was created.
While this may sound complicated, it is in reality deceptively simple: it
means “situating” the text within the milieu of its times and assessing the roles
of author, readers (intended and actual), and “commentators” (critics, both
professional and otherwise) in the reception of the text. (Behrendt, 2008)
How to Use Contextual Analysis
A contextual analysis can proceed along many lines, depending upon
how complex one wishes to make the analysis. But it generally includes several
key questions:
1. What does the text reveal about itself as a text?
 Describe (or characterize) the language (the words, or vocabulary) and
the rhetoric (how the words are arranged in order to achieve some
purpose). These are the primary components of style.

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2. What does the text tell us about its apparent intended audience(s)?
 What sort of reader does the author seem to have envisioned, as
demonstrated by the text’s language and rhetoric?
 What sort of qualifications does the text appear to require of its
intended reader(s)? How can we tell?
 What sort of readers appear to be excluded from the text’s intended
audiences? How can we tell?
 Is there, perhaps, more than one intended audience?
3. What seems to have been the author’s intention? Why did the author write
this text? And why did the author write this text in this particular way, as
opposed to other ways in which the text might have been written?
 Remember that any text is the result of deliberate decisions by the
author. The author has chosen to write (or paint, or whatever) with
these particular words and has therefore chosen not to use other
words that she or he might have used. So, we need to consider:
 what the author said (the words that have been selected);
 what the author did not say (the words that were not selected); and
 how the author said it (as opposed to other ways it might or could
have been said).
4. What is the occasion for this text? That is, is it written in response to:
 some particular, specific contemporary incident or event?
 some more “general” observation by the author about human affairs
and/or experiences?
 some definable set of cultural circumstances?
5. Is the text intended as some sort of call to – or for – action?
 If so, by whom? And why?
 And also, if so, what action(s) does the author want the reader(s) to
take?
6. Is the text intended rather as some sort of call to – or for – reflection or
consideration rather than direct action?
 If so, what does the author seem to wish the reader to think about and to
conclude or decide?
 Why does the author wish the readers to do this? What is to be gained,
and by whom?
7. Can we identify any non-textual circumstances that affected the creation
and reception of the text?
 Such circumstances include historical or political events, economic
factors, cultural practices, and intellectual or aesthetic issues, as well as
the particular circumstances of the author's own life.

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The Importance of Context in Analysis and Interpretation

Written by Grace Fleming, edited by Stacy Jagodowski, January 28, 2018

Historical context is an important part of life and literature, and without

it, memories, stories, and characters have less meaning.
But what exactly is historical context? It is essentially the details that
surround an occurrence. In more technical terms, historical context refers to
the social, religious, economic, and political conditions that existed during a
certain time and place.
Basically, it's all the details of the time and place in which a situation
occurs, and those details are what enable us to interpret and analyze works or
events of the past, or even the future, rather than merely judge them by
contemporary standards.
A strong understanding of the historical context behind a work's creation
can give us a better understanding of and appreciation for the narrative. In
analyzing historical events, context can help us understand what motivates
people to behave as they did.
Put another way, context is what gives meaning to the details. It's
important, however, that you don't confuse context with cause. Cause is the
action that creates an outcome; context is the environment in which that
action and outcome occur. (Fleming, 2010)
…Whether dealing with fact or fiction, historical context is important
when interpreting behavior and speech. (Fleming, 2010)
…No work of literature can be fully appreciated or understood without
historical context. What may seem nonsensical or even offensive to
contemporary sensibilities, might actually be interpreted in a completely
different manner by considering the era it is from. (Fleming, 2010)
…Scholars and educators rely on historical context to analyze and
interpret works of art, literature, music, dance, and poetry. Architects and
builders rely on it when designing new structures and restoring existing
buildings. Judges may use it to interpret the law, historians to understand the
past. Any time critical analysis is required, you may need to consider historical
context as well.
Without historical context, we are only seeing a piece of the scene and
not fully understanding the influence of the time and place in which a situation
occurred. (Fleming, 2010)

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*** C O U R S E W O R K ***
ACTIVITY NO. 1
Detective Work: Tracing the Roots

Instructions: Using the online sources, find a story (1 story) that are “fake
news” whether it is news, a historical article, a document or whatever a story
that are ostensibly hoax. Analyze it, and provide the truth behind that story.
Afterwards, highlight your technique or process you did in order to established
the authenticity of the story. Follow the format below. Note: properly cite the
sources of your arguments.

Title:
Fake Issue/s Real or True Issue/s

Process or technique used:

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