Machine Design GATE Book 2019
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NAMAN GARG CO18139Machine Design GATE Book 2019
Uploaded by
NAMAN GARG CO18139GATE
2019
MACHINE DESIGN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A Unit of ENGINEERS CAREER GROUP
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GATE-2019: Machine Design| Detailed theory with GATE & ESE previous year
papers and detailed solutions.
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(A unit of ENGINEERS CAREER GROUP)
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First Edition: 2016
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
1. STATIC AND DYNAMIC LOADING………………………...………… 1- 61
2. POWER SCREWS...…...………………………...…………...………..…. 62- 96
3. WELDED JOINTS…………... ……….………………..…………..…….. 97-117
4. RIVETED JOINTS………….…..…………………………..………….… 118-134
5. FRICTION CLUTCHES… ……….………….…………………………... 135-152
6. BRAKES………………...…………..…………….…..…………………… 153-167
7. BELTS………………….. ………………..……………..……………….... 168-184
8. CHAIN DRIVES……….. ………………..……………..……………….... 185-187
9. GEARS…………………..………………..……………..……………….... 188-217
10. BEARING……………..... ………………..……………..……………….... 218-252
MACHINE DESIGN GATE-2019
CHAPTER - 1
STATIC AND DYNAMIC LOADING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Machine design is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical information and
imagination in the dissipation of a machine
Or a mechanical system to perform specific functions with maximum economy and efficiency.
1.2 BASIC PROCEDURE OF MACHINE DESIGN
Example. Gear box assembly
Market Survey
Define specifications of product
Selection of proper mechanism
Prepare general layout & select joining methods between
individual components of product.
Design individual components
Prepare assembly
1.3 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
1. Strength
2. Rigidity: A machine component should be rigid and it should not deflect or bend too much due
to forces or moments that acts on it. For example, a transmission shaft is many times designed on
the basis of lateral and torsional rigidities. Therefore, maximum permissible deflection and
maximum permissible angle of twist are the criterion of Design.
3. Wear Resistance: Wear is the main reason for putting the machine part out of order. It reduces
useful life of the component. Wear also leads to loss accuracy of machine tools. Surface hardening
is generally applied to increase wear resistance.
4. Minimum Dimensions & Weight: Material should be strong, hard and rigid with minimum
possible dimensions and weight. This will result in minimum material cost.
5. Manufacturability: It is the ease of fabrication and assembly so that labour cost may be
minimized.
6. Safety: The shape and dimensions of the machine parts should ensure safety to the operator of
the machine.
7. Conformance to Standards: It should confirm to national and international standards covering
its possible dimensions, grade and material.
8. Reliability: It is the probability that machine part will perform its intended functions under
desired operating conditions over specified period of time.
9. Maintainability: It is case by which a machine part can be serviced or repaired.
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1.4 PROCEDURE OF DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
1. Specification of Function
Example
(a) Bearing : To support rotating shaft and confine its motion
(b) Key: To transmit the torque between the shaft and adjoining machine part like gear pulley.
(c) Spring: To store and release energy.
(d) Power Screw: To produce uniform and slow motion and to transmit the force.
2. Determination of Forces
(i) External force due to energy, power or torque transmitted by the machine part often called
useful load.
(ii) Static force due to dead weight of the machine part.
(iii) Force due to frictional resistance.
(iv) Inertia forces due to acceleration or retardation
(v) Centrifugal force due to change in direction of velocity.
(vi) Forces due to thermal stresses.
(vii) Forces set up during manufacturing often called residual stresses.
(viii) Forces due to particular shape of the part such as stress concentration due to abrupt change
in cross-section.
3. Selection of Material
Four basic factors are
(i) Availability
(ii) Cost
(iii) Mechanical properties
(iv) Manufacturing considerations
Example. Engine block, gear box housing is complex in shapes therefore made up of CI through
casting process. Transmission shafts made up of carbon steel and free cutting steels are used to
make belts, screws due to their excellent machinability due to addition of sulphur.
4. Failure Criterion
Before finding out the dimension of the component, it is necessary to know the type of failure that
the component may fail when put into service. Three basic types of failures are as follows:
(i) Failure by elastic deflection
(ii) Failure by general yielding
(iii) Failure by fracture
1. Components like transmission shafts are designed on the basis of permissible
elastic deformation.
2. Components like steal pipe legs of a chair fails when yielding occur.
3. Components of brittle material such as CI fails under fracture without plastic
deformation.
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5. Determination of Dimensions
The geometric dimensions of the component are determined on the basis of failure criterion. In
simple cases, the dimensions are determined as follows:
Example. A steal rod under tensile load is designed on the basis of permissible tensile stress and a
transmission shaft is designed on the basis of elastic deflection for safety, FOS is also considered
before calculating final dimensions.
6. Working Drawing
The last step in the design of machine elements is to prepare a working drawing of the machine
element showing dimensions, allowances, surface finish grades, tolerances and special production
requirements like heat treatment. All dimensions must be clear and concise.
1.5 USE OF STANDARD IN DESIGN
1. Standardization is defined as obligatory norms, to which various characteristics of a product
should conform. The characteristics include materials, dimensions and shape of the component,
method of testing and method of marking, patching and storing of the product.
The following standards are used in mechanical engineering.
(i) Standards for Material:Ttheir chemical composition, mechanical properties and heat
treatment.
Example. Indian standard IS 210 specifies 7 grades of CI such as FG 150, FG200, FG220, FG260,
FG300, FG350 and FG400. Number indicates ultimate tensile strength in N/mn2.
Tensile strength depends upon percentage of C and method of cooling.
(ii) Standards for Shapes and Dimensions: It is of commonly used machine elements.
Example IS 2494 species dimensions and shape of the cross section of the endless V-belts for
power transmission.
(iii) Standards for Fits, Tolerance and Surface Finish of Component: IS 2709 illustrates about
various fits to be selected according to application.
(iv) Standard for Testing of Product: Sometimes called codes gives procedures to test the
products such as pressure vessel, boiler, crane etc.
1.5.1 Types of Standards
There are 3 types of standards
1. Company Standards: They are used in particular company or a group of sister concerns for eg.
Engine block of maruti 800.
2. National Standards: It may be IS(Bureau of Indian standards) DIN(German), AISI(USA) or
BS(UK) e.g. 10 mm Nut of IS will not fit 10mm bolt of DIN standard.
3. International Standards: Prepared by ISO (International standards organization), e.g. ISO
marked hose for connection between gas cylinder and stove.
1.5.2 Advantages of Standardization
1. Interchangeability like Ball bearing on a shaft if broken can be replaced by a ball bearing
manufactured by NBC B-3650.
2. Standard components reduce the time and effort needed to design a new machine.
3. Improvement in quality and reliability.
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1.5.3 Selection of Preferred Sizes
Often the product is manufactured in different sizes or models, for instance a company may be
manufacturing seven different models of electric motors ranging from 0.5 to 50kW to later to the
need of different customers.
Preferred number is based on the use of geometric progression to develop a set of number. The
system is based on the use of GP to develop a set of number. There are 5 basic series denoted as
R5, R10, R20, R40, and R80, which increase in steps of 58%, 26%, 12%, 6%, and 3%
respectively.
R5 5 10 1.58
R10 10 10 1.26
R20 20 10 1.12
R40 40 10 1.06
R80 80 10 1.03
Small sizes differ by small amounts, while large sizes by large amounts.
1.5.4 Ergonomic Consideration in Design
It is defined as relationship between man and machine and the application of anatomical,
physiological and psychological principles to solve the problems asking from man-machine
relationship. For example, designing of a driver’s seat based on experiments.
Ergomists considers a man-machine joint system and gives results accordingly. The aim of
ergonomics is to reduce the operational difficulties present in a man-machine joint system and
thereby reduce the resulting physical and mental stresses.
1.6 CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
It is defined as the design process that beings both design and manufacturing engineers together
during the early phases of design process. A team of manufacturing engineers ,Tool engineers,
Field personnel and safety engineers. Considers various aspects of the product such as feasibility,
manufacturability, assembly, testability, performance, safety and cost. All these aspects are
simultaneously considered early in the design stage.
Customers requirements
Sales & surviving Manufactuability & testability
Design
Cost Reliability & safety
Erogonomics & appearance
1.7 ENGINEERING MATERIALS: STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Information obtained from tension test:
1. Proportional limit
2. Elastic limit
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3. Modulus of elasticity
4. Yield strength
5. UTS
6. Modulus of resistance
7. Modulus of toughness
8. Percentage reduction in area
9. Percentage elongation.
1. Proportional Limit
It is observed from the diagram that stress strain relationship is linear from O to P. After point P
curve begins to deviate from straight line. Hooke’s law states that stress is directly proportionally
to strain therefore applicable only upto P. Proportional limit is defined as the stress at which
stress-strain curve begins to deviate from straight line.
Concentration
Plastic Region
Elastic
y1
E
P F
y2
Necking
0 x E
2. Modulus of Elasticity
It is defined as ratio of stress to strain up to point P. Here
PX stress
E tan
OX strain
3. Elastic Limit
It is defined as minimum stress that can be applied to specimen without any permanent
deformation.
4. Yield Strength
When the specimen is stressed beyond the point E, plastic deformation occurs and material starts
yielding. After point E there is appreciable increase in strain without much increase in stress. Here
g1 and y2 are upper and lower yield stress respectively.
y
E
P
A
0 E
offset
Many variations of steel especially heat-treated steels and cold drawn steels, do not have a well
defined yield point on the stress strain diagram. The material yields gradually after passing
through the elastic limit E. If the leading is stopped at the point Y and the specimen is unloaded
and readings taken, the curve would follow the dotted line and a permanent set of plastic
deformation is indicated by OA. For such materials, which do not exhibit a well defined yield
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point the yield strength is defined as the stress corresponding to a permanent set of 0.2% of gauge
length. In such cases, the yield strength is determined by offset method. A distance OA equal to
0.2% of gauge length is marked on the x-axis. A line is constructed from point A parallel to
straight line portion OP. The point of sub-intersection of this line with stress-strain curve is called
yield point and stress corresponding to this point is called 0.2% yield strength.
Proof strength (denoted by Rp 0.1): It is defined as the stress which produce a permanent
extension of 0.1% in the gauge length of the test specimen. Proof load is corresponding load to
proof stress. Generally used for designing fastness.
6. UTS
After yield point y2, plastic deformation of the specimen increases. The material becomes stronger
due to strain hardening and higher load is required to deform material. Finally load and
corresponding stress reach the maximum value, given by point U. UTS is the maximum stress that
can be reached in the tension test. After U, necking phenomenon and finally specimen fractures at
F where cross section is the least breaking or fracture strength is slightly lower than UTS.
Stress strain diagram for brittle materials like CI is shown. Such materials do not exhibit yield
point. Deviation of stress-strain curve from straight line begins very early and fracture occurs
suddenly at U. Therefore, UTS is considered as failure criteria in brittle materials.
A
E
0
7. Percentage Elongation
i
It is defined as f 100
i
Where i is original length gauge strength
f is final length
Ductility is measured by percentage of elongation
8. Percentage Reduction in Area
A Af
It is defined as i 100
Ai
Where Ai is original cross-section
Af is final cross-section at fracture point
1.7.1 Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials
(i) Strength: Defined as the ability of the material to resist, without rupture, external forces
causing various types of stress. It may be tensile, compressive or shear strength.
(ii) Elasticity: Elasticity is defined as the ability of the material to regain its original shape and size
after the deformation, when external forces are removed. As steel is more elastic than rubber.
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(iii) Plasticity: Ability of the material to retain the deformation produced under the load on a
permanent basis. During plastic deformation, atoms of the metal are permanently displaced from
their original positions and take up new positions. It is desirable in conditions live coming,
stopping and some other press works
(iv) Stiffness or Rigidity: Defined as the ability of the material to resist deformation under the
action of external load. For a given load under elastic limit the material which deforms least is the
stiffest. Modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness
Example
Esteel = 207GPa EAl = 71GPa
Steel is stiffer than aluminum
(v) Resilience: It is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy when deformed
elastically and to release this energy when unloaded. No permanent deformation occurs. This
property is essential for spring materials. It is measured by a quantity called modulus of resilience,
which is the strain energy per unit volume that is required to stress the material in a tension test to
elastic limit. It is represented by area under stress strain curve up to elastic limit.
(vi) Toughness: Ability of the material to absorb energy before fracture takes place. It is energy
required for failure by fracture. This property is essential for components subjected to impact load.
Tough materials have ability to bend, twist or strength before failure takes place. Modulus of
toughness measures quantity of toughness and given by total area under stress-strain curve.
Modulus of resilence
E
0
(vii) Malleability: It is the ability to deform to a greater extent before the sign of crack, when it is
subjected to compressive force (malleability with temperature).
Modulus
of toughness
E
0
(viii) Ductility: It is the ability to deform to a greater extent before the sign of crack when it is
subjected to tensile force (ductility decreases with temperature) like steel, copper, aluminum etc.
(ix) Brittleness: It is the property of a material which shows negligible plastic deformation
before fracture like (If percentage elongation < 5%(brittle) and If percentage elongation > 15%
(ductile)
(x) Hardness: Resistance of the material to penetration or scratch on surface. Important property
for gears, cams, rail and wheel etc. surface hardness is improved by case hardening. Tests for
measuring hardness are brinell hardness number, vicher test, rachnell hardness test etc. Hardness
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of the material depends upon the resistance to plastic deformation. As hardness increases then
strength also increase, Sut (in N/mm2) = 3.45(BHN)
1.8 CREEP
When a component is under a constant load, it may undergo progressive plastic deformation over a
period of time. Thus time dependent strain is called creep. Creep deformation is a function of
stress level and temperature. Creep deformation is higher at higher temperature and creep becomes
important for components operating at elevated temperature.
The material of stress turbine blades should have a low creep rate, to have longer life. These
blades operate with very close tolerances and permissible deformation is an important
consideration in their design. Design of components working at elevated temperature is based on
two criteria
(i) Deformation due to creep must remain within permissible limit.
(ii) Rupture must not occur during service.
Corresponding strength are creep strength and creep rupture strength.
Creep Strength: It is defined as the maximum stress that the material can withstand for a specified
length of time without excessive deformation.
Creep Rupture Strength: It is maximum stress that the material can withstand for as specified
length of time without rupture.
1.8.1 Stages of Creep
Strain
Fracture Point
D
1st
stage C
B
3rd
2nd stage stage
A
Time
0
Instantaneous
elongation
1.8.1.1 Design against Static Load
A static load is force which is gradually applied to a mechanical component and which does not
change its magnitude or direction w.r.t. time.
1.9 FACTORS OF SAFETY(FOS)
It is defined as
Failure Stress Failure Load
Factor of Safety or
Allowable Stress Working Load
It compensates for safety as well as for number of factors which are difficult for evaluate
accurately.
Example
1. Uncertainty in magnitude of external force.
2. Variation in properties of materials due to impurities, residual stress etc.
3. Variation in dimension due to bad workmanship.
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Load
t
Syt
For ductile materials, FOS yield strength
Sut
For brittle materials, FOS UTS
1.9.1 Different Values of FOS According to Previous Experience
1. Static load
(i) For brittle materials LIG 2 CI is3 to 5 (based on UTS)
(ii) For ductile materials: 1.5 to 2 (based on yield strength)
2. Fluctuating Load
(i) For ductile materials: 1.3 to 1.5 (based on endurance strength)
(ii) For columns: 3 to 6 (based on bucking loads)
All these factors are considered under normal circumstances
FOS increases further, if certain other factors are applicable like impact loads, higher
temperature, failure may cause hazard of lives of people, higher reliability required,
poor quality, vibrations etc.
1.9.2 Definitions
1. Stress (): The internal resisting force per unit area of the component is called stress.
P
t
A
P
P
2. Strain (): Deformation per unit length
S
Where S is Elongation (mm)
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is Length (mm)
3. Hooke’s Law: Stress directly proportional to strain within elastic limit.
t , t = E
Where E is young’s modulus of elasticity (N/m2)
PL
S
AE
1.9.3 Assumptions of Hooke’s Law
1. Material is homogenous.
2. Load is applied gradually.
3. The line of action of force P passes through geometric axis of cross-section.
4. Cross section is uniform.
5. There is no stress concentration.
1.9.4 Shear Stress and Shear Strain
1. Shear Stress (): When the external force acting on a component tends to slide the adjacent
planes with respect to each other.
P(N)
N/mm2
A(mm 2 )
P
P
2. Shear Strain (): It is change in the right angle of the shear element.
Within elastic limit + shear stress shear strain
= G
Where G is modulus of rigidity (N/m2) or shear modulus
1.9.5 Relation between E and G
E = 2G(1 + )
d
Lateral Strain
Where Poission’s Ratio, = d
Longitudinal Strain
Ssy
Permissible Shear Stress , =
FOS
Where Ssy is yield strength in shear (N/m2)
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Syt
Generally, Syt = 2 Ssy or Ssy =
2
1.9.5.1 Stress Due to Bending Moment
MY
b b
I
Where Y is distance strain neutral axis at which bending stress is to be calculated
I is area MOI,
Mb is Moment
Relation (1) implies that bending stress will be maximum at outer fiber and in the case shown,
bending stress is tensile on one side and compressive on other side of neutral axis.
x
Compressive
Y
Mb Mb
Tensile
x
bd 3
ICG (Recgangle)
12
bd 3
ICG (Triangle)
36
d 4
ICG (C ube)
64
For any other axis parallel axis theorem
1.9.5.2 Stress due to Torsional Moment
The internal stress, which are induced to resist the action of twist are called torsional shear stress.
Mt r
J
Where Mt is applied torque (N-mn)
R is radial distance of fibre from axis of rotation (mn)
j is polar moment of inertia (mn4)
is shear stress (N/mn2)
Mt
J
r
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Distribution of Torsional Stress
Stress is maximum at outer fibre and zero at axis of rotation.
Mt
JG
Mt
Where is angle of twist (radians)
is length of shaft
d 4
J {for circular shaft of diameter d}
32
d 04 d i4
J
32
2NT
P
60
Where P is in
N in R/m
T in N-m
1.10 ECCENTRIC AXIAL LOADING
There are certain mechanical components subjected to an external force, tensile or compressive,
which does not pass through the centroid of the cross section.
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+ =
Bending Stress Direct Stress
Distribution Distribution
P Pl y
A
I
Direct Bending
stress stress
Example. Two plates, subjected to a tensile force of 50kN, are fixed together by means of 3 rivets
as shown. Plates and reverts are of carbon steel having tensile strength= 250N/mm2. The yield
strength in shear is 50% of tensile yield strength. Consider FOS = 25. Determine
(a) Diameter of rivets
(b) Thickness of plates
200mm
50kN 50kN 50kN
50kN
Solution.
50
P = 50kN, for 3 rivets, P = kN
3
50
Shear Failure of Rivets = 103 allowable d 2
3 4
0.5 250
Case of Single Shear, allowable 50N / mm2
2.5
50 103 2
50 d
3 4
Tensile Failure of Plate, d = 20.6mn (d = 22mn(standard size))
YT
allowable 100 N / m2
FOS
Minimum Area = (2003d)t = (20066)t = (134)tnm2
Thickness of Plate = t
50 × 103 = 100×(134)t
T = 3.73mm or 4mm
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1.11 COTTER JOINT
1. A cotter joint is used to connect two coaxial rods, which are subjected either axial tensile force
or axial compressive force not for transmitting torque eg. (i) Joint between piston rod and cross
head of a seam engine.
2. A cotter is a wedge-shaped piece made of a steal plate. The joint is tightened and adjusted by
means of a wedge action of the cotter.
b1
b2
Rod A on socket end Cotter
Rod B on spigot end
B Spigot
A
Spigot
collar
The socket end of rod A fits over the spigot end of rod B. both rods have a rectangular slot. Cotter
is fitted in this slot. Thickness of cotter is uniform whereas width is tapered because
(a) To tighten the cotter by however due to wedge action.
(b) Costly assembling and dismounting.
1.11.1 Free Body Diagram
Free body diagram of forces acting on three components, viz. socket, cotter and spigot made by
principle of action and reaction.
P/2 t
Rod A
P/2
b
d P
d4 d2 d3 d
d1 d2
P p
P spigot
socket P/2 P/2 spigot
spigot collar
Cotter
1.11.1.1 Assumptions
1. Rod are subjected to axial tensile force.
2. Effect of stress concentration is neglected.
3. Initial tightening stress neglected.
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1.11.1.2 Notations
p is Tensile force on rods (N)
d is Diameter of each rod (mm)
d1 is outside diameter of socket (mm)
d2 is Inside diameter or socket of diameter of spigot (mm)
d3 is Diameter of spigot cotter (mm)
d4 is Diameter of socket cotter (mm)
t is Thickness of cotter (mm)
b is Mean width of cotter (mm)
is Length of cotter (mm)
c is axial distance from slot to end of socket cotter (mm)
a is Distance from end of slot to end of spigot rod (mm)
1.11.2 Design of Cotter Joint for Various Failures
1. Tensile Failure of Rods
P
t
2
d
4
Where t is permissible tensile stress for rods.
2. Tensile Failure of Spigot
Minimum area of spigot = d 22 d 2 t
4
d2
t
P
t
2
4 d 2 d 2 t
Where t is permissible tensile stress
Generally t = 0.31d2
3. Tensile Failure of Socket
4
Minimum area = d12 d 22 d1 d 2 t
t
d2 d1
P
t
2
4
d1 d 2 d1 d 2 t
2
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4. Shear Failure of Cotter
Since cotter is subjected to double shear.
b
t
P/2
b
P/2
P
2(bt)
5. Shear Failure of Spigot End
P/2
a J Permissible shear stress
d2
Both surfaces are under
shear because double shear
P
2(d 2 a)
Where is permissible shear stress
6. Shear Failure of Socket End
It is subjected to double shear
Area = (d4 – d2)C
c
P/2
P/2
P/4 P2
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P
2(d 4 d 2 ) C
7. Crushing Failure of Spigot
t P
P
p
C
td 2
Where C is permissible crushing stress or compressive stress.
8. Crushing Failure of Socket End
P t d2 d4
t
Crushing area = (d4 d2)t
p
c
(d 4 d 2 ) t
9. Bending Failure of Cotter
P/2 P/2
d2
1.11.2.1 Assumption
1. Cotter is loose
2. P/2 force is distributed in triangular pattern.
y
x
3
d d2
x 4
6
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d2
z
4
P d P P d d d
M b 2 x (z) 2 4 2
2 2 2 2 4 6
tb3
I
12
b
Y
2
MY
b b
I
d2 d4 d2 b
P4 6 2
b 3
2 tb
12
1.11.2.2 Design Procedure for Cotter Joint
P
(i) Calculate diameter of each rod by t
2
d
4
(ii) Calculate thickness of cotter by t = 0.31d
(iii) Calculate diameter d2 of spigot, P d 22 d 2 t t
4
(iv) Calculate outside diameter d1 of the socket P (d12 d 22 ) (d1 d 2 ) t t
4
(v) Diameter of spigot cotter d3 = 1.5d
Diameter of socket collar d4 = 2.4d
(vi) a = c = 0.75d
P
(vii) Find width b, by b
2Jt
3P d 2 d 4 d 2
From Bending Stress b
tb 4 6
Select whichever is maximum.
Where b is Permissible bending stress may be tensile or compressive.
(viii) Check for crushing and shearing stress at spigot end and socket end.
1
32
Taper on the cotter is 1 in 32.
1
tan
32
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Example. Two rods are connected by means of a cotter joint. The inside diameter of the socket
and outside diameter of the socket collar are 50 and 100mmn respectively. The rods are subjected
to a tensile force of 50kN. The cotter is made of steel (Syt = 400N/m2) FOS = 4. The width of
cotter is five times of thickness. Calculate (a) width and thickness of cotter on the basis of shear
failure (b) width and thickness of cotter on the basis of bending failure.
Solution.
(a) Syt = 400N/mm2, Sys = 200N/mm2
Syt
permissible b 100N/mm2
4
FOS = 4
200
permissible = = 50N/m2
4
50 103
50 b 5t
2b(t)
50 103
t2 t 10mm
50 2 5
b = 50mm
(b) d4 = 100mm
d2 = 50mm
3 50 103 50 100 5
b
t 100 4 6
Squaring and solving, we get t = 10.12mm = 12mm(say)
b = 60mm
Example. Two rods made of plain carbon steel syt = 380N/mm2 are to be connected by means of a
cotter joint. The diameter of each rod is 50mn and the cotter is made from a steel plate of 15mm
thickness. Calculate dimensions of socket end assuming is
1. Yield strength is compression is twice of tensile yield strength.
2. Yield strength in shear is half of tensile yield strength FOS = 6
Solution.
t = 15mm, d = 50m , Syt = 380N/m2, FOS = 6
Syt 380
Permissible stress, c 2 2 126.67 N/mm2
FOS 6
Syt 380
t 63.33 N/mm2
FOS 6
Syt 380
= = 31.67N/m2
2 FOS 12
P
(i) Load acting on rods, t
2
d
4
P
63.33 P 124.348kN
(50)2
4
(ii) Inside diameter of socket (d2)
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2
P=
4
d 2 d 2 t t
d2 = 60.45mm or 65mm
(iii) Outside diameter of socket (d1)
P d12 d 22 d1 d 2 t t
4
d1 = 84.21 = 85mm
(iv) Diameter of socket collar = dy
P
c
(d 4 d 2 ) t
d4 = 130.44mm or 135mm
P 124348
(v) a = 30.20 or 35mm
2d 2 2(65)(31.67)
P 124348
C
2(d 4 d 2 ) 2(135 65)(31.67)
= 28.04 or 30mm
1.12 THEORIES OF ELASTIC FAILURE
1. It is useful for applying results obtained from simple tension test to machine components
subjected to various stresses or combined stress because of unavailable of failure stress for
combined loading.
2. The failures of such components are broadly classified into elastic failure, yielding and fracture.
3. Elastic failure results in excessive elastic deformation, which makes a components unfit for it’s
function.
4. Yielding is excessive plastic deformation while fracture is breaking up into two pieces.
5. Theories of failure are applicable to elastic failure of machine parts.
In short, theories of failure are used to determine the safe dimensions of a component
when it is subjected to combine stresses due to load acting on it e.g. power
transmission shaft, design of saving fan rod.
1.12.1 Various Theories
1. Maximum principal stress theory or Ranbine’s theory or man normal stress theory.
2. Maximum shear stress theory or tresca and Guest’s theory.
3. Maximum distortion energy theory or van mises and hancky’s theory
4. Maximum strain theory or st venant’s theory
5. Total strain energy theory or Haigh’s theory.
1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory
The theory states that the failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or Tri-axial
stress occurs when the maximum principal stress reaches the yield or ultimate strength of material.
Let 1, 2, and 3 are Principal stress at a point.
Assume, 1 > 2 > 3
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According to this theory failure occurs when compressive
Syt S Syc S
1 or 1 ut or 1 or 1 uc
FOS FOS FOS FOS
The theory consider only the maximum of principal stress and disregards the influence of the other
principal stresses.
Region of safety: For biaxial stress 1 and 2 platted on x and y axis respectively. Tensile stress
are considered as positive and compressive as negative and also Syc = Syt
2
1 = –Syc
D B
2 = +Syt
1
C A
2 = –Syc
1.Suppose (1 > 2), according to this theory only the maximum principal stress (1) and
disregard the other principal stress (2) and let 1 be tensile, according to this theory
1 = +Syt, so construct a vertical line AB such that 1 = +Syt.
2. Now, suppose (1 > 2) and 1 are compressive
1 = Syc so, draw vertical line DC
3. Now suppose (2 > 1) and 2 are tensile
2 = Syt , draw horizontal line CB such that 2 = Syt
Complete region of safety is the area ABCD since, Syc = Syc, ABCD is a square.
Any point that full outside this square is a case of failure.
Hence, experimental results classify that this theory is good for brittle material but not for ductile
material.
y
Jxy
X X
Jxy
y
When (1 > 2)
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x y x y
2
1,2 xy
2
2 2
1 2
max
2
Assumptions:
1. 2 is not considered
2. max is not considered
Since max is not considered that is why this theory is not acceptable for ductile materials because
they are weak in shear.
This theory is suitable for safe design in ductile material only under uni-axial state of
stress and bi-axial state of stress when principal stress are equal and are of same
nature.
(i) Uni-axial Stress
x
2
1,2 x
2 2
x
x
1 x x and 2 = 0
2 2
2 x
1 = x max 1
2 2
Syt
But theory says 1 which will give result over and above of that required for max
FOS
(iii) Biaxial Stress
Here x = y
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x
y y
x
x y x y
2
1,2
2 2
1,2 = x
1 2
max = 0 because 0
2
1
Absolute, max = 2
2 2
Syt
According to theory, 1= 2 = x which also covers max.
FOS
This theory cannot be applied if stress are of opposite nature because max would
exceed 1 or 2.
2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory
This theory states that the failure o f mechanical component subjected to Bi-axial or Tri-axial
stress occurs when the maximum shear stress at any point in the component becomes equal to
maximum shear stress in the standard specimen of the tension test, when yielding starts.
Syt
Condition for Failure: Absolute max > Sys from tension tset and which is
2
(Sys ) Syt
Condition for Safety Design: Absolute max or
N
2N
For Biaxial State of Stress
2 Syt
, absolute max = 1 or 2 or 1
2 2 2 2N
It is applicable if 1 and 2 are of opposite nature whichever is greater
For Triaxial Stress
We have to choose large from
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1 2 3 3 Syt
or 2 or 1
2 2 2 2N
MPST and MSST will give same result for ductile materials under Bi-axial state of
stress when principal stresses are same in nature and under uni-axial state of stress.
3. Maximum Principal Strain Theory
Syt
For Safe Desi, 1 yp from tesnion test or
NE
1 Syt
For Tri-axial, 1 1 (2 3 )
NE
Syt
1 (2 3 )
E
Syt
For Bi-Axial, 1 2
NE
4. Total Strain Energy Theory
Total S.F SI
For Safe Design, …(i)
Volume Volume y.p Tension Test
1
2
1 Syt
2
S.E 1
Since S.E or 1 2
Volume at y.p 2E N 2 E 2
Total Strain Energy/Volume in Triaxial Stress
1 1 1
= 1 2 2 2 3 3
2 2 2
Putting values of 1 in total strain energy in equation (i), we get
2
Syt
2(12 23 13 ) = permissible
2 2 2 2
1 2 3
N
1
1 (1 (2 3 ))
E
1
2 (2 (1 3 ))
E
1
3 (3 (1 2 ))
E
2
S
For Biaxial, 3 0 212 yt
2
1
2
2
N
Symmetric to ellipse equation as x + y xy a2
2 2
Where a is constant
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5. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory
M.D.E D.E
For Safe Design,
Volume Volume y.p from tension test
TotalStrain Energy Distortion energy Volumetric Strain Energy
Volume Volume Volume
Case-I
Due to applied equal principal stress in all directions, shear stress is zero.
Volume changes due to applied stress but cube remains cube due to equal stresses in all directions.
Therefore, distribution energy = 0
Distortion energy will be zero when an object is subjected to equal and like stress in all three
Total SE Volumetric SE
mutual direction and all {1 = 2 = 3 = } of same nature
Volume Volume
Case-II
Distribution energy is not equal to zero because of presence of shear stress,
Since in tri-axial stress,
c
max
2
Presence of shear stress causes distortion in shape. Therefore, distortion energy 0
Total SE DE Volume SE
Volume Volume Volume
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Case-III
J
Case of pure shear
In this, Volume does not change but shape changes.
Total SE DE
Volume Volume
1 1 1
= 1 1 1 2 3 3
2 2 2
Total Strain Energy 1 2
Now, (1 22 32 2(12 23 31 )) …(i)
Volume 2E
Volumetric Strain Energy 1
Average Stress Volumetric Strain
Volume 2
1 1 2 3 1 2
=
2 E (1 2 3 ) …(ii)
3
1 1 1
Volumetric strain = + 1 (2 3 ) (2 (1 3 ) 3 (1 2 ))
2 2 2
1
1 2 3 ( 2 3 1 3 1 2 )
E
1
1 2 3 2(1 2 3 )
E
2 3
1 1 2
E
1 2
Volume strain = 1 2 3
E
Total S.E D.E Volume Strain Energy
Since
Volume Volume Volume
D.E Total S.E Volume Strain Energy
…(iii)
Volume Volume Volume
Substituting (i) and (ii) in (iii) we get
D.E.
(1 2 )2 (2 3 )2 (2 1 )2 …(iv)
Volume 6E
Now to get
D.E
,
Volume Y.P from tension test
Syt
Substitute 1 = , 2 = 3 = 0 in equation (iv) we get
N
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2
D.E Syt 1
2
Volume Y.P N 6
2
D.E 1 Syt 1
= (permissible ) 2 …(v)
Volume Y.P 3E N 3E
Equation (iv) and (v), we get
2
1 1 Syt
1 2 3 1
2 2
6E 3E N
2
Syt
1 2 2 3 3 1
2 2 2
N
2(permissible )2
For Bi-axial, 3 = 0
2
Syt
12 22 12
N
+Syt
–Syt
+Syt
–Syt
Major axis = 2 Syt
2
Minor axis = Syt
3
2
Equation of ellipse x2 + y2 xy = a2, intercept = 2a and a
3
1.12.2 Practical Application of Theory of Failure
1. MPST: It is basically used for brittle materials and for ductile materials only when bi-axial state
of stress and 1 and 2 are of same nature and equal.
2. MSST: It is used for ductile materials under over-safe design (i.e. safe but economic). It is used
for defence application and for conservation design
3. MDET: It is used for ductile material and is mostly used. It gives safe and most economic
parameters
1.12.3 Relation between Sys and Syt for Various Theories
1. M.P.S.T
1 Syt
Since, max = 1 = Syt
For shear stress,
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Jmax
1
Replace 1 by and 2 by for FOS = 1 and by Syt and by Sys
Syt = Sys
Sys
1
Syt
2. M.S.S.T
max Sys
Syt Sys
Sys = 0.5
2 Syt
3. M.D.E.T
12 22 12 Syt
2
1 = and 2 =
Jmax
1
2 + 2 + 2 = (Syt)2
32 = (Syt)2
2
Syt Syt Sys
(Sys )2 Sys 0.577
3 3 Syt
4. Maximum Principal Strain Theory
Consider = 0.3 for steel
1 = , 2 = Syt
1 = , 2 =
(1+ ) = Syt
Syt Sys
Sys 0.77
1 Syt
5. Total Strain Energy Theory
12 22 212 (Syt )2
1 = , 2 =
2 + 2 + 22 = (Syt)2
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Syt Sys
Sys 0.62 0.62
2(1 ) Syt
1. As Sys decreasing then dimensions increases, safety increases, cost increases and
Sys is least for MSST and most for MPST.
2. (Dimension)MSST = (Dimension)MDET > (Dimension)TSET > (Dimension)MPST >
(Dimension)MPST
3. When a point is subjected to uni-axial starter stress or if one of the principal steels
is too large as compared to others, then all TOF will give same results.
4. When a point is under pure shear stress all TOF will give different results and
under pure shear, DE is the best TOF.
1.13 DESIGN AGAINST FLUCTUATING LOADS/DYNAMIC LOADS
1.13.1 Stress Concentration
P M y r
We generally use elementary equations for calculations which are t , b b , and
A I 2
number of assumptions are there and one assumption is no discontinuities, however in practice,
discontinuities and abrupt changes in cross-section are unavailable due to feature like key ways,
splines, threads etc. With the help of experiments on a hole in plate, it was observed that there is
sudden rise in the magnitude of stress in vicinity of hole. Even loaded stresses are greater than that
observed by elementary equation therefore stress concentration is defined as the localization of
high stresses due to the irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes of cross-
section. In order to compensate stress, concentration factor is used(Kt).
A B
C D
Highest vaue of actual stress near discontinuity
(Kt) = Stress obtained by elementary equatiions for min imum cross sec tion
max max permissibe
t or t
0 0 0
1.13.2 Causes of Stress Concentration
1. Variation in properties of materials
2. Load application
3. Abrupt changes in cross section
4. Discontinuities in the component
5. Machining scratches
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1.13.3 Stress Concentration Factor for Ellipse and Circle
P a P
a
t 1 2 {Ellipse}
b
t = 1 + 2 (1) {Circle}
t = 3
As b approaches , the ellipse becomes shapes and circele becomes a crack and stress at the edge
of crack becomes very large because ht =
For all other cross-sections, charts are used to determine ht.
1. Stress concentration factor has negligible effects in static loading, but while
designing for fluctuating load based on endurance limit, it greatly reduces endurance
limit and may cause failure of component if not taken into consideration.
2. For brittle materials, effects of stress concentration is more severe because it does
not deform plastically and therefore cannot read just stresses by deformation instead
it will break straight away.
3. Stress concentration factor is considered while designing for brittle materials, for
static as wall as for fluctuating loads.
1.13.4 Reduction of Stress Concentration
1.
2. Undercut
3. Driving Additional Holes
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Example. A flat plate subjected to tensile force of 5kN, the plate is of FG = 200 and FOS = 2.5.
determine theory of plate if width is 300mm and diameter of hole in 15mm?
Solution.
5kN 5kN
30mn 15mm
200 P 500
permissible 80N/mm2 0 0 N/mm2
2.5 , (30 15) t 15t
3 5000
permissible = ht ×0 80 =
15t
3 5000
t 12.5mn
15 80
1.14 FLUCTUATING STRESS
The stress induced due to vary loads are called fluctuating stress. Under such fluctuating loads
80% failure of mechanical components are due to fatigue.
Three mathematical models for cyclic stress are:
1. Fluctuating or alternating stress
2. Repeated stress
3. Reversed stress
1. Fluctuating Stress
It varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to time. If some mean value m and amplitude value
a (variable stress)
Nature of stress has to be same
min
m max
2
max min
a
2
And Stress Ratio min
max
a
max
a
min m
2. Repeated Stress
Only difference in variation which is from zero to some maximum value.
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max
a m
t
min
m max m max
2 2
max min max
a a
2 2
min = 0
3. Reversed Stress
There is a complete reversal in nature of stress i.e. from tensile to compressive.
For example, a fibre of a rotating shaft supported in bearings.
m = 0
a
m= 0
a t
–
1.15 FATIGUE FAILURE
It occurs in fluctuating loads and material fills at a stress less than UTS of material and sometimes
even lower than yield stress. For example, breaking of a thin steel plate by reversed stress.
Technical examples are shaft, gears, connecting rods etc.
Thus regions subjected to stress concentration due to cracks, keyways, holes are more prone to
fatigue failure.
1.16 ENDURANCE LIMIT
The failure or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of completely
reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without
fatigue failure.
Since fatigue test cannot be carried out for infinite number of cycles, therefore, 106 cycles is final
limit for endurance.
Fatigue Life
It is defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete during the test
before the appearance of first fatigue crack.
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1.17 S N Curves
1. S N curve is the graphical representation of stress amplitude (Sf) versus the number of stress
cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on a log-log graph paper.
2. For ferrous materials like steels, S N the curve becomes asymptotic at 106’ cycles, straight
line.
Failure points
log10S1
asymptotic curve
log10Se
Endurance
limit stress
6
log10N
3. Endurance limit is not exactly a property of national like UTS, but it is affected by factors such
as the size of the component, shape, surface finish, temperature and notch sensivity of material.
1.17.1 Low Cycle and High Cycle Fatigue
log10Sf
Low cycle High cycle
fatigue fatigue
log10Sut
e.g. shaft
lived e.g costly components
components like shafts, ball bearings,
set screws, springs etc.
bolts etc.
log10Se
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8
1.17.2 Difference Between These Two Fatigue Failures
(i) Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are less than 1000 to called low cycle and
any fatigue failure when number of stress cycles are more than 1000 is called high cycle fatigue.
(ii) Components in high cycle fatigue are designed on the basis of endurance limit with the help of
S N curves, soderberg lines, gerber line or goodmen line diagrams whereas for low cycle fatigue
higher FOS is taken to components fatigue failure.
1.17.3 Notch Sensitivity
Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of as material to give up to the damaging effects
of stress raising notches in fatigue loading.
It is observed that the actual reduction in the endurance limit of a material due to stress
concentration is less than the amount indicated by the theoretical stress concentration factor Kt .
Therefore two separate concentration factor Kt and Kf are used to compensate this affect.
Endurance limit of the notch freespecimen
Kf
Endurance limit of the notched specimen
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Where Kf is fatigue stress concentration factor
Kf depends upon grain size; for fine grained materials, greater reduction is more in endurance limit
as compared to coarse-gained materials.
Increase of actual stress over nominal stress
q
Increase of theorertical stress over nominal stress
Where 0 is Nominal stress as obtained by elementary equation
Actual size is Kf0
Theoretical stress is Kt0
K 0 K 1
q f 0 q f
K t 0 0 Kt 1
Or Kf = 1 + q(Kt 1)
1.17.3.1 Conclusion
1. When material has no sensitivity to notches then q = 0, kf = 1
2. When material is fully sensitive to notches then q = 1, kf = ht.
3. Value of q varies between 0 and 1
4. q can be achieved from available experimental results based graphs.
5. For safer design, q = 1 would give safe design.
1.17.4 Endurance Limit / Approximate Estimation
1. Since S N curves are made by time consuming experiments so this method may be adopted.
2. Two separate notations are used for endurance limit, viz S'e and Se.
S'e is Endurance limits stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to reversed bending stress.
Se is Endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component subjected to reversed bending
stress (N/m2).
1.17.5 Relation between S'e and Sut
For steel, S'e = 0.5 Sut
For CI and cost steels, S'e = 0.4 Sut
For wrought alloys, S'e = 0.4Sut
For cost Al alloys, S'e = 0.3Sut
3. Endurance limit of a component is different from endurance limit of a rotating beam specimen
due to a number of factors.
4. Different modifying factors are used in practice to account for this difference called derating
factor
Se = Ka Kb Kc Kd S'e
Where Ka is surface length factor
Kb is size factor
Kc is reliability factor
Kd is factor to account for stereo concentration.
(i) Surface Finish Factor (Ka)
It decreases with decreasing surface finish, because if surface is rough then it will be more
vulnerable to stereo concentration.
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ka
Polished
1
Machined and cold draw(Ground)
0.8 Hot rolled
0.6
0.4
Frozed
2
Strength (N/mm )
400 600 800 1000 1200
For CI, Ka = 1 [always]
(ii) Size Factor (Kb)
The larger the machine part, the greater the probability that a flow exist somewhere in the
component because Kb reduces with increasing size.
Size Kb
d < 7.5mm 1
7.5 < d < 50 0.85
D > 50 0.75
(iii) Reliability Factor (Kc)
R% Kc
50 1
90 0.897
95 0.866
99 0.814
99.9 0.753
(iv) Monitoring Factor (Kd)
It compensates stereo concentration and notes resistivity both.
1
Kd
Kf
Case - I (m = 0). Revered Stresses Design for Finish and Infinite
Case-a.The reversed stresses mean is always zero, therefore following methods are used when the
component is to be designed for infinite life the endurance limit becomes the criterion for failure.
The amplitude stress in such components should be lower than the endurance limit in order to
withstand the infinite number of cycles.
S S
a e or a se
FOS FOS
Where Sse is shear stress in endurance
a is shear stress amplitude
In axial load, (Sea) = 0.8Se
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Case-b. When the component is to be designed for finite life, the S N curve as shown may be
used. It consists of a straight line AB drawn from 0.9 Sut at 103 cycle to Se at 106 cycles.
A
log10(0.9 Sut)
log10(Sf) F
B
log10(St)
log10N
3 4 5 6 7
Infinite Life Nomenclature
Example. A plate made of steel (Sut = 440N/mn2) in hot rolled and normalized condition as
shown. It is subjected to a completely reversed axial load of 30kN. Take q = 0.81, expected
reliability is 90%, size factor is 0.85. FOS = 2, determine the plate thickness for infinite life?
Assume Ka = 0.67 and Kt = 2.5.
Solution.
±30kN
±30kN
50
P = 30kN, Sut = 440N/mm2, FOS = 2, R = 90%
q = 0.8, Kb = 0.85, Ka = 0.67, Kt = 2.51, Kc = 0.8497
2
S'e = 0.5 Sut = 0.5×440 = 220N/mm
Kf = 1 + q(Kt 1) = 2.208
1
Kd 0.459
2.008
Se = Ka Kb Kc Kd S'e
= 0.67×0.85×0.897×0.459×220 = 50.9N/mm2
(Se)a = 0.8×50.9 = 40.72N/mm2
(S ) 40.72
Permissible Stress Amplitude, a e a = 20.36N/mm2
FOS 2
P 30 103
Thickness of Plate, a 20.36 = t = 36.84mm
( d) t (5 10) t
Example. A component machined from a plate made of steel Sut = 630N/mm2 as shown in figure.
It is subjected to completely reversed axial force of 50kN, expected reliability 90% and FOS = 2
Kb = 0.85, find plate thickness t for infinite life, given q = 0.8, Kc = 8.97, Ka = 8.76 and Kt = 2.27?
100 mm
±50kN 50mm ±50kN
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Solution.
2
S'e = 0.5, Sut = 0.5(630) = 315N/mm
Kf = 1 + q(Kt t) = 1 + 0.8(2.27 1)
1
Kf = 2.016 Kd = = 0.496
Kf
Se = Ka Kb Kc Kd S'e
Se = 0.76×0.85×0.897×0.496×315 = 90.54N/mm2
(Se)a = 0.8 Se = 72.43N/mm2
(S ) 72.43
permissible e a = 36.22N/mm2
FOS 2
P 50 103
permissible 36.22 = t = 27.61mm
b t 50 t
Finite Life Numerical
Example. A rotating bar made of steel (Sut = 630N/mm2) is subjected to a completely reversed
binding stress. The correct endurance limit of the bar is 315N/mm2. Calculate the fatigue strength
of the bar for a life of 90,000 cycles?
Solution.
Sut = 630N/mm2, Se = 315N/mm2, N = 90,000 cycles
0.9Sut = 567N/mm2, log10(0.9Sut) = log10(567) = 2.7536
log10(Se) = log10(315) = 2.4983
log10(90000) = 4.9542
log10(103) = 3, log10(106) = 6
plotting on graph, such values we get
2.7236 A
E
log10(Sf)F
2.4983 D B
F
3 4 5 6
4.9542
AF EF 2.7536 log10 (Sf ) 4.9542 3
Using graph, we have,
AD BD 2.7536 2.4983 63
log10(Sf) = (0.6514) 0.2553 2.7536
log10(Sf) = 2.5872 Sf = 386.6 N/mm2
Example. A finged steel bar, 50mm in diameter is subjected to a reversed binding stress of
250N/mm2. The bar is made of steel (Sut = 600N/mm2). Calculate the life of the bar for reliability
of 90%. Assume Ka = 0.44, Kb = 0.85, Kc = 0.897, Kd = 1.
Solution.
Sf = b = 250 N/mm2
Se’ = 0.5Sut = 300N/mm2
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Se = Ka Kb Kc Kd S'e
= 0.44×0.85×0.897×1×300 = 100.64N/mm2
Also, 0.9Sut = 540N/mm2
log10(0.9Sut) = 2.7324
log10(Se) = log10(100.64) = 2.0028
log10(Sf) = log10(250) = 2.3979
2.7324A
E
2.3979 F
B
2.028 C
3 4 x 5 6
log10N
AF EF
AC BC
2.7324 2.3979 x 3 0.3345 x 3
2.7324 2.0028 6 3 = 0.7296 3
x = 4.3754
log10(N) = 4.3754
N = 23735 cycles
Case - II (m 0). Soderberg, Gerber and Goodman Lines
1. When a component is subjected to fluctuating stress, there is a mean stress (m) as well as stress
amplitude (a). It has been observed that the mean stress component has an effect on fatigue
failure when it is present in combination with alternating component.
2. A diagram is drawn in which mean stress is plotted on abscissa and stress amplitude plotted on
ordinate.
3. When stress amplitude (a) is zero, the load is purely static and the criterion of failure is Sut or
Syt which are plotted on abscissa.
4. When mean stress is zero i.e., m = 0, the stress is completely reversing and criterion of failure
is endurance limit Se.
5. When the component is subjected to both components of stress viz. m and a, actual failure
occurs at different scattered points. Different criterions are prepared to construct the border line
dividing safe zone and failure zone. They include gerber parabola soderberg line and good man
line.
Gerber Parabola: A parabolic curve joining Se on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa is called
Gerber line.
Soderberg Line: A straight line joining Se on the ordinate to Syt on the abscissa is called the
soderberg line.
Goodman Line: A straight line joining Se on the ordinate to Sut on abscissa is called goodman line.
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Syt
Yield Line
Se
Failure Point
The region
C Gerber Line
may cause yielding
but not fatigue failure Goodmen
Soderberg
Syt Sut
The gerber parabola fits the failure point of test data in the best possible way.
Goodman line ia more safe than gerber parabola.
Goodman line is a most conservative failure criterion and there is no need to consider ever
yielding in this case.
A yield line is constructed connecting Syt on both axis. It is called limit on just cycle of stress.
Equation of Soderberg line (Consider FOS)
m a 1 (FOS)m (FOS)a
or 1
Syt Se FOS Syt Se
Equation of Goodman Line (Considering FOS)
m a 1 (FOS)(m ) (FOS)a
or 1
Sut Se FOS Sut Se
Equation of Gerber Line (Considering FOS)
2
(FOS)a (FOS)(m )
1
Se Sut
1. The Goodman line is widely used as the criterion of fatigue failure when the
component is subjected to mean stress as well as stress amplitude. Because it is safe,
it is a straight line.
2. Goodman line gives most conservative design.
Modified Goodman Diagram
In the diagram, the goodman line is modified by combining fatigue failure with failure by
yielding. Line CD is yield and is incline at 45°. Previously discussed goodman line is AF. Point of
intersection of these two lines is B. The region OABC is modified goodman diagram. No point
inside OABC can cause fatigue failure or yielding.
P (M b )a
tan a a
m Pm (M b )m
Point X may be found out at intersection of AB and OX.
Example. A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel Sut = 600N/mm2 and Syt = 380N/mm2 as
shown. The force P acting at free end values from 50N to + 150N. The expected reliability is
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90% and FOS = 2, q = 0.9. Determine diameter of beam at the fillet cross-section. Assume Ka =
0.7715, Kb = 0.85, Kc = 0.897, Kt = 1.44.
P = –50N
100
+150N
1.5d d
Solution.
Sut = 600N/mm2
Syt = 380N/mm2
R = 90%, FOS = 2
q =0.9, Kf = 1 + q(Kt 1)
= 1 + 0.9(1.44 1) = 1.396
1
Kd = 0.716
Kf
2
S'e = 0.5(Sut) = 0.5×600 = 300N/mm
Se = 0.7 0×0.85×0.837×0.716×300 = 126.11N/mm2
(Mb)max = 150×100 = 15000N-mm
At fillet, (Mb)min = 50×100 = 5000N-mm
1
(Mb )m (Mb )max (Mb )min
2
1
= 2
15000 5000 5000N mm
1
(Mb)a = [(Mb)max.(Mb)min] = 10000 N-mm
2
(M b )a S
From 2 63.4350 a 2
(M b )m Sm
Modified Goodman Diagram
a
Syt
(126.19)=SeA
Sa B
Sm 45° m
0 63.455 Syt C Sut
Permissible stress amplitude
Sa S
Equation of line AB, m 1 …(i)
126.11 600
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Sa
Equation of line OX, 2 …(ii)
Sm
Put in (i), we get
Se = 1/4.12 N/mm2 and Sm = 57 N/mm2
Diameter of beam
S 32(M b )a S
a a a
2 d3 FOS
32(10000) 144.12
d 12.23
d3 2
a
SytD
SeA
Yield Line
m
Sa
B
a Region of Yielding
45°
m
Syt C Sut F
Example. A machine component is subjected to fluctuating stress that varies from 40 to
100N/nm2. The corrected endurance limit stress for the M/C component is 270N/mm 2. The
ultimate tensile strength and yield strength of the material are 600 and 450N/mm2 respectively find
FOS using (a) Gerber theory (b) Soderberg line (c) Goodman line (d) Also find FOS against static
failure.
Solution.
1
a = (100 40) = 30N/mm2
2
1
m = 2 (100 + 40) = 70 N/mm2
Se = 270N/mm2
Sut = 600 N/mm2
Syt = 450 N/mm2
2
(FOS)a (FOS)a
According to Gerber, 1
Se Sut
2
30 2 70
FOS (FOS) 600 1
270
x
x (0.0136) 1
2
Let FOS = x, 9
2
x + .1224x = 9
(.1224)x2 + x 9 = 0
x = 5.41, 13.5 x = 5.41
xa xm
According to Soderberg Line, 1
Se Syt
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30 70
x x 1
270 450
1
x .1555 1
9
x = 3.75
xa xm
According to Goodman Line, 1
Se Sut
30 70
x x 1
270 600
x = 4.39
Against Static Load is max = 100N/mm2
Syt 400
FOS 4.5
max 100
1.18 IMPACT STRESSES
Impact is defined as a collision of one component in motion with a second component, which may
be either in motion or at rest.
h
P
Let us consider an elastic system. Loaded by a falling weight W and investigate the effect of
impact.
Where W is falling weight (N)
h is height in (mm)
S is deflection (mm)
A is cross factor of bar (mm2)
P is impact force which produces deflection S(mm)
E is young’s modulus (N/mm2)
i is impact stress in bar (N/mm2)
Potential energy released by falling weight = W(h + S)
1
Strain energy absorbed by system = (P)S
2
1
Equating the above the expression, W(h × S ) = PS ….(a)
2
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S
Also P = iA and i or S i ….(ii)
E E
Substituting (i) and (ii) in (a), we get
1
Wh W i i A i
E 2 E
A W
(i )2 i Wh 0
2E E
Solving this quadratic equation, we get
W 1 2hAE
1 1
A W
2hAE P 1 2hAE
P W 1 1 & 1
W W W
P
Where is shock factor
W
2AE
is Ss i.e., static deflection by gradually applied load
W
Case of suddenly applied load i.e., for h=0
1 2h
P = 2W or i s 1
Ss
P 1 2h
1
W Ss
Example. A mass of 50kg drops through 25mm at the centre of a 250mm long simply supported
beam. The beam has square cross section. It is made of steel S yt = 400N/mm2 and FOS = 2. E =
207GPa. Determine the dimension of cross-section of beam.
Solution.
P 1 2h
1
W Ss
m = 50kg, h = 25mm, = 250mm, Syt = 400N/mm2
FOS = 2, E = 207000 N/mm2
1 2h
i s 1
Ss
M Y
Static stress, s b
I
W
Mb {for simply supported}
4
W = mg = 50×9.81=450.5N
490.5 (250)
Mb = 30656N-mm
4
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30656 a
s
a4 2
12
183.973
s N / mm2
a3
W3 (490.5)(250)3 12 9256.11
Static deflection Ss mm
48EI 48(207000) a 4 a4
Cross-section of Beam
Syt 400
i 200N / mm2
FOS 2
Equating impact stress to permissible stress:
183973 1 2(25) a 4
200 3
1
a 9256.11
Solving the weight a = 67.6 or 70 mm
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GATE QUESTIONS
1. Pre-tensioning of a bolted joint is used to (c) Fail by both of them
(a) Strain harden the bolt head (d) Fail by none of them
(b) Decrease stiffness of the bolted joint
(c) Increase stiffness of the bolted joint 5. A bar is subjected to a combination of a
(d) Prevent yielding of the thread root steady load of 60 kN and a load fluctuating
[GATE - 2018] between – 10 kN and 90 kN. The corrected
endurance limit of the bar is 150 MPa. The yiled
2. Fatigue life of a material for a fully reversed strength of the material is 480 MPa and he
loading condition is estimated from a = 1100 ultimate strength of the material is 600 MPa.
N0.15 where a is the stress amplitude in MPa The bar cross-section is square with side a. if
and N is the failure life in cycles. The maximum the factor of safety is 2, the value if a (in mm),
allowable stress amplitude (in MPa) for a life of according to the modified Goodman’s criterion,
1×105 cycles under the same loading condition is________ (correct to two decimal places).
is _______(correction to two decimal places). [GATE - 2017]
[GATE - 2018]
6. A machine element has an ultimate strength
2
3. If 1 and 3 are maximum and minimum (u) of 600N/mm 2
, and endurance limit (en) of
values of principle stresses algebraically then 250 N/mm . The fatigue curve for the element
the maximum value of shear stress is ? on a log – log plot is shown below. If the
[GATE - 2018] element is to be designed for a finite life of
10000 cycles, the maximum amplitude of a
1 3 completely reversed operating stress is _____
(a) 1 (b)
2 2 N/mm2
3 1 3
(c) 1 (d) A 0.8u
2
Failure stress
2
en B
4. Two wooden pieces are attached as shown in
figure below. Their attached with figure so the 3
10 106
angle () is given in the diagram is 30° and the No. of cycles
whole assembly experience 10 in tensile stress [GATE - 2017]
of 4 MPa.
Log 1 Log 2
7. The principal stresses at a point in a critical
section of machine component are 1 = 60 MPa,
In
4 Mpa axis 4 Mpa
ter
f
2 = 5 MPa and 3 = –40 MPa. For the material
ac
e
= 30°
of the component, the tensile yield strength is y
1. Maximum tensile stress glue can take 2.5
= 200 MPa. According to the maximum shear
Mpa
theory, the factory of safety is
2. Shear stress glue can take 1.5 Mpa
[GATE - 2017]
Assume that failure will be happen in glue not
(a) 1.67 (b) 2.00
in wood ?
(c) 3.60 (d) 4.00
[GATE - 2018]
(a) It fails by two tensile stress not shear stress
(b) It fails by shear stress not tensile ?
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8. A machine component made of a ductile
material is subjected to a variable loading with
min = –50 MPa and max = 50MPa. If the
corrected endurance limit and the yield strength
for the material are e = 100MP and y = 300
MPa, respectively, the factor of safety is _____ I II
[GATE - 2017] [GATE - 2014]
(a) I yields after II
9. In a structural member under fatigue loading, (b) II yields after I
the minimum and maximum stresses developed (c) Both Yield simultaneously
at the critical point are 50 Mpa and 150 MPa, (d) Nothing can be said about their relative
respectively. The endurance, yield, and the yielding
ultimate strengths of the material are 200 MPa,
300 MPa, and 400 MPA, respectively. The 13. Which one of the following is not correct?
factor of safety using modified Goodman [GATE - 2014]
criterion is (a) Intermediate principal stress is ignored when
[GATE - 2016] applying the maximum principal stress theory.
3 8 (b) The maximum shear stress theory gives the
(a) (b)
2 5 most accurate results amongst all the failure
12 theories.
(c) (d) 2 (c) As per the maximum strain energy theory,
7
failure occurs when the strain energy per unit
10. In a linear arc welding process, the heat volume exceeds a critical value.
input per unit length is inversely proportional to (d) As per the maximum distortion energy
[GATE - 2016] theory, failure occurs when the distortion
(a) Welding current energy per unit volume exceeds a critical value.
(b) Welding voltage
(c) Welding speed 14. A rotating steel shaft is supported at the
(d) Duty cycle of the power source ends. It is subjected to a print load at the center.
The maximum bending stress developed is 100
11. A shaft is subjected to pure torsional MPa. If the yield, ultimate and corrected
moment. The maximum shear stress developed endurance strength of the shaft material are 300
in the shaft is 100 MPa. The yield and ultimate MPa, 500 MPa and 200 MPa, respectively, then
strength of the shaft material in tension are 300 the factor of safety for the shaft is ________.
MPa and 450 MPa, respectively. The factor of [GATE - 2014]
safety using maximum distortion energy (von–
Mises) theory is ____________. 15. A bar is subjected to fluctuating tensile load
[GATE - 2014] from 20 kN to 100 kN. The material has yield
strength of 240 MPa and endurance limit in
12. Consider the following of stress as shown in reversed bending is 60 MPa. According to the
configurations I and II in the figure below. Soderberg2
principle, the area of cross-section in
From the standpoint of distortion energy (von - mm of the bar for a factor of safety of 2 is
Mises) criterion, which one of the following [GATE - 2013]
statements is true? (a) 400 (b) 600
(c) 750 (d) 1000
16. A pin jointed uniform rigid rod of weight W
and length L is supported horizontally by an
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external force F as shown in the figure below. [GATE - 1998]
The force F is suddenly removed. At the instant (a) Principal stress theory
of force removal, the magnitude of vertical (b) Principal strain theory
reaction developed at the support is (c) Strain energy theory
(d) Maximum shear stress theory
F
L
21. A small element at the critical section of a
[GATE - 2013] component is biaxial state of stress with the two
(a) Zero (b) W/4 principal stresses being 360 MPa and 140 MPa.
(c) W/2 (d) W The maximum working stress according to
distortion energy theory is
17. A forged steel link with uniform diameter of [GATE - 1997]
30 mm at the center is subjected to an axial (a) 220 MPa (b) 110 MPa
force that varies from 40 kN in compression to (c) 314 MPa (d) 330 MPa
160 kN in tension. The tensile (SU), yield (SY)
and corrected endurance (Se) strengths of the 22. A solid shaft can resist a bending moment of
steel material are 600 MPa, 420 MPa and 240 3.0 kNm and a twisting moment of 4.0 kNm
MPa respectively. The factor of safety against together, then the maximum torque that can be
fatigue endurance as per Sodeberg’s criterion is applied is
[GATE - 2009] [GATE - 1996]
(a) 1.26 (b) 1.37 (a) 7.0 kNm (b) 3.5 kNm
(c) 1.45 (d) 2.00 (c) 4.5 kNm (d) 5.0 kNm
18. The piston rod of diameter 20 mm and 23. Two shafts A and B made of the same
length 700 mm in a hydraulic cylinder is material. The diameter of shaft B is twice that of
subjected to a compressive force of 10 kN due shaft A. The ratio of power which can be
to the internal pressure. The end conditions for transmitted by shaft A to that of shaft B is
the rod may be assumed as guided at the piston [GATE - 1994]
end and hinged at the other end. The Young’s (a) 1/2 (b) 1/4
modulus is 200 GPa. The factor of safety for the (c) 1/8 (d) 1/16
piston rod is
[GATE - 2007] 24. The outside diameter of a hollow shaft that
(a) 0.68 (b) 2.75 is twice its inside diameter the ratio of its torque
(c) 6.32 (d) 11.0 carrying capacity to that of a solid shaft of the
same material and the same outside diameter is
19. A thin spherical pressure vessel of 200 mm [GATE - 1993]
diameter and 1 mm thickness is subjected to an (a) 15/16 (b) 3/4
internal pressure varying from 4 to 8 MPa. (c) 1/2 (d) 1/16
Assume that the yield, ultimate, and endurance
strength of material are 600, 800 and 400 MPa 25. A large uniform plate containing a rivet hole
respectively. The factor of safety as per subjected to uniform uniaxial tension of 95
Goodman’s relation is. MPa. The maximum stress in the plate is
[GATE - 2007]
(a) 2.0 (b) 1.6 5mm
10 cm
(c) 1.4 (d) 1.2 95MPa 95MPa
20. Which theory of failure will you use for
aluminum components under steady loading is [GATE - 1992]
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(a) 100 MPa (b) 285 MPa
(c) 190 MPa (d) Indeterminate 27. In the design of shafts made of ductile
material subjected to twisting moment and
26. Torque to weight ratio for a circular shaft bending moment, the recommended theory of
transmitting power is directly proportional to failure is
the [GATE - 1988]
[GATE - 1991] (a) Maximum principal stress theory
(a) Square root of the diameter (b) Maximum principal strain theory
(b) Diameter (c) Maximum shear stress theory
(c) Square of the diameter (d) Maximum strain-energy theory.
(d) Cube of the diameter
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (c)
Pretension increase stiffness of system. Sy
(480)
Sol 2. (195.61) MPa Se
max min (150) (440,40)
1100N 0.15
2
max min
1100N 0.15
2
2max
1100N 0.15 Sy(480) Su(600
2
Solution by Goodman Equation,
max 1100N0.15 1100 105
0.15
m a 1
1100 Sut e N
1100 10
0.75
5.62 100 50 1
100 2 2
max 195.61 MPa a 600 150a 2
a2 = 1000
Sol 3. (b) a = 31.62 mm
Sol 4. (c) Sol 6. (385.42)
Sol 5. (31.62) Sut = 600 MPa, Se = 250 MPa
60 kN 60 kN (Static) L = 10000 cycles, Sf = ?
Basquin’s equation,
A = sfLB
90 kN 90 kN (Dynamic)
-10 kN A = (0.8 600) 103B
-10 kN
B = 0.094
150 kN 150 kN (Dynamic)
A = 250 106 0.094 = 916.09
+50 kN +50 kN 916.09 = sfL0.094
Pmax Pmin 916.09 = sf 1040.094
Pm sf = 385.42 MPa
2
Pmax Pmin Sol 7. (b)
Pa 1 = 60 MPa, 2 = 5MPa, 3 = –40 MPa
2
Pm 100kN syt = 200 MPa
According to MSST,
Pa = 50 kN
s yt
100 103 max
m MPa 2 FS
a2
1 3 s yt
50 103
a MPa 2 2 FS
a2
Syt
6a 1 3
tan FS
6m
200
= 0.5 60 (40)
FS
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200 Sol 12. (c)
100 FS 2 Simplified Von mises equation for general load
FS
scenario is given by
Sol 8. (2) 1
min = –50 Mpa, max = 50 MPa , [(11 22 ) 2 (22 33 ) 2
v 2
Se = 100 MPa, syt = 300 MPa
The stress is completely reversed stress and (33 11 ) 2 6(12 2
223 31
2
)]
mean stress, m = 0 and stress amplitude. a = Case-I
50 Mpa. 11 = 0
Se 22 =
a
FS 33 = 0
100 12 = 0
50 F.S 2 23 =
FS
31 = 0
Sol 9. (d) 1
max = 150 MPa, min = 50 MPa v (22 62 ) 2 32
2
Se = 200 MPa, Syt = 300 MPa, Case-II
Sut = 400 Mpa
11 = 0
min 150 50 22 =
a max 100Mpa
2 2 33 = 0
Goodman’s equation ; 12 = 0
a m 1 23 = 0
Se Sut FS 31 =
50 100 1 1
FS 2 v (22 62 ) 2 32
200 400 FS 2
In both the cases, v is same, so both yield
Sol 10. (c)
simultaneously.
Sol 11. (1.732) Sol 13. (b)
1 = 100 MPa The maximum shear stress theory predicts that
2 = –100 MPa shear yield value y is 0.5 times the tensile yield
As per Von-Mises yield theory value. This is about 15% less than the value
predicated by the distortion energy (or the
octahedral shear) theory. The maximum shear
2 100 1 stress theory gives values for design on the safe
100 side. Also, because of its simplicity, this theory
is widely used in machine design dealing with
ductile materials.
N2(1 – 2)2 + (2 – 3)2 + (1 – 3)2 2Y2
Sol 14. (2)
In this case, 3 = 0 Same fiber under point load at the center of a
2N2 [12 22 22 12 ] 22y rotating steel shaft supported at ends is
N2[(100)2 + (100)2 + (100)2] (300)2 subjected to reversal of stresses. Here only
9 maximum stress is given, its sign (nature) is not
N2 N 3 given
3
min = – 100 MPa
N = 1.732
max = 100 MPa
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max min Sol 17. (a)
m 0 Dia, d = 300 mm
2
Fmax = +160 kN (Tension)
min 100 100
a max 100 MPa Fmin = –40 kN (Compression)
2 2 Tensile strength, Su = 600 MPa
As the steel is ductile material, Soderberg Yield strength, Sy = 430 MPa
criteria will be applied. Corrected endurance, Se = 240 MPa
1 Maximum stress,
m a
y e N F 160 103 N
1 max
100 1 A
or 0 N2 (30) 2 mm 2
200 N 4
= 226.47 MPa (Tensile)
Sol 15. (d) Minimum stress,
P1 = 20 kN F 40 103 N
P2 = 100 kN min min
A
yt = 240 MPa (30)2 mm2
e = 160 MPa 4
= –56.62 MPa (Compression)
20 100
Pm 60 kN Stress amplitude,
2 1
Let A is are in mm2 a (max min )
2
100 20
Pv 40 kN 1
2 = [226.47 (56.62)] = 141.54 MPa
2
40
v kN / mm2 1
A Mean stress, m (max min )
By Soderberg principal 2
1
1
m v [226.47 (56.62)] = 84.952 MPa
FOS yt e 2
Assume factor of safety in n then
1 60 103 40 103 Sa = n a = 141.54 n
2 A yt Ayt Sm = n m = 84.925 n
The equation of soderberg line as follows
60 40
A 2 103 Sa Sm
240 100 1
Se Syt
2
A 2 103 1000 mm2 141.54n 84.925n
4 1
240 420
Sol 16. (c) n = 1.26
W
Sol 18. (c)
F
L Assuming guided end to be fixed and other end
given as hinged. The crippling load according to
w
L
F L euler’s equation.
2 22 El
Pcr
w L2
F
2
l
4
(20) 4 = 7853.9 mm
64
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E = 200 × 109 N/m2 Sol 22. (d)
= 200 × 103 N/mm2 Maximum torque = M2 T2
22 200 103 7853.9
= 63.27 kN Equivalent torque 32 42 5Nm
(700)2
Factory of safety Sol 23. (c)
Crippling load 63.27 Power = T ×
6.32 3
Working load 10 For shaft A, TA = d
16
Sol 19. (d)
Stress induced For shaft B, TB = (2d) 3
16
pr
1 2 PA TA 1
2t
PB TB 8
8 100
1max 400 MPa
2 1 Sol 24. (a)
4 100 For hollow shaft,
1min 200 MPa
2 1 d4 2
Th d 4
2max = 400 MPa 32 16 d
2min = 200 MPa For solid shaft
1m = 300 MPa
1a = 100 MPa TS d 3
16
2m = 300 MPa
Th 15
2a = 100 MPa
Equivalent Stresses Ts 16
me 1m
2
2m
2
1m 2m Sol 25. (b)
Max. stress = 3 × av = 285 MPa
300 300 300 300 = 300 MPa
2 2
Due to stress concentration.
Similarly,
ae = 100 MPa Sol 26. (b)
Goodman Equation,
T d3
ae me 1 16
Se Sut n d 2
w
100 300 1 4
400 800 n T d3
n = 1.6 w 16 d 2
4
Sol 20. (d)
T
Since, aluminum is a ductile material therefore d
we will use maximum shear stress theory. w
Sol 21. (c) Sol 27. (c)
According to distortion energy theory. For ductile materials, maximum shear stress
12 22 12 314 MPa theory is considered.
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ESE OBJ QUESTIONS
1. A machine component is subjected to a (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
flexural stress, which fluctuates between 300 individually true and Statement (II) is the
MN/m2 and –150 MN/m2. Taking the yield correct explanation of Statement (I)
strength = 0.55 of the ultimate strength, (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
endurance strength = 0.50 of the ultimate individually true but Statement (II) is not the
strength and factor of safety to be 2, the value of correct explanation of Statement (i)
the minimum ultimate strength according to (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is
modified Goodman relation will be false.
[ESE - 2017] (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is
(a) 1100 MN/m2 (b) 1075 MN/m2 true.
(c) 1050 MN/m2 (d) 1025 MN/m2
5. A solid shaft is designed to transmit 100 kW
2. Consider the following statements: while rotating at N r.p.m. If the diameter of the
For a component made of ductile material, the shaft is doubled and is allowed to operate at 2 N
failure criterion will be r.p.m., the power that can be transmitted by the
1. Endurance limit, if the external force is latter shaft is
fluctuating [ESE - 2016]
2. Fatigue, if the external force is fluctuating (a) 200 kW (b) 400 kW
3. Yield stress, if the external force is static (c) 800 kW (d) 1600 kW
Which of the above statements are correct
6. The diameter of a shaft to transmit 25 kW at
[ESE - 2017]
(a) 1and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only 1500 r.p.m.. given that the ultimate strength is
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 150 MPa and the factor of safety is 3, will
nearly be
3. Consider the following statements: [ESE - 2016]
On heating an elastomer under tensile load, its (a) 12 mm (b) 16 mm
shrinkage (c) 20 mm (d) 26 mm
1. maximizes the enthalpy
2. maximizes the entropy 7. A shaft of 50 mm diameter transmits a torque
3. minimizes the free energy of 800 N-m. The width of the rectangular key
4. avoids breaking used is 10 mm. the allowable shear stress of the
Which of the above statements are correct? material of the key being 40 MPa, the required
[ESE - 2017] length of the key would be
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 [ESE - 2016]
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 (a) 60 mm (b) 70 mm
(c) 80 mm (d) 90 mm
4. Statement(I) : Directionally solidified
materials have good creep resistance. 8. The diameter of the pin in a bushed pin type
Statement (II): Directionally solidified flexible coupling is to be increased for the
materials may be so loaded that there is no purposed of
shearing stress along, or tensile stress across, [ESE - 2016]
the grain boundaries. (a) Higher stress due to shear
[ESE - 2017] (b) Keeping the magnitude of bending moment
small by reducing the unsupported length of the
pin
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(c) Fitting the pin in the bush what is the maximum shear stress developed
(d) Reducing the thickness of the flange corresponding to the same torque?
[ESE - 2009]
9. Two shafts of diameter 30 mm each are (a) 120 MPa (b) 60 MPa
connected by a flange coupling. Six bolts, each (c) 30 MPa (d) 15 MPa
of diameter 8 mm, are used on a pitch circle of
diameter 90 mm. If the allowable shear stress of 14. Consider the following joints:
the boil material is 80 MPa, what is the torque- 1. Railways carriage wheel and axle.
transmitting capacity of the bolts to the nearest 2. IC engine cylinder and liner
10 units? Which of the above joints is/are the result(s) of
[ESE - 2016] interference fit?
(a) 780 N-m (b) 950 N-m [ESE - 2009]
(c) 1090 N-m (d) 1250 N-m (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Both 1 and 2
10. In the design of connecting rods small end
bearing the value of permissible bearing 15. Who postulated the maximum distortion
pressure to be used is: energy theory?
[ESE - 2013] [ESE - 2008]
(a) Less then that used for big end bearing (a) Tresca (b) Rankine
(b) More than that used for big end bearing (c) St. Venant (d) Mises-Henky
(c) Equal to that used for big end bearing
(d) None of the above 16. In designing a shaft for variable loads, the
S.N. diagram can be drawn by
11. A rotating shaft carrying a unidirectional [ESE - 2007]
transverse load is subjected to: (a) Joining the Sut at 0 cycles and Sut at 0 cycles
[ESE - 2013] and Se at 106 cycles by a straight line on a log
(a) Variable bending stress S– log N graph.
(b) Variable shear stress (b) Joining the 0.9 Sut at 1000 cycles and Se at
(c) Constant bending stress 106 cycles ay a straight line on a log S– log N
(d) Constant shear stress graph
(c) Joining the 0.9 Sut at 1000 cycles and Se at
12. Fatigue strength of a rod subjected to cyclic 106 cycles by a straight line on an S-N graph.
axial force is less than that of a rotating beam of (d) Joining the Sut at cycles by a straight line on
the same dimensions subjected to steady lateral a log S–log N graph.
force. What is the reason? (Sut stands for ultimate tensile strength and Se
[ESE - 2009] for the endurance limit).
(a) Axial stiffness is less than bending stiffness
(b) Absence of centrifugal effects in the rod 17. Disruptive strength is the maximum strength
(c) The number of discontinuities vulnerable to of a metal when
fatigue is more in the rod. [ESE - 2006]
(d) At a particular time, the rod has only one (a) Subjected to 3 principal tensile stresses at
type of stress whereas the beam has both tensile right angles to one another and of equal
and compressive stresses. magnitude.
(b) Loaded in tension
13. Maximum shear stress developed on the (c) Loaded in compression
surface of a solid circular under pure torsion is (d) Loaded in shear
240 MPa. If the shaft diameter is doubled, then
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18. Match List-I (Theory of failure) with List-II 22. A loaded semi-infinite flat plate is having an
(Predicted ratio of Shear Stress to Direct Stress A
at yield Condition for Steel Specimen) Select elliptical hole 2 in the middle as shown
B
the correct answer using the code given below
the lists: in the above figure. The stress concentration
factor at points either X or Y is
List-I
A. Maximum shear stress theory [ESE - 2000]
B. Maximum energy of distortion theory
C. Maximum principal stress theory
D. Maximum principal strain theory
List-II
(i) 1.0
(ii) 0.77
(iii) 0.62 x y B
(iv) 0.50
[ESE - 2006]
Codes: A
(a) A-i, B-ii, C-iv, D-iii
(b) A- iv, B-iii, C-i, D-ii
(c) A-i, B-iii, C- iv, D-ii
(d) A- iv, B-ii, C-i, D-iii
(a) 1 (b) 3
19. The maximum distortion energy theory of
(c) 5 (d) 7
failure is suitable to predict the failure of which
one of the following types of materials?
23. A link is under a pull which lies on one of
[ESE - 2004]
the faces shown in the figure. The magnitude of
(a) Brittle materials
maximum compressive stress in the link would
(b) Ductile materials
be
(c) Plastics 4kN
(d) Composite materials
20. A cold rolled steel shaft is designed on the
basis of maximum shear stress theory. The
principal stresses induced at its critical section 4kN
are 60MPa and –60 MPa respectively. It the
50mm
yield stress for the shaft material is 360 MPa,
the factor of safety of the design is
[ESE - 2002] m m
500
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 6 15mm
21. A rod with cross-sectional area 100 × 10–6 [ESE - 2000]
m2 is subjected to a tensile load. Based on the (a) 21.3 N/mm2 (b) 16.0 N/mm2
Tresca failure criterion, if the uniaxial yield (c) 10.7 N/mm2 (d) Zero
stress of the material is 200 MPa, the failure
load is 24. A circular solid shaft is subjected to bending
[ESE - 2001] moment of 400 kN-m and a twisting moment of
(a) 10 kN (b) 20 kN 300 kN-m. One the basis of the maximum
(c) 100 kN (d) 200 kN principal stress theory, the direct stress is and
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according to the maximum shear stress theory, 2/yp
the shear stress is . The ratio / is
[ESE - 2000]
(a) 1/5 (b) 3/9
(c)
(c) 9/5 (d) 11/6 1/yp
25. A link is under a pull which lies on one of
the faces as shown in the figure below. The
magnitude of maximum compressive stress in 2/yp
the link would be
4kN
(d)
1/yp
27. A solid circular shaft is subjected to pure
torsion. The ratio of maximum shear stress to
maximum normal stress at any point would be:
4kN [ESE - 1999]
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 2
m
50mm
0m
(c) 2 : 1 (d) 2 : 3
50
28. According to the maximum shear stress
15mm
theory of failure permissible twisting moment in
a circular shaft is T. The permissible twisting
[ESE - 2000] moment in the same shaft as per the maximum
(a) 21.3 N/mm2 (b) 16.0 N/mm2 principal stress of failure will be
2
(c) 10.7 N/mm (d) Zero [ESE - 1998]
26. Which one of the following figures (a) T/2 (b) T
represents the maximum shear stress Theory or (c) 2T (d) 2T
TRESCA criterion?
[ESE - 1999] 29. Match List-I (Failure theories) with List-II
2/yp (Figures representing boundaries of these
theories) and select the correct answer using
codes given below the lists:
List-I
(a) A. Principal stress theory
1/yp
B. Max. shear stress theory
C. Max. octahedral shear stress theory
D. Max. shear strain energy theory
2/yp List-II
2
1.
(b) 1
1/yp
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2 [ESE - 1996]
(a) Have same value as that of standard
2. specimen
1 (b) Increases
(c) Decreases
2 (d) None of these
32. If shaft made from ductile material is
3. subjected to combined bending and twisting
1
moments. Calculations based on which one of
the following failure theories would give the
2 most conservative value?
[ESE - 1996]
(a) Maximum principal stress theory
4.
1 (b) Maximum shear stress theory
(c) Maximum strain energy theory
(d) Maximum distortion energy theory
[ESE - 1997]
Codes: 33. Permissible bending moment in a circular
(a) A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4 shaft under pure bending is M according to
(b) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1 maximum principal stress theory of failure the
(c) A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1 permissible bending moment in the same shaft
(d) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3 is
[ESE - 1995]
30. Stress concentration in a machine (a) 1/2 M (b) M
component of ductile materials not so harmful (c) M (d) 2 M
as it is in brittle material because.
[ESE - 1996] 34. The design calculation for members subject
(a) In Ductile material local yielding may to fluctuating loads with the same factor of
distribute stress concentration safety yield the most conservative estimates
(b) Ductile material have large Young’s when using
modulus [ESE - 1995]
(c) Poisson’s ratio larger in ductile materials (a) Gerber relation
(d) Modulus of rigidity is larger in ductile (b) Soderberg relation
material. (c) Goodman relation
(d) None of the above
31. If the size of a standard specimen for fatigue
testing machine is increased the endurance limit
for the material will.
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (a) d = 0.08 m = 80 mm
Safe of [Goodman + Langer] = Modified
goodman Sol 8. (a)
max = –370 MPa 2T
min = –150 MPa
m a 1
Dn d 2
Goodman 4
Sut c N 1
75 225 1
2
d
Sut 0.5Sut 2
1.50 Sut Sol 9. (c)
m s 1
Langer a
0.55Sut 55Sut 2 Sol 10. (b)
75 225 1 Pb = 10.5 to 15 MPa (for small end bearing)
Pb = 7 to 12.5 MPa (for big end bearing)
00.55Sut 0.5Sut 2
For the same maximum gas load, projected area
1090 Mpa Sut
is smaller at piston pin bearing, so P b is higher
Final 109 Mpa
at piston pin as compared to crank pin end.
Sol 2. (b)
Sol 11. (a)
For ductile material, in case of static loading
Some fibre is subjected to tensile and
design stress is yield stress where as for
compressive bending stress.
fluctuating force it is endurance limit.
Sol 12. (d)
Sol 3. (b)
Sol 13. (c)
Sol 4. (d)
Maximum shear stress
In case of torsion (pure shear) max tensile and
compressive stress will be same. Since C.I. is 16T3 240 MPa
brittle which weak in tension therefore it is not d
suitable for power transmission. Maximum shear stress developed when
diameter is doubled
Sol 5. (d) 16 1 16T
3
2N d per
3
(2d) 3
8 d 8
Pmax
60 16 240
30 MPa
8
Sol 6. (d) Sol 14. (a)
Sol 7. (c) Sol 15. (d)
2T Maximum shear stress theory: Tresca
per
bD Maximum principal stress theory: Rankine
2 800 Maximum principal strain theory : St. Venant
40 106
0.01 0.05 d
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Maximum shear strain energy theory: Mises- Sol 21. (b)
Henky Tresca theory
max = (1 – 2)/2 = y/2
Sol 16. (b) Since 2 = 0
Therefore 1 = y (1 = force × area)
log10(0.9 Sut) force = 200 × 106 × 100 × 10–6 = 20 kN
log10Sf
Sol 22. (c)
log10Se
2A
kT 1 1 2 2 5
B
3 6
log10N Sol 23. (c)
Since 4 kN force will produce bending and
S-N Curve for finite life
direct tensile stress
Sol 17. (a) M. y 4 103 25 25
16N / mm 2
I 1
15 50 3
Sol 18. (b) 12
TOF Sys Bending stresses are tensile and compressive
also. The effect are:
Syt
MSST 0.5
MDET 0.62
MPST 1.0
MPST 0.77
1 L 2 AL
( A)
2 E 2E
2 V
U (tensile) = b(tensile) + direct
2E
(compressive) = b(comp) + direct
Sol 19. (b) 4 103
16 10.7N / mm2
Maximum distortion energy theory of failure 50 15
suitable to predict the failure of ductile
materials. According to the question. Sol 24. (c)
M M2 T2
Sol 20. (b)
2 60 (60) M2 T2
max 1 60 MPa
2 2 400 (400)2 (300)2 9
According to maximum shear stress theory
(400) (300)
2 2 5
Yield stress in shear
= Sse = 0.5 × Syt
= 0.5 × 360 = 180 Sol 25. (c)
S
allowance se
FOS
Sse 180
FOD 3
allowable 60
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Tension
T d3
.max
2 32
4kN
4kN max 1:1
max
Compressive 400025N-mm
500mm Sol 28. (b)
15 Major principal stress 1 = +, minor principal
stress 2 = –
Maximum shear stress theory =
50 1 2 ()
.
2 2
So torque T remains same in both case.
Equivalent figure,
Bending stress Sol 29. (d)
M A. Maximum principal stress theory
b Y 2
I
4000 25
25 = 16 MPa
1 1
15 (50) 3
12
Tensile stress
B. Maximum shear stress theory
F 4000N 2
t = 5.33 MPa
A 15 50mm 2
Maximum compressive stress
= b – t= 16 – 5.33 = 10.67 MPa 1
Sol 26. (c)
MSST 2 C. Maximum octahedral shear stress theory
2
1 1
D. Maximum shear strain energy theory
2
Sol 27. (a)
IInd Method
1
Te M2 T 2
For pure torsion M = 0
d3
Te T .max Sol 30. (a)
16 The shear concentration effect in ductile
1
and Me M M 2 T 2 material for static loading has no serious effect
2 because there material undergoes local yielding
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and distribute the stress where maximum value Now, According to maximum shear stress
is reached. theory
per
Sol 31. (c) max
2
If the diameter or size of the mechanical
per = M
components is more, the surface area is more
hence greater number of surface defect. Hence,
Sol 34. (b)
endurance limit of component reduced with Taking sorderberg criteria the results are more
increase in size. conservative as maximum stress point will be as
shown.
Sol 32. (b)
Sordeberg criterion
Most conservative value means safest design i.e.
largest diameter. For ductile material, maximum Se Goodman criterion
shear stresses of theory gives value of diameter. Gerber criterion
Sol 33. (b)
Max. bending stress 1 = M (a)
Min. bending stress 2 = O
2 M Syt Sut
Max shear stress = 1 (m)
2 2
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CHAPTER - 2
POWER SCREWS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A power screw is a mechanical device used for converting rotary motion into linear motion and
transmitting power. Example; screw jack, lead screw of lathe, vice etc.
2.1.1 Advantages
1. Large head capacity for very smaller dimensions of the power screw resulting in compact
design.
2. Simple manufacturing and design.
3. Large mechanical advantage for example, load of 15kN can be raised by applying only 400N.
4. Controlled and accurate linear motion.
5. Smooth and noiseless service.
6. A power screw can be designed with self locking property. In screw jack applications, self
locking characteristic is required to prevent the load from falling on its own.
2.1.2 Disadvantages
1. Lower efficiency of 40%
2. High friction in threads causes rapid wear of the screw.
2.1.3 Forms of Threads
1. The threads are used for fastening purpose such as V threads are not suitable for power success.
The purpose of fastening threads is to provide high fractional force, which lessons the possibility
of loosening the parts assembled by preceded joint.
2. On the other hand, the purpose of power transmission threads is to reduce friction between the
screw and nut therefore V threads are not suitable.
3. Screw with smaller angle of thread such as trapezoidal threads are preferred for power
transmission.
2.2 TYPES OF POWER SCREW THREADS
There are two mostly used power screw threads are:
1. Square threads
2. Trapezoid threads
30°
P/2 P/2
2.2.1 Square Threads
2.2.1.1 Advantages
1. Its efficiency is more than trapezoidal threads.
2. There is no radial pressure or side thrust on the nut.
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2.2.1.2 Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to manufacture, since they are usually tuned on lathe with a single point cutting
tool.
2. It has lesser load carrying capacity as compared to trapezoidal thread of same pitch.
3. On wearing, complete set has to be changed as like screw jack.
2.2.2 Trapezoid Thread
2.2.2.1 Advantages
1. It is economical to manufacture as it is manufactured by multipoint tool on thread milling M/C.
2. It has large load carrying capacity.
2.2.2.2 Disadvantages
1. Its efficiency is less
2. Side thrust is there.
2.2.3 Acme Threads
1. Special case of trapezoid threads is Acme threads.
2. Only difference is thread angle is 29° instead of 30°.
P 29°
P/2
Example head screw
2.2.4 Buttress Thread
45°
P
0.75P
1. It combines the advantages of square and trapezedal threads.
2. Buttress threads are used where a heavy axial force acts along the screw axis in one direction
only.
2.2.4.1 Advantages
1. It has higher efficiency than trapezoidal threads.
2. It can be economically manufactured on thread milling machine.
3. It has stronger threads
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2.2.4.2 Disadvantages
It can transmit power only in one direction. For example, Vice
Designation: Sq 60×6 and Tr 40×7
For higher travel speeds, multiple start screws such as double start or triple start
screw are used.
2.3 TERMINOLOGY OF POWER SCREWS
1. Pitch: The pitch is defined as the distance measured parallel to the axis of the screw from a
point on one thread to the corresponding point on the adjacent threads.
2. Lead(): The lead is defined as the distance measured parallel to the axis of the screw which the
nut will advance in one revolution of the success. Denoted by „‟.
For single thead = P
For double thread = 2P
For triple thread = 3P
P
dc
d
Case of double start screw thread ( = 2P)
Nominal diameter = Major diameter (d)
Case diameter = Smaller diameter of screw thread (dc)
Mean diameter of screw = dm
dm = d 0.5P
dc = d P
3. Helix Angle(): Angle made by helix of the thread with a plane perpendicular to the axis of the
screw.
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pdm
tan a
pd m
Since thread will become hypotenuse of right angled triangle whose base is pdm and height is load
.
This can be imagined by cutting the paper in the form of right angled triangle, with base equal to
pdm and height equal to . Wrap this paper around a rod with diameter dm.
Conclusions from above figure
1. The screw can be considered as an inclined plane with a as the inclination.
2. When load W is raised, it moves up the inclined plane, when load W is lowered, it moves down
the inclined plane.
3. The load W is raised or lowered by means of an imaginary force P acting at the mean radius of
d
the screw. The force P multiplied by mean radius m gives the torque required to raise or lower
2
the load member. P is perpendicular to load W.
2.4 TORQUE REQUIREMENT LIFTING LOAD
N Ncosa
Ncos(90–a –a
a P
–a
aa W
pdm
1. Load (W): It always acts in vertical downward direction.
2. Normal reaction (N): Always acts perpendicular to inclined plane
3. Friction force (N): Always acts opposite to motion. Since the load is moving up the inclined
plane, frictional force acts along the inclined plane in the downward direction.
4. Effect (P): It should act towards right to overcome the friction and raise the load.
Equation of horizontal forces = P = N cosa + N cos(90 )
= N cosa + N sina …(i)
Equation of vertical forces = W = N cosa N sina …(ii)
Divide (i) by (ii), we get
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P N cos a N sin a W( tan a)
P
W N cos a N sin a (1 tan a)
Also = tan
Where is friction angle
tan tan a
P W
1 tan tan a
P = W tan ( + a)
d
Effort required is P but torque required will be T = P m
2
W
T d m (tan( a))
2
As this effort P is at a radius of, but as the increase the length of handle, effort
requirement will be less.
2.4.1 Torque Requirement for Lowering Load
N
N
–a
–a a
P
cosa
a W
Horizontal force: PN cosa N sina …(i)
Vertical force :W = N cosa + N sina …(ii)
P = Wtan( a)
Wd m
T tan( a)
2
2.5 SELF LOCKING SCREW
Wd m
Since torque required to lower the load is obtained by T tan( a)
2
Case - I. If a >
Torque required will be negative, which indicates no force is required to lower the load. The
load itself will begin to turn the screw and descend down, until a restoring torque is applied. This
condition is called over loading of the screw. The property is not useful in screw jack, but useful
in some other applications.
Case - II. If a
It means positive torque is required to lower the load. Under this condition, the load will not turn
the screw and will not descend on its own unless an effort P is applied. In this case screw is called
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self locking. For example, the driver can jack up the car and leave the jack handle and carry out
the work.
“A screw jack will be self locking if the coefficient of friction is equal to or greater than the
tangent of helix angle”
For self locking > a or tan > tan a
pd m
2.5.1 Conclusion
1. should be higher lubrication reduces may cause load to descent on its own.
2. a should be small i.e. should be less therefore single threaded are preferred instead of triple
threaded screw.
2.5.2 Efficiency of Square Threaded Screw
Suppose that load W moves from the lower end to the upper end of the inclined plane. The output
consists of raising the load therefore work output = force × distance travelled in the direction of
force.
The input consists of rotating the screw by means of an effort P.
Work input = P(pdm)
Output W W
Efficency() tan a and P = W tan( + a)
Input P(p d m ) P
tan a
tan( a)
2.5.2.1 Conclusion
The efficiency of a square threaded power screw depends upon
1. Mean diameter of screw (dm)
2. Head of screw ()
3. Coefficient of friction ()
tan a sin a / cos a
Maximum efficiency,
tan( a) sin(a ) / cos(a )
sin a cos(a ) 2sin a cos(a )
= cos a sin(a ) 2cos a sin(a )
sin(2a ) sin
sin(A B) sin(A B)
sin(2a ) sin
Since, coefficient of friction is constant therefore only variable is a, and for to be maximum tan
sin(2a + ) should maximum and we know maximum value of sin tan is 1
sin(2a + ) =1 2a + = 90o a= (45° /2)
sin(90) sin 1 sin
max
sin 90 sin 1 sin
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2.5.3 Efficiency of Self Locking
Since, a
Limiting Condition is = a
tan a tan a tan
tan(a a) tan 2a tan 2
2 tan tan (1 tan 2 )
And tan 2
1 tan
2
2 tan
1 tan 2
2 2
Efficiency of self locking square threaded power screw is always less than or equal to 50%.
2.5.3.1 For Trapezoid and Acme Thread
W( sec tan a)
Lifting Head, P
1 sec tan a
W( sec tan a)
P
(1 sec tan a)
tan a(1 jsec tan a)
( sec tan a)
20°
Di
Collar
Do
2.5.3.2 Collar Friction Torque
According to uniform pressure theory,
C c 2
W D o Di
3 3
3
Do Di2
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Where c is coefficient of friction between collar and rod
According to uniform wear theory,
W
C c (Do Di )
4
2.5.3.3 Overall Efficieny()
Output W
Input t 2p
Input = Torque ×Angle turned through = t × 2p
Example. The nominal diameter of a triple threaded screw is 50mm, while the pitch is 8mm. It is
used with a collar having an outer dia. of 100 mm and inner dia. of 65mm. The coefficient of
friction at the thread surface, as well as at the collar surface can be taken as 0.15.The screw is used
to raise a load of 15kN. Using uniform wear theory for collar friction. Calculate
(i) Torque required to raise load
(ii) Torque required to lower load
(iii) Force required to raise load, if applied at a radius of 500mm.
Solution.
c = = 0.15, W = 15×103N, d = 50mm, P = 8mm
No. of status = 3, for collar D0 = 100mm, Di = 65mm
(i) Torque required to raise load
dm = d 0.5(P) = 50 (0.5)8 = 46mm
= 3P = 3 (8) = 24mm
24
tana = a = 9.429°
pd m p(46)
For = = 0.15 or ;= 8.531°
Wd m 15 103 16
1 tan(a ) tan(9.429 83531)
2 2
1 = 111831N-mm
w 0.15(15 163 )
Collar Friction Torque(C) = c (D0 Di ) (100 65) = 92812N-mm
4 4
total = 1 + C = 11831 + 93812 = 204.64Nm
(ii) Torque required to lower load
Wd m
1 tan( a) 5407.63 N mm
2
t = 1 + c = 5407 + 92812 = 87.4N-m
Negative sign indicates that the screw alone is not self locking however, due to
restraining torque of collar friction, the screw is self-locking.
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(iii) Force required to raise the load
T = Fnew × radius
204643 = Fnew × (500) Fnew = 409.3N
Example. A machine vice as shown, has single start, square threads with 22mm nominal diameter
and 5mm pitch. The outer and inner diameter of the friction collar are 55 and 45 mm respectively
= 0.15 and c = 0.17. The machinist can comfortably exert a force of 125N on the handle at a
mean radius of 150mm. Assuming uniform wear theory; calculate (i) The clamping force develops
between the jaws (ii) The overall efficiency of the clamp
Solution.
d = 22mm, = P = 5mm, = 0.15
Screw
150mm
P = 125N Handle
For collar, D0 = 55mm, Di = 45mm
= 0.17, P = 125N, length = 150mm
dm = d 0.5(P) = 22 (0.5) (5) == 11.5mm
5
tan a or a 4.666
pd m p(19.5)
tan = = 0.15 or = 8.531°
Wd m W(19.5)
tan(a ) tan(4.666 8.532) = 2.2856W N-mm
2 2
W 0.17(W)
C c (D0 Di ) (55 45) 4.25 W N mm
4 2
Total = + c = P ×150
4.25W + 2.286W = 125×150
W = 2868.7N
Example. A double threaded power screw, with ISO trapezoid threads ( = 15°) is used to raise a
load of 300kN. The nominal diameter is 100mm and pitch is 12mm. The coefficient of friction at
the screw threads is 0.15. Neglecting collar friction, calculate:
(i) Torque required to raise the load
(ii) Torque required to lower the load
(iii) Efficiency of the screw
Solution.
W = 300kN, d = 100mm, P = 12mm, = 0.15
No. of status = 2 = 2p = 2 × 12 = 24mm
dm = d 0.5P = 100 0.5(12) = 94mm
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24
tan a .0813
pd m p(94)
0.15
sec 0.1553
cos cos15
W sec tan a
(i) Lifting load, T = dm
2 1 sec tan a
300 103 94 0.1553 .0813
T
2 1 (.1553) (0.813)
T = 3378.72×103N-mm
W sec tan
Lowering load, T d m 3
2 1 sec tan a = 1030.39×10 N-mm
(1 sec tan a)
Efficiency, tan a 33.13%
( sec tan a)
2.6 THREADED JOINTS
Temporary joints for example Nut and bolt.
2.6.1 Basic Types of Screw Fastener
1. Through Bolt
2. Tap Bolt
3 Stud
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4. Cap Screw
Hexagonal Filuster Button Flat
Head Screw Screw Screw
5. Set Screw
Set Screw
2.7 BOLT OF UNIFORM STRENGTH
1. Resilience of the bolt is important design consideration to prevent breakage at the threads.
2. Resilience is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy when deformed elastically
and to release this energy when unloaded.
Let the major diameter of the thread as well as the diameter of the shank is d and core diameter of
thread = dc
d dc
When this bolt is subjected to tensile force, there two distinct regions of stress.
The diameter of thread portion dc is less than the shank diameter of threaded portion is also
subjected to stress concentration therefore stress induced in the threaded portion is more than
stress in the shank portion.
SE 1 2
Since energy absorbed is large impart subjected to threaded part and lesser
Value 2 E
resilient energy in shank portion.
The threaded portion of the bolt is the weakest part and maximum amount of elastic energy is
absorbed in this region. The ideal bolt will be one which is subjected to same stress level at
different cross sections of bolt. It is called belt of uniform strength
Two ways possible are:
1. Reduce the shank diameter to core diameter of the thread or even less.
2. Increase the length of the shank portion of the bolt.
2.7.1 Reduction in Cross-section of Shank
d dc dc
d dc
d
Locking Devices: They are used to prevent the loosening of the threads between nut and screw.
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Castle Nut
Jam Nut
Main Nut
Locking with Set Screw
2.7.2 Isometric Screw Threads
Fastening threads are generally Vee threads with some advantages:
1. Vee threads results in higher friction, which lessers the possibility of loosening.
2. It has higher strength.
3. It is easy to manufacture.
2.7.3 Two Types of Threads
1. Coarse threads
2. Fine threads
Example
Representation Nominal Diameter Pitch
Coarse Thread M10 10mm 1.5mm
Fine Thread M10× 1.25 10mm 1.25mm
2.7.3.1 Advantages of Coarse Threads
1. Static load carrying capacity is higher
2. Easy to manufacture
3. Even stress distribution
4. Recommended for vibration free application.
2.7.3.2 Advantages of Fine Threads
1. Higher strength when subjected to fluctuating loads.
2.7.4 Design of Bolted Joints
2.7.4.1 Tensile Failure
P
dc
P
permissible P
p 2
dc
4
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Where P is Tensile load
Syt p Syt
permissible P d c2
FOS 4 FOS
Clearly dc = 0.84d
Example. Two plates are fastened by means of the bolts as shown. The bolts are made of steel (S yt
= 400N/mm2). If FOS is 5. Determine size of bolts if P = 5kN.
P = 5kN
P
Solution.
Syt = 400N/mm2, FOS = 5,
Sys = 0.5 × Syt = 0.5(400) = 200N/mm2
Sys 200
40N/mm2
FOS 5
P p
Since there are two bots d c2
2 4
5000 p 2
40 d c
2 4
dc = 8.92mm = 9mm(Say)
Example. An electronic motor weighting 10kN is lifted by means of an eye bolt as shown. The
eye bolt is screwed into the theme of motor. It is made up of steel S yt 400N/nm2 and if FOS = 6.
Find size of bolt?
dc
d
Solution.
Syt 400
permissible 66.67N/mm2
6 6
p
P permissible d c2
4
p
10000 = 66.67 × d c2
4
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dc = 13.82mm
d
d c 17.27 or 18mm (Say)
0.8
2.8 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED BOLTED JOINTS IN SHEAR
For example,
1 2
3 4 P
P
Step-1. Find centre of gravity by
A x A 2 x 2 A3 x 3 A 4 x 4
x 1 1
A1 A 2 A3 A 4
A1 y1 A 2 y2 A3 y3 A 4 y4
y
A1 A 2 A3 A 4
y
x = 0, y = 0
1 2
y1, y2
(x, y) & C.G.
y3, y4 4 3
x
x1, x4
x2, x3
For symmetrically loaded bolted joint C.G. is exactly at centre of bolted joints.
Step-2. Mark the distance between load point and C.G. as l also known as eccentricity of external
force P.
1 2
3 4
P
Step-3. Assume P at C.G. which also results in primary shear forces P1' , P2' , P3' , P4' and all of these
P
are given by P1' P2' P3' P4' =
No. of bolts (4)
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The movement (P × l) about C.G. results in secondary shear force P1" , P2" , P3" , P4" If r1, r2, r3, r4 are
.
the radial distance of the bolts centres from C.G. then
P × l = P1" r1 P2"r2 P3" r3 P4"r4 … (i)
It is assumed that the secondary shear force at any bolt is proportional to its distance from the C.G,
P1" = Cr1 P3" = Cr3
P2" = Cr2 P4" = Cr4 …(ii)
Substituting (ii) in (i), we get
Pl (Pl ) r
C= 2 2 2 2 P1" 2 2 21 4
r1 +r2 +r3 +r4 r1 +r2 +r3 +r4
(Pl ) r2
P2" and so on
r12 +r22 +r32 +r44
2.8.1 Vector Representation of Reaction of Primary and Secondary Shear Forces
P1
1 r
P1 r1 r2 P2 2 P2
C.G.
r4 r3
P3”
3 P4 P4
4
P3
Make perpendicular to r1 in clockwise direction and similarly for l2, r3 and r4.
Since 2 and 4 are least because these two bolts has maximum shear stress and these two bolts are
criticallly loaded.
Example.
1 200 2
100
125
150
125 125
3 4 P
500mm
The structural component as shown is subjected to an eccentric force P of 10kN with on
eccentricity of 500mm from CG of bolts. The centre distance between bolts 1 and 2 is 200mm and
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center distance between 1 and 3 is 150mm. All the bolts are identical and made up of steel having
Syt = 400N/mm2. If FOS = 2.5. Find size of bolts.
Solution.
Sys 0.5 400
permissible 80N/mm2
FOS 2.5
Primary Shear Forces
P
P1' P2' P3' P4' 2.5kN 2500N
4
Secondary Shear Forces: r1 = r2 = r3 = r4 = 125mm
(P l ) r 10000 500 125
P1" 2 2 2 1 2 10000 10kN
r1 +r2 +r3 +r4 (125)2 4
P1" P2" P3" P4" 10kN
M A
Bolt(2)
P2
125 P2 B
80N
P P2
(90–)
2500N
0 100
P2 (P2' ) (P2")2 2P2' P2 "cos
Since OAB = 90°
OAM =, OAP = 90 , PAB =
100
cos = 125 = 36.86°
P2 (2.5)2 (10)2 2(2.5)(10) cos36.86 12.09kN
Resultant shear stress on bolt 1
1 = 180
P1 (P1')2 (P")
1
2
2P1' P1 "cos(180 36.86)
(2.5)2 (10)2 2(2.5)(10) cos(143.14)
=
P1 = 8.1394kN
Since load on P2 and P4 is more
P
permissible 2
A
12093
80 d c 13.87mm
p 2
dc
4
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dc 13.87
d 17.34 18mm
0.8 0.8
Example. A steel plate subjected to a force of 5kN and fixed to a channel by means of three
identical bolts as shown. The bolts are made from carbon steel (S yt = 380N/mm2) and FOS = 30.
Find size of bolts.
P
P
90–
Solution.
30 75 75 30 200
1 2 3
5kN
0.5(Syt )
permissible 63.33N/mm2
3
P
Primary shear force = = 1.66kN
3
(P ) r 5000(305)
Secondary shear force = 2 2 1 2 10.166kN
r1 r2 r3 2(75)
P1" P3"
P2" 0
P1' P2' P3'
P1"
r1 r2
P3"
P3 P3' P3" 1.666 10.1666 11.833N
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P3 11.833
63.33 dc = 15.42mm
A p 2
dc
4
dc
d 19.28 20mm
0.8
2.9 ECCENTRIC LOAD PERPENDICULAR TO AXIS OF BOLT
1 1
P
P
2 2
C
P
Primary (P P ) or direct shear stress =
1
' '
2 {four bolts}
4
(P )1 (P ) 2
Secondary tensile stress P1" , P"
2(12 22 ) 2 2(12 22 )
P1' P1"
& t
A A
Bolts can be designed on the basis of MPST and MSST
t
2
MPST 1 t 2
2 2
2
MSST max t 2
2
Syt
1
FOS
Ssy 0.5Syt
max
FOS FOS
Example. A wall bracket is attached to the wall by means of four identical bolts, two at A and
two at B. Assuming that the bracket is held against the wall and presented from tipping about
point C by all four bolts and using an allowable tensile stress in the bolts as 35N/mm2. Find size of
bolts on basis of MPST?
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Solution.
500mm
25kN
500
B
50
C
25
Primary shear stress, P 6.25kN
'
A
4
PA' PB' 6.25kN
PA' 6.25 103
max N/mm
A A
Secondary Tensile Stress in Bolts
(P )1 25000 500 50
PB" 1024N
2(12 22 ) 2((50) 2 (550) 2 )
(P ) 2
PA" 11270N
2(12 22 )
11270 6250
Critical bolt is bolt A where t N/mm2 and N/mm2
A A
t
2
Syt
According to MPST, 1 t 2
2 2 FOS
2 2
11270 11270 6250
35
2A 2A A
p 2
A = 401.65mm2 d c 401.65
4
dc = 22.6mm
Example. A CI bracket fixed to the steel structure is shown. It supports a load P of 25kN. There
are two bolts at A and two bolts at B. The distances are as follows:
1 = 50mm, 2 = 200mm, = 400mm
Determine the size of the bolts, if maximum permissible tensile stress in the bolt is 50N/mm 2
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2
1
C
1 2
P
Primary Tensile Stress
P 25000
P1' P2' 6250N
4 4
Secondary Tensile Stress
(P )1 25000 400 50
P1" 5882N
2(12 22 ) 2(502 2002 )
(P ) 2
P2" 23529N
2(12 22 )
Bolt 2 is subjected to maximum tensile stress P2 P2' P2" 6250 23529 29779N
P2 29779
t 50 A 595.6mm2
a A
dc = 27.544mm
d = 34.43mm 35mm
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GATE QUESTIONS
1. Metric thread of 0.8 mm pitch is to be cut on
19 kN
a lathe. Pitch of the lead screw is 1.5mm. If the 19 kN
spindle rotates at 1500 rpm, the speed of
rotation of the lead screw (rpm) will be [GATE - 2014]
[GATE - 2017] (a) M 8 (b) M 10
(c) M 12 (d) M 16
2. A hypothetical engineering stress – strain
curve shown in the figure has three straight lines 5. Two threaded bolts A and B of same material
PQ, QR, RS with coordinates P(0, 0), Q (0.2, and length are subjected to identical tensile
100), R (0.6, 140) and S (0.8, 130). „Q‟ is the load. If the elastic energy stored in bolt A is 4
yield point, „r‟ is the UTS point and s‟ the times that of the bolt B and the mean diameter
fracture point. of bolt A is 12 mm, the mean diameter of bolt B
1100
in mm is
[GATE - 2013]
(0s, 2023K)
1000 (a) 16 (b) 24
Temperature(K)
900 (20s, 873K) (c) 36 (d) 48
800 (10s, 873K)
6. In a bolted joint two members are connected
700 with an axial tightening force of 2200 N. If the
bolt used has metric threads of 4 mm pitch, the
600 torque required for achieving the tightening
500 force is.
0 10 20 30 40
Time(s)
The toughness of the material (in MJ/m3) is __
[GATE - 2016]
3. A bolt of major diameter 12 mm is required
to clamp two steel plates. Cross sectional area [GATE - 2004]
of the threaded portion of the bolt is 84.3 mm2. (a) 0.7 Nm (b) 1.0 Nm
The length of the threaded portion in grip is 30 (c) 1.4 Nm (d) 2.8 Nm
mm, while the length of the unthreaded portion
in grip is 8 mm. Young‟s modulus of material is 7. Bolts in the flanged end of pressure vessel are
200 GPa. The effective stiffness (in MN/m) of usually pre-tensioned. Indicate which of the
the bolt in the clamped zone is _______. following statements is true.
[GATE - 2014] [GATE - 1998]
(a) Pre-tensioning helps to seal the pressure
4. For the three bolt system shown in the figure, vessel.
the bolt material has shear yield strength of 200 (b) Pre-tensioning increase the fatigue life of the
MPa. For a factor of safety of 2, the minimum bolts.
metric specification required for the bolt is (c)Pre-tensioning reduces the maximum tensile
stress in the bolts.
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(d)Pre-tensioning helps to reduce the effect of [GATE - 1996]
pressure pulsations in the pressure vessels. (a) Shear force and bending moment
(b) Axial force
8. The bolts in a rigid flanged coupling (c) Torsion
connecting two shafts transmitting power are (d) Torsion and bending moment
subjected to
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (800) = 100 MPa
PJob = 0.8 mm, PLS = 1.5 mm, Load = 19 kN
NJob = 1500 rpm, NLS = ? 19 103
N N P 0.8 Total shear area =
G.R. T.V f LS Job 100 106
Nd NJob PLS 1.5
= 1.9 × 10-4 m2
0.8
NLS 1500 800 rpm A
1.5 Shear area for one belt = = 6.33 × 10–5 m2
3
1/ 2
Sol 2. (0.85) 4 6.33 105
Toughness = Area under diagram = d = 8.982 × 10–3 m
p
1 0.2 1 0.4
100 (100 140) or d = 8.982 mm
2 100 2 100 So, M 10
1 0.2 Alternate:
(140 130) y p
2 100
P d2 n
T = 0.1 + 0.48 + 0.27 = 0.85 MJ/m3 FS 4
200 106 p 2
Sol 3. (468.77 MN/m) 19000 d 3
AE 2 4
k t t (Stiffness in threaded portion) –3
d = 8.98 × 10 m = 8.98 mm
Lt
So, M 10
84.3 200 103
kt 562 106 N / m
30 103 Sol 5. (b)
= 562 MN/m Given, P1 = P2 = P
A E (identical tensile load on bolt A and B)
k d d (Stiffness in unthreaded region) L1 = L2 = L (same length)
Ld dA = 12 mm
Ad (major diameter c/s area) UA is strain energy in bolt A
p UB is Strain energy in bolt B
= d 2 = 0.785 × 144 = 113.04 mm2 UA = 4UB (Given)
4
Ld (length of unthreaded portion) = 8 mm dB = ?
113.04 200 103 Strain energy is given by
kd 1 1 P2 L
8 103 UA P
6
= 2826 × 10 N/m = 2826 MN/m 2 2 AE
2
k k 1 P1 L1 1 P2 L
1 1
1
k d t eq. (i) 4 2 2
k k t kd kd k t 2 A1E 2 A2E
2826 562 1
4
1
= 468.77 MN/m
2826 562 A1 A2
4 4
Sol 4. (b) 4
p(12)3 p(d B )2
y 200
Design stress = d 2B 576
FOS 2
dB = 24 mm (Diameter of bolt B)
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Sol 6. (c)
Tightening force = 2200 N Sol 7. (a)
Pitch = 0.004 mtr
Pitch Sol 8. (d)
Torque = tightening force × Bolts in coupling are subjected to both shear
2p
and bending leads.
0.004
2200 = 1.4 Nm
2p
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ESE OBJ QUESTIONS
1. For a power screw having square threads with 6. The differential screw is used in a
lead angle of 45° and coefficient of friction of [ESE - 2012]
0.15 between screw and nut the efficiency of the (a) Turnbuckle (b) Micrometer
power screw, neglecting collar friction, is given (c) Vernier caliper (d) Coupler
by
[ESE - 2015] 7. Consider the following statements
(a) 74% (b) 64% associated with variable loading of bolts.
(c) 54 % (d) 44% 1. Smaller the stiffness constant, larger will be
the external load carried by the bolts.
2. The efficiency of a power screw is maximum, 2.Greater the pretension, lesser will be the
when the lead (helix) angle is value of the alternating load carried by the bolts.
[ESE - 2014] 3. In variable loading, component will variable
p p load is more dangerous than component with
(a) (b) static load.
2 2 2
A high value of pretension is undesirable
p p
(c) (d) against fatigue failure.
4 2 4 Which of these statements are correct?
[ESE - 2012]
3. In a power screw square threads, the torque (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 only
required to raise the given load is found to be (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 2 only
8800 N-m. The core diameter of the screw is 40
mm. The shear stress due to this torque in the 8. In a bolt of uniform strength
power screw is: [ESE - 2011]
[ESE - 2013] (a) Nominal diameter of thread is equal to the
2 2
(a) 350 N/mm (b) 700 N/mm diameter of shank of the bolt.
(c) 175 N/mm2 (d) 525 N/mm2 (b) Nominal diameter of thread is larger than the
diameter of shank of the bolt.
4. Which of the following screw threads is (c) Nominal diameter of thread is less than the
adopted for power transmission in either diameter of shank of the bolt.
direction? (d) Core diameter of threads is equal to the
[ESE - 2012] diameter of shank of the bolt.
(a) Acme threads
(b) Square threads 9. The efficiency of a power screw is a function
(c) Buttress threads of
(d) Multiple threads 1. Screw geometry.
2. Coefficient of friction.
5. Multistart threads are used to get. 3. Load on the screw.
[ESE - 2012] Which of these statements are correct?
(a) Smaller linear displacement [ESE - 2010]
(b) Larger linear displacement with assured self (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
locking (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
(c)Larger linear displacement with no guarantee
of self locking. 10. A power screw of 32 mm nominal diameter
(d) None of the above and 5 min pitch is acted upon by an axial load
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of 12 kN. Permissible thread bearing pressure is 15. Under service conditions involving jarring,
6 MPa. Considering bearing action between the vibration and pulsation of the working load, the
threads in engagement, what is the number of bolt of choice would be a
threads in engagement with the screw? [ESE - 2007]
[ESE - 2009] (a) Short bolt with high rigidity
(a) 6 (b) 7 (b) Long bolt with increased elasticity
(c) 9 (d) 10 (c) Bolt with a dished washer
(d) Bolt with castle nut
11. Which one of the following is correct?
When a nut is tightened by placing a washer 16. How can shock absorbing capacity of a bolt
below it, the bolt will be subjected to be increased
[ESE - 2008] [ESE - 2007]
(a) Compression only (a) By tightening it properly
(b) Tension (b) By increasing the shank diameter
(c) Shear only (c) By grinding the shank
(d) Compression and shear (d) By making the shank diameter equal to the
core diameter of thread.
12. Eight bolts are to be selected for fixing the
cover plate of a cylinder subjected to a 17. In case of power screws, what is the
maximum load of 980-175 kN. If the design combination of materials used for the screw and
stress for the bolt material is 315 N/mm2, what the nut?
is the diameter of each bolt? [ESE - 2006]
[ESE - 2008] (a) Cast iron screw and mild steel nut
(a) 10 mm (b) 22 mm (b) Carbon steel screw and phosphor bronze nut
(c) 30 mm (d) 36 mm (c) Cast iron screw and cast iron nut
(d) Aluminum screw and alloy steel nut
13. A force „F‟ is to be transmitted through a
square threaded power screw into a nut. If „t‟ is 18. In case of power screws, what is the
the height of the nut and „d‟ is the minor combination of materials used for the screw and
diameter, the which one of the following is the the nut?
average shear stress over the screw threads? [ESE - 2006]
[ESE - 2007] (a) Cast iron screw and mild steel nut
2F F (b) Carbon steel screw and phosphor bronze nut
(a) (b) (c) Cast iron screw and cast iron nut
pdt pdt
(d) Aluminum screw and alloy steel nut.
F 4F
(c) (d)
2pdt pdt 19. Stresses in a screw thread are estimated by
considering the thread to be
14. The maximum efficiency of a screw jack [ESE - 2006]
having square threads used for the screw and the (a) Long cantilever beam projecting from the
nut? pitch cylinder
[ESE - 2007] (b) Long cantilever beam projecting from the
1 tan ( / 2) 1 tan root cylinder
(a) (b)
1 tan ( / 2) 1 tan (c) Short cantilever beam projecting from the
root cylinder
1 sin 1 sin ( / 2)
(c) (d) (d) Short cantilever beam projecting from the
1 sin 1 sin ( / 2) pitch cylinder.
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20. Power screws are used to produce uniform, p
slow and powerful motion such as required in plane is same, given by a where a =
4 2
presses jacks and other machinery. „V‟ threads helix angle.
are usually not used for this application due to [ESE - 2003]
low efficiency. This is because: (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
[ESE - 2005] explanation of A.
(a) Profile angle is zero (b) Both A and r are true but R is not a correct
(b) Profile angle is moderate explanation of A
(c) Profile angle is large (c) A is true but r is false.
(d) There is difficulty in manufacturing the (d) A is false but r is true
profile
25. Match List-I (Part to be joined) with List-II
21. Consider the following statements regarding (type of joint) and select the correct answer the
power screws. using the codes given below the lists:
1. The efficiency of self locking screw cannot List-I
be more than 50%. A. Two rods having relative axial motion
2. If friction angle is less than the helix angle of
B. Strap end of the connecting rod
the screw, then the efficiency will be more than C. Piston rod and cross head
50%. D. Links of four-bar chain
3. The efficiency of ACME (Trapezodial thread List-II
is less than that of square thread. (i) Pin joint
Which of these statements are correct? (ii) Knuckle Joint
[ESE - 2005] (iii) Gib and Cotter Joint
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 (iv) Cotter Joint
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 2 [ESE - 2003]
Codes:
22. What is the safe static tensile load for a M (a) A-i, B-iii, C-iv, D-ii
36 × 4 C bolt of mild steel having yield stress of (b) A-ii, B-iv, C-iii, D-i
280 MPa and a factor of safety 1.5? (c) A-i, B-iv, C-iii, D-ii
[ESE - 2005] (d) A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, D-i
(a) 285 kN (b) 190 kN
(c) 142.5 kN (d0 95 kN 26. For bolts of uniform strength, the shank
diameter is made equal to
23. Which one of the following is the value of [ESE - 2003]
helix angle for maximum efficiency of a square (a) Major diameter of threads
threaded screw? ( = tan–1 ) (b) Pitch diameter of threads
[ESE - 2004] (c) Minor diameter of threads
(a) 45° + (b) 45° – (d) Nominal diameter of threads.
(c) 45° – /2 (d) 45° + /2
27. The hemispherical end of a pressure vessel
24. Assertion (A): The maximum efficiency is fastened to the cylindrical portion of the
1 sin pressure vessel with the help of gasket, bolts
of a screw jack in same, where and lock nuts. The bolts are subjected to
1 sin
[ESE - 2003]
is the friction angle, for both motion up and
(a) Tensile stress
motion down the plane.
(b) Compressive stress
Reason (R): The condition for the maximum
(c) Shear stress
efficiency for motion and motion down the
(d) Bearing stress
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28. If P is the pitch of a square thread, then the 33. Match List-I (Applications) with List-II
depth of thread d is given by (joints) and select the correct answer using the
[ESE - 2002] codes given below the lists:
(a) 0.5 P (b) P List-I
(c) 1.5 P (d) 2.0 P A. Roof girder
B. Cylinder head of an IC engine
29. A screw jack is said to be self-locking if its C. Piston rod and cross head
efficiency is D. Solid shaft and a plate
[ESE - 2002] List-II
(a) Less than 50% (b) Equal to 50% (i) Hook‟s joint
(c) More than 50% (d) 100% (ii) Screwed joint
(iii) Cotter joint
30. Assertion (A): Buttress thread is a modified (iv) Welded joint
square thread profile which is employed on the (v) Riveted joint
lead screw of machine tools. [ESE - 2000]
Reason (R): Frequent engagement and Codes:
disengagement of lead screw for automatic feed (a) A-v, B-iii, C-i, D-iv
is not possible with perfect square threads, (b) A- v, B-ii, C-iii, D-i
therefore, the square profile has to be modified. (c) A-v, B-ii, C-iii, D- iv
[ESE - 2001] (d) A-v, B-iii, C-i, D- iv
(a) Both A and R are true but R is the correct
explanation of A. 34. A screw thread specified by M 20 × 2.5 C as
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct per BIS thread system means.
explanation of A [ESE - 2000]
(c) A is true but R is false. (a) Metric thread of 20 nominal diameter and
(d) A is false but R is true. 2.5 mm pitch having coarse tolerance.
(b) Metric thread of 20 mm root diameter and
31. The screw and nut in a broaching machine 2.5 pitch having coarse tolerance.
are changed from square thread to Acme thread. (c) Metric thread of fine class having 20 mm
The power requirement of the machine at the root diameter and 2.5 mm pitch
same rpm. (d) Metric thread of 20 mm shank diameter and
[ESE - 2001] 2.5 mm thread depth with coarse tolerance.
(a) Remain same
(d) Decrease 35. Assertion (A): In pre-loaded bolted joints,
(c) Increase there is a tendency for failure to occur in the
(d) Depend on the operator gross plate section rather than through holes.
Reason (R): The effect of pre-loading is to
32. Which of the following stresses are create sufficient friction between the assembled
associated with the tightening of nut a bolt. parts so that no slippage occurs.
1. Tensile stress due to stretching of bolt. [ESE - 2000]
2. Bending stress due to the bending of bolt. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
3. Crushing and shear stress in thread. explanation of A
4. Torsional shear stress due to frictional (b) Both A and R are true but r is not a correct
resistance between the nut and the bolt. explanation of A
[ESE - 2001] (c) A is true but R is false.
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (d) A is false but R is true.
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3, 4 only
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36. The following parameters are to be (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3
calculated while designing a screw jack. (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
1. Core diameter of screw
2. Torque required to rotate the screw 41. The piston rod and the crosshead in a steam
3. Principal stresses engine are usually connected by means of
4. Height of the nut [ESE - 1998]
The correct sequence of the calculation of these (a) Cotter joint
parameters is (b) Knuckle joint
[ESE - 2000] (c) Ball joint
(a) 1, 2, 4, 3 (b) 1, 2, 3, 4 (d) Universal joint
(c) 2, 1, 3, 4 (d) 2, 1, 4, 3
42. When a nut is tightened by placing a washer
37. Which of the following screw thread is below it the bolt will be subjected to
adopted for power transmission in either [ESE - 1998]
direction? (a) Tensile stress
[ESE - 1999] (b) Compression stress
(a) Acme thread (b) Square thread (c) Shear stress
(c) Buttress thread (d) Multiple thread (d) None of these
38. The diameter of tommy bar for a screw jack 43. The maximum efficiency of self locking
is designed for screw is
[ESE - 1999] [ESE - 1997]
(a) Bending moment due to effort applied (a) 50% (b) 70%
(b) Torque on the tommy bar due to effort (c) 75% (d) 80%
applied
(c) A percentage of axial loads 44. Consider the case of square of threaded
(d) Some axial loads coupled with transverse screw loaded by a nut as shown in the given
loads. figure. The value of the average shearing of the
screw is given by (symbols have the usual
39. For longitudinal joint in boiler, the type of meaning)
joint used is:
[ESE - 1999] P
(a) Lap joint with one ring one slopping the
other.
(b) Butt joint with single cover plate h
(c) Butt joint with double cover plate.
(d) Any one of the above
40. Which of the following stresses are
associated with tightening of not on a bolt dr
1. Tensile stress due to stretching of bolt. d
2. Bending stress due to bending of bolt. [ESE - 1997]
3. Crushing and shear stresses in threads. 2F F
(a) (b)
4. Torsional shear stress due to frictional pd r h pd r h
resistance between the nut and bolt.
2F F
Select the correct answer using the codes given (c) (d)
below: pdh pdh
[ESE - 1998]
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45. The friction torque foe square thread at [ESE - 1996]
mean radius while raising load is given by (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
(w = load, R0 = mean radius, = angle of explanation of A
friction, a = lead angle) (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
[ESE - 1997] explanation of A
(a) wR0tan ( – a) (b) wR0tan ( + a) (c) A is true but r is false
(c) wR0tan a (d) wR0tan (d) A is false but R is true.
46. To ensure self-locking in a screw jack it is 49. The load cup of a screw jack is made
essential that helix angle is separate from the head of the spindle to
[ESE - 1996] [ESE - 1995]
(a) Larger than friction angle (a) Enhance the load carrying capacity of the
(b) Smaller than friction angle jack
(c) Equal to friction angle (b) Reduce the effort needed for lifting the
(d) Such as to give maximum efficiency in working load
lifting (c) Reduce the value of frictional torque to be
countered for lifting the load
47. Two rigid plates are clamped by means of (d) Prevent the rotation of load being lifted.
bolt and nut with an initial force N. After
tightening force P(P < N) is applied to the lower 50. While designing a screw in a screw jack
plat, which in turn acts on nut. The tension in against buckling failure, the end conditions for
the bolt after this is the screw are taken as
[ESE - 1996] [ESE - 1995]
(a) (N + P) (b) (N – P) (a) Both the ends fixed
(c) P (d) N (b) Both the ends hinged
(c) One end fixed and other end hinged
48. Assertion (A): When the coupler of a turn (d) One end fixed and the other end free.
buckle is turned in one direction both the
connecting rods either move loser or move 51. For bolts of uniform strength, the shank
away from each other depending upon the diameter is made equal to
direction of rotation of the coupler. [ESE - 1995]
Reason (R): A turn buckle is used to connect (a) Major diameter of threads
two round rods subjected to tensile loading and (b) Pitch diameter of threads
requiring subsequent adjustment for tightening (c) Minor diameter of threads
or loosening. (d) Nominal diameter of threads
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SOLUTIONS
Sol.1. (a) Sol.7. (b)
Lead angle, = 45°
= 0.15 Sol.8. (d)
= tan–1 = 8.5°
tan Sol.9. (b)
= 0.74 = 74% Efficiency of a power screw depends on
tan ( ) 1. Means diameter of screw
2. Lead of the screw
Sol.2. (c) 3. Coefficient of friction
tan a sin a / cos a
tan (a ) sin(a ) / cos(a ) Sol.10. (c)
sin a cos (a )
Sol.11. (b)
cos a sin(a ) When a nut tightened by placing a washer
sin(2a ) sin below it, the bolt will be subjected to tension.
sin(2a ) sin
Sol.12. (c)
Efficiency will be maximum, Tensile force on each bolt
when sin (2a + ) is maximum i.e.
Total force 980.175 103 N
When sin (2a + ) = 1
No.of bolts 8
p
2a + = F F
2 For design of bolt,
p A p d2
or 2a 4
2
p N 980.175 10 N
3
or a 315
4 2 mm 2
p 2
d
4
Sol.3. (b) d = 22.25 mm 30 mm (for safe design)
16T 16 8800 1000
3 Sol.13. (a)
pd C 3.14 (40)3
2F
= 700.637 N/mm2
pdt
Sol.4. (b) Here t is height of nut.
Sol.5. (c) Sol.14. (c)
tan a
Efficiency of screw jack () =
Sol.6. (d) tan (a )
Differential screw is used for making small and
sin a cos (a )
precise adjustment to the spacing between two
object. It uses a nut with two screw, one cos a sin (a )
entering each side. With rotation of nut, one sin a cos (a )
screw goes inside and other comes outsides. In 1 1
cos a sin (a )
this way small adjustment are made.
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sin Sol.17. (b)
1 Phosphor bronze nut for better frictional
cos a sin (a )
characteristic.
Multiplying and dividing by 2
2sin
1 Sol.18. (b)
2cos a sin (a ) Steel-screw, Phosphor Bronze-nut, Cast iron
2sin also used for nut in case of low speed.
sin(2a ) sin
Sol.19. (c)
Now, for efficiency to be greatest, 1 – should Considered as short cantilever projecting from
be least, i.e. sin (2a + ) should be maximum root diameter.
sin (2a + ) = 1
2a + = 90° Sol.20. (c)
90 Square thread most efficient. Profile angle is
a 45 zero which causes excessive bursting force.
2 2
Substituting this value of a in equation (i)
We shall get maximum value of .
2sin 45 .cos 45
max 2 2
Profile angle
2 cos 45 sin 45
2 2
sin(90) sin() 1 sin
sin 90 sin() 1 sin
Sol.21. (c)
Sol.15. (d) less than 50% so statement 1 correct
Castle nut: The castle nut consists of a
a > statements 2 incorrect.
hexagonal portion with a cylinder upper part
1 tan 2 a
which is slotted in line with the center of each
face. 2 2
The split pin passes through two slots in the nut
and a hole in the bolt, so that a positive lock is Sol.22. (b)
obtained unless the pin shears. It is extensively 36 mean core dia
used in jobs subjected to sudden shocks and P 280 P
allowable
considerable vibration such as in automobile A 1.5 p / 4 362
industry. P = 190 kN.
Sol.16. (d) Sol.23. (c)
If the shank of the bolt is turned down to a tan a d
diameter equal to even slightly less than the 0
core diameter of the thread, then the shank of tan (a ) da
the bolt will undergo a higher stress. This means p
a
that the shank will absorb a large portion of the 4 2
energy thus relieving the material at the section 1 sin
near the thread. The bolt in this way becomes max
stronger and lighter and it increases the shock 1 sin
absorbing capacity of the bolt.
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Sol.24. (a) Square thread
p/2
Both statements correct
tan a tan a p/2
raised lower
tan (a ) tan ( a) Acme (buttress thread)
1 sin p/2 2=29° as 30°
max
1 sin p/2
a 45 Buttress thread
2
45°
0.75p
Sol.25. (d)
Link of four bar : pinjoint p/2
Two rods having relative axial motion(Railway
wagon) : knuckle joint Sol.29. (a)
Big end/s strap ends of connecting rod: For self locking, > a
gib and cotter joint
tan a
Piston rod and crosshead: cotter joint
tan( a)
Sol.26. (c) Put a =
Bolt of uniform strength are made to resist tan
shock load by: ( 2 > a + )
tan 2
1. Making a hole (drilled) i.e., area of shank
reduced to root area. tan (1 tan 2 )
2. Turning down the diameter of shank of bolt 2 tan
to corresponding to that of minor diameter. 1 tan 2 1 tan 2
2 2 2
Sol.27. (a)
So it means that for self locking condition
Tensile stresses are induced in bolt.
efficiency has to be less than 50%.
Sol.30. (d)
Acme thread is used in lead screw and that is
the modified form of square shaped square
thread. Buttress thread is used in vices.
These Acme thread are strongest thread (more
stronger than square but less efficient than
square threads).
Sol.31. (c)
The square thread are most efficient power
transmitting so power required at same rpm by
machine will increase if any other thread used.
Sol.28. (a)
Sol.32. (d)
Bending stress will be absent as there is no
eccentricity associated with load from bolt axis.
All the other stresses arises.
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Sol.33. (c) Sol.40. (d)
Roof girder : Riveted joint
Cylinder head of an IC engine : Screwed joint
Sol.41. (a)
Piston rod and cross head : Cotter joint The piston rod and the crosshead in steam
Solid shaft and a plate :Welded joint engine is connected by cotter joint. It is used
when no relative motion between the rods is
Sol.34. (a) desirable, cotters are normally driven at right
M (type of thread) 20 (Nominal dia) × 2.5 angle to the axis of connected part which are
(Pitch) subjected to tensile or compressive stresses.
Sol.35. (c) Sol.42. (a)
Reason is false. Because throat area is the minimum area and
In pre-loading the clamped material under the Athroat = h × L
bolt is a compressive stress and when an P
external (separating) force which is less then the t
h
preload force is applied then it tends to decrease
the compressive stress in the clamped material Sol.43. (a)
because both the preload and separating force
of screw
are opposite in direction that‟s why the portion
tan
below the bolt i.e., the holes is safer than the
gross plate section where there is no pre-loading tan (a )
effect. For self locking a or a
The effect of pre-loading is not to create tan 1 tan 2
sufficient friction, but to create stress in or
opposite direction. tan ( ) 2 2
From this expression of self locking screw
Sol.36. (b) is less than 1/2 or 50% if the is more then
Core diameter is calculated on the basis of 50% screw is said to be overhauling.
compression load.
Then after torque is calculated on collar and on Sol.44. (c)
screw. Principal stresses are calculated on the The correct option is (c)
given permissible bearing stress the height of F
nut is calculated. Shear stress
pd r Zt
Where Z is the no. of threads in engagement
Sol.37. (a)
with the nut.
Acme thread is used for power transmission in
t is thread thickness at the core diameter
either direction.
height of the nut, h = ZP.
Where P is the pitch of the thread for square
Sol.38. (a)
thread
The diameter of tommy bar of screw jack is
designed for bending moment due to effort t P
applied at its end. 2
F 2F 2F
Sol.39. (c) P pd r ZP pd r h
The longitudinal joint in a boiler shell is usually pd r Z
2
butt joint with two cover plates. This joint is
2F
more efficient than lap joint. It is also stiffer and i.e.,
helps to maintain circularity of the shells. pdr h
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Sol.45. (b) initial load than the load on the bolt would have
Torque required to raise the load been P.
T1 WR tan ( + a)
Torque required to lower load Sol.48. (a)
T2 = WR tan ( – a).
Sol.49. (d)
Sol.46. (b) There is provision to prevent rotation by making
> a [i.e. Friction Angle > Helix Angle] load cup separate from the head of the spindle.
tan tan a
np Sol.50. (d)
tan One end fixed and other end free, as lower part
pd m of screw is free to rotate. The screw acts as
column.
Sol.47. (d)
The correct option is (d) i.e., N Sol.51. (c)
Initial load = N Bolt of uniform strength are made to resist
Separating force = P shock load by:
Since P < N i.e., separating force is less than 1. Making a hole (drilled) i.e., area of shank
initial load, therefore tension in the bolt will be reduced to root area.
N. If separating force P was larger than N i.e., 2. Reducing the diameter of shank of bolt
corresponding t that of minor diameter.
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CHAPTER - 3
WELDED JOINTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Welding is permanent jointing but un-separable. Riveting is also permanent jointing but separable
3.1.1 Advantages of Welded Joints
1. Lighter assemblies as compared to riveting where additional cover plates, gussets plates are
required
2. Lower cost
3. Changes can be easily made
4. Leak-proof joints
5. Lesser production time
6. Drilling holes in reverted points reduces strength of material.
7. Bad appearance of riveted joints
8. Strength of welded joint is high
3.1.2 Disadvantages
1. Poor vibration damping ability.
2. Thermal distortion due to thermal residual stress therefore stress reliving is a necessity.
3. Quality of weld has to be maintained.
3.2 BUTT JOINTS
A butt joint can be defined as a joint between two components lying approximately in the same
plane.
h
Square Butt Joint V-Butt Joint
Double V-Butt Joint
3.3 FILLET JOINTS
It is also called a lap joint, is a joint between two overlapping plates or components. A fillet weld
consists of an approximately triangular cross-section joining two surfaces at right angles to each
other. It is of two types parallel and transverse.
P P P P
Single Transverse Fillet Joint Double Transverse Fillet Joint
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P P
Double Parallel Fillet Joint
3.3.1 Strength of Butt Welds
P
Average tensile stress t,(N/mm2) t
h
Where P is Tensile force (N)
h is throat of butt weld (mm)
is length of weld (mm)
P = ht
Where is efficiency of weld
3.3.2 Strength of Parallel Fillet Welds
h Throat
H
Double parallel fillet weld (leg) or thickness of plate
Parallel fillet weld always fails in shear and minimum cross section is that of throat and length.
P
or
t
h
t
h
t = 0.707h
P = 0.707h
For double parallel fillet weld, P = 2(.707h)
P = 1.414h
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3.3.3 Strength of Transverse Fillet Welds
P P
This type of weld generally fails in shear stress
P
0.707h
P = .707h (Single transverse fillet weld)
P = 2(.707h) (double transverse fillet weld)
In actual practice, 15mm of length of weld is added for starting and stopping; of the
weld run.
Example. A steel plate, 100mm wide and 10mm thick, is welded to another steel plate by means
of double parallel fillet welds as shown. The plates are subjected to a static tensile force of 50kN.
Determine the required length of welds if the permissible shear stress in the weld is 94N/mm 2 ?
Solution.
50kN 50kN
P 50000
94
.707h 2(.707 10 )
.75.23mm
= 37.61mm + 15 = 52.62 = 55mm
2
Example. A plate 75mm wide and 10 mm thick is joined with another steel plate by means of
single transverse and double parallel fillet welds as shown. The joint is subjected to a maximum
tensile force of 55kN. The permissible tensile and shear stresses in the weld material are 70 and
50N/mm2. Determine the required length of each parallel fillet weld.
Solution.
y=75mm
55kN 55kN
h = 10mm, P = 55kN, = 50N/mm2, t = 70 N/mm2
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Strength of transverse fillet joint, P1 = 0.707(10) (75) 70 = 37117.5N
Strength of double parallel fillet joint, P2 = 2(0.707) 10××5
P2 = (707) N
P1 + P2 = 55000N
37117.5 + 707 = 55000
= 25.29mm
Adding 15mm, we get 25.29 + 15 = 40.29 = 45mm.
3.4 AXIALLY LOADED UNSYMMETRICAL WELDED JOINTS
1
1
y1
P 55kN
y2
2
2
Let G be the centre of gravity of angle section.
The external force acting on the joint passes through G.
Suppose P1 and P2 are the resisting forces setup in the welds 1 and 2 respectively.
P1 = 0.707h1 …(i)
P2 = 0.707h …(ii)
P = P1 + P2
Also moment of forces around G should be zero.
P1y2 = P2y2 …(iii)
Substituting (i) and (ii) in (iii) we get
1y1 = 2y2
Total strength of welds,1 + 2 =
P = .707h
Example. An ISA 200×100×10 angle is welded to a steel plate by means of fillet welds as shown.
The angle is subjected to a static force of 150kN and the permissible shear stress for the weld is
70N/mm2. Determine the length of the weld at the top and bottom.
Solution.
1
y1
P G 200
y2
2
y1 + y2 = 200
1 y1 = 2y2
Side view
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200 G
A1
A2 10
100
A1x1 A 2 x 2 (200 10)(5) 90 10 55
x 20.5mm
A1 A 2 200 10 90 10
A1 y1 A 2 y2 200 10 100 90 10 5
y 70.51mm
A1 A 2 200 10 90 10
1y1 = 2y2
1(200 70.51) = 2(70.51)
128.21 = 7182 ..(i)
1 = 562
P1 + P2 = P
.707h = 150000
= 30.3mm
1 + 2 = 30.3
.562 + 2 = 30.3
2 = 19.42 1 = 10.8mm
3.5 ECCENTRIC LOAD IN PLANE OF WELDS
W1
G
W2
Load
Step-I. Determine C.G of two welds
is eccentricity between load line and C.G.
Assume force P acting through C.G causes direct shear stress in the welds. It is called primary
shear stress. It is assumed that primary shear stress is uniformly distributed over the throat area of
all welds
P
1
A
Where A is Throat area of all welds
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Couple M = P causes torsional shear stress in the throat area of welds. They are called secondary
shear stress,
Mr
2 {Torsion Equation}
J
Where r is Distance of point in the weld from G
J is Polar moment of inertia of all welds about G
y
x x
W1 t
G1
r1
y G
Let G1 be the CG of Weld, CG1 = r1
t 3 t3
Ixx CG & I yy CG
12 12
Since t is very small compared to . Ixx is negligible compared to Iyy.
JG1 Ixy I yy I yy
t3 (t ) 2 A 2
J G1
12 12 12
Where JG1 is Polar moment of inertia about G 1
Polar moment of inertia about G is determined by parallel axis theorem
J G = JG1 + Ar12
2
J G A r12
12
If there are number of welds with polar mount of inertia J1, J2 …. Jn etc about G, then J total
J= J1 + J2 + J3 + ….Jn
Example. A welded connection as shown is subjected to an eccentric force of 7.5kN. Determine
the size of welds if the permissible shear stress for the weld is 100N/mm2. Assume static
conditions
Solution.
50 100
50 G
P = 7.5kN
7500
Primary shear stress, 1
A
A = 2(50×t)
7500 75
1 =
100t t
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Secondary shear stress,
Since two welds are symmetrical = 100 + 25 = 125mm
M = P × = 7500(125) = 937500N-mm
x x
G1 W1
r1
25
G r
25
W2
25 25
Distance r of the farthest point from C.G is given by
r (25)2 (25)2 r = 35.36mm
J1 about weld W1 about a is given by
2 (50) 2
J1 A r12 50t (25) 2
12 12
J1 = J2 = 41667t mm and J1 + J2 = 5 = 83334t mm4
4
Mr (937500)(35.36) 3978
2 N / mm2
J 83334 t
Resultant shear stress (R)
1 = 75/t '2
2
2
2
2 G m
2
2
'2
J2 J2
397.8
2J 22
t
397.8
( 2) J 2 J2 = 281.3/t
t
454
JR 100N / mm 2 t = 4.45= 5mm
t
Example. A welded connection, as shown is subjected to an eccentric force of 60kN in the plane
of the welds. Determine the size of the welds, if the permissible shear stress for the weld is
100N/mm2.
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60kN
W1
G 25
100 30 W
50 2
G3
100
50
G2
Solution.
= 100N/mm2, P = 60000N
x 50 25 t 1000t 0 50 25 t
Where t is thickness of welds
x = 12.5mm
Primary Shear Stress
step1:
1
A1 = 50t
A2 = 50t
A3 = 100t
A = A1 + A2 + A3 = 200t
P 60000 300N
J1 N/mm2
A 200t t
Secondary shear stress, r (50 12.5)2 502 62.5mm
G2
G r2
G3
2
r
r1
G1
50
tan = 53.13
50 12.5
= 90 = 36.87°
Secondary Shear Stress is inclined at 36.87° with horizontal
= (5012.5) + 150 = 187.5mm
M = P × = 60000 (187.5) = 11250×103 N-mm
G1G G3G (25 12.5)2 (50)2 51.54mm
r1 = r2 = 51.54mm
r3 G3G x 12.5mm
2 (50) 2
J1 J 2 A1 1 r12 (50 t) (51.54) 2 = 143235.25t mm4
12 12
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3 1002
J3 A3 2 r32 100t (12.5) 2 = 98958.3t mm4
12 12
J = 2J1 + J3 = 385428.83t mm4
Mr 11250 103 62.5 1824.27
2 N/mm2
J 385428.83t t
Resultant Shear Stress
2 sin
1924.27
2 2018.58
t
1094.5 t
+ t 1394.5
= t
1=300/t
36.87
1459.41 2cos 1459.41
t t
2018.58
Size of Welded = 100 =
t
t = 20.19mm
t
h= 28.56mm
.707
3.6 WELDED JOINT SUBJECTED TO BENDING MOMENT
y
P
W1
d x
G
t W2
b
P
Primary shear stress = 1
A
Mb y
b
I
Mb = P
Where I is Moment of inertia of all welds based on the throat area
y is Distance of the point in weld from neutral axis.
2
Resultant shear stress, b 12
2
The moment of inertia of weld W1 about the x-axis is given by:
2
bt 3 d
I xx (bt)
12 2
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Since the throat dimensions is very small compared to board. Therefore, first term in the above
d2
expression is neglected, I xx bt , for 2 welds I = 2Ixx
4
bd 2
I
2
Example.
y
100mm
100mm G
P=10kN
50
A bracket is welded to the vertical column by means of two fillet welds as shown. Determine the
size of the welds, if permissible = 70N/mm2
Solution.
Primary shear stress,
A = 2 (50t) = 100t mm2
P 100
1
A t
bd 2 50 1002
Bending stress, I t t
2 2
I = 2850000t mm4
M y 10 103 100 50 200
b b N/mm2
I 250000t t
2 2 2
200 100
b 2
2 2t t
141.42
N/mm2
t
141.42
Size of weld = = 70 t = 2.02mm
t
t
h 2.56mm 3mm
7.7
Example. A beam of rectangular cross section is welded to a support by means of fillet welds as
shown. Determine size of weld if permissible = 75 N/mm2.
Solution.
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500
25kN
150
G
100
Primary shear stress
P 25000 50
1 N/mm2
A 2(100t 150t) t
Bending stress , moment of inertia of forces welds about X-axis.
bt 2 d
2
td 3
I xx 2 (bt) 2
12 2 12
b
Neglecting t3 terms, we get
bd 2 d 3
I xx t
2 6
100(150)2 (150)3
I xx t
2 6
Ixx = 75×(150)2t mm4
M y 25000 500 75 555.55
b b N/mm2
I 75(150)2 t t
2
Ob 282.24
Maximum shear stress, 1
2
N/mm2
2 t
282.24
Size of weld = = 75 t = 3.76mm
t
t 3.76
h 5.32 6mm
.707 .707
Example. A circular beam, 50mm in dia. is welded for a support by means of a fillet weld as
shown, determine the size of the weld, it the permissible = 100N/mm2.
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200mm 10kN
Solution.
P = 10kN, permissible = 100N/mm2
P 1000 63.36
Primary shear stress, 1 N/mm2
A Dt t
Bending stress
Consider an elemental section of area dA as shown. It is located at angle with x-axis and
subtends an angle d.
dA
d
y = rsin
r
dA = rdt
d(Ixx) = dA(y2) = (rdt) (rsin)2
dIxx = tr3sin2d
The MOI of an angular fillet weld is obtained by integrating,
I xx 2 tr 3 sin 2 d 2tr 3 sin 2 d
0 0
3
1 cos 2
= 2tr 3 d 2tr I xx tr
3
0 2 = 2
Ixx = (t) (25)3 mm4
M y (10000 200)(25)
b b
I t(25)3
1018.59
b N/mm2
t
2 2 2
1018.59 63.6
b 12
2 2t t
513.26
= N/mm2
t
513.26
100 t 5.13mm
t
t 5.13
h 7.26 8mm
.707 .707
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3.7 WELDED JOINT SUBJECTED TO TORSIONAL MOMENT
Ixx = tr3 {by symmetry}
Iyy = tr3
J = Ixx + Iyy = 2tr3
Tr T
J J
J 2tr 2
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GATE QUESTIONS
1. Below is figure shown what is the name of fillet are of 10 mm size and the weld length is
weld based on shaded region is. 30 mm. If the allowable shear stress of the weld
is 94 MPa, considering the minimum throat of
the weld, the maximum allowable transverse
load in kN is
F
F
[GATE - 2012]
(a) 14.44 (b) 17.92
(c) 19.93 (d) 22.16
[GATE - 2018] 4. A 60 mm long and 6 mm thick fillet weld
(a) Fillet weld (b) Groove weld carries a steady load of 15 kN along the weld.
(c) Spot weld (d) Plug weld The shear strength of the weld material is equal
to 200 MPa. The factor of safety is
2. A butt weld joint is developed on steel plates
[GATE - 2006]
having and ultimate tensile strength of 500 MPa
(a) 2.4 (b) 3.4
and 700 MPa, respectively. The thickness of the
(c) 4.8 (d) 6.8
plates is 8 mm and width is 20 mm. Improper
selection of welding parameters caused an 5. Weldments in fabricated steel beams are
undercut of 3 mm depth along the weld. The designated for
maximum transverse tensile load (in kN) [GATE - 1987]
carrying capacity of the developed weld joint is (a) Bending stresses at the flange
_________. (b) Shear stresses in transverse plane
[GATE - 2014] (c) Combination of bending and shear
3. A fillet welded joint is subjected to transverse (d) None of these because in fabricated beams
loading F as shown in figure. Both legs of the welds not to get stressed.
SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (c) 15 103
s
Sol 2. (70kN) 0.707 6 60
Pt = t (tunder cut) L S = 58.9344 MPa
= 700 × 20 × (8 – 3) Given shear strength of material
= 700 × 100 N = 70 kN = 200 MPa
200
Sol 3. (*) FOS = 3.4
58.9344
Sol 4. (b)
Sol 5. (c)
PPPW = 0.707 t × Le × s
Steel beams undergoes both bending and shear
{here PFW parallel filter weld} loads.
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ESE OBJ QUESTIONS
1. In combined parallel and transverse fillet 4. A fillet weld is loaded parallel to its length
welded joint
by a load P. If the weld leg is h, the average
[ESE - 2018]
shear stress on the throat area is
(a) The parallel portion will fail due to tension,
[ESE - 2011]
whereas the parallel portion will failure to shear
(b) The transverse portion will fail due to P P
(a) (b)
tension, whereas the parallel portion will failure h 0.5 h
to shear 2P 1.414P
(c) Both parallel and transverse portions will (c) (d)
h h
fail due to tension
(d) Both parallel and transverse portions will
5. A compound filler welded joint is loaded by
fail due to shear
P shown. The maximum shearing stress occurs
at point.
2. Consider the following: q p
The parallel fillet welded joint is designed for
1. Tensile strength
2. Compressive strength
3. Bending strength A P
B
4. Shear strength
Which of the above is/are correct? C q
[ESE - 2015]
(a) 4 only (b) 3 only D
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 4
3. Two plates are joined as shown in the figure [ESE - 2011
(a) A and D (b) B and D
(c) A only (d) C only
P 6. Consider the following statements regarding
70mm
P welded joints:
1. It is a permanent type of joint.
2. It is reliable and economical for pressure
vessel construction.
3. It is free from fabricational residual stresses.
4. Such joints are suitable for static loading
The maximum tensile and shear stresses are 70
only.
N/mm2 and 56 N/mm2 respectively. The plate is 5. Welding is a versatile and flexible metal
70 mm wide and 12.5 mm thick. What will be joining processes.
value of is the total load carried by the joint is Which of these statements are correct?
85 kN? [ESE - 2010]
[ESE - 2014] (a) 1, 2and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(a) 126.39 mm (b) 84.25 mm (c) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 2 and 5 only
(c) 70.00 mm (d) 42.125 mm
7. Assertion (A): In design of double welding
of unsymmetrical sections with plates subjected
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to axial loads lengths of parallel welds are made (a) 150 mm (b) 200 mm
unequal. (c) 250 mm (d) 300 mm
Reason (R): The length of parallel welds in
fillet welding of an unsymmetrical section with 10. Match List-I (Different systems) with List-II
a plate are so proportioned that the sum of the (Associated terminology) and select the correct
resisting moments of welds about the center of answer using the codes given below the lists:
gravity axis is zero. List-I
[ESE - 2008] A. Riveted joints
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct B. Welded joints
explanation of A C. Leaf springs
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct D. Knuckle joints
explanation of A List-II
(c) A is false but R is false. (i) Nipping
(d) A is false but r is true. (ii) Angular movement
(iii) Fullering
8. A single parallel fillet weld of total length L (iv) Fusion
and weld size h subjected to a tensile load P, [ESE - 2004]
will have what design stress? Codes:
[ESE - 2007] (a) A-iii, B-ii, C-i, D-iv
P (b) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv
(a) Tensile and equal to
0.707 L h (c) A-i, B-iv, C-iii, D-ii
P (d) A-iii, B-iv, C-i, D-ii
(b) Tensile and equal to
Lh 11. A circular solid rod of diameter d welded to
P a rigid flat plate by a circular fillet weld of
(c) Shear and equal to
0.707 L h throat thickness t is subjected to a twisting
moment T. The maximum shear stress induced
P
(d) Shear and equal to in the weld is
Lh [ESE - 2003]
T 2T
9. Two plates are joined together by means of (a) (b)
single transverse and double parallel fillet welds td 2 td 2
as shown in the given figure. If the size of fillet (c) 4T (d)
2T
is 5 mm and allowable shear load per mm is 300 td 2
td 3
N. What is the approximate length of each
parallel fillet? 12. In a fillet welded joint, the weakest area of
[ESE - 2005] the wet is
150kN
[ESE - 2001]
(a) Toe (b) Root
(c) Throat (d) Face
13. The following the figures shown welded
joints (xxx indicates welds), for the same load
and same dimension plate and weld.
150 kN
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F F
(a) (b)
P P wt sin 45 wt
Fsin 45 2F
(c) (d)
wt wt
Figure-I
16. In the welded joint shown in the given
P P figure if the weld at B has thicker fillets than at
A then load carrying capacity P0 of the joint
will.
[ESE - 1997]
Figure-II
The joint shown A
B
[ESE - 2000]
(a) Figure-I is better because the weld is in
shear and the principal stress in the weld is not
in line with P.
(b) Figure-I is better because the load transfer P0
from the tie bar to the plate is not direct (a) Increase
(c) Figure-II is better because the weld is in (b) Decrease
tension and safe stress of weld in tension is (c) Remain unaffected
greater than in shear. (d) Exactly get doubled
(d) Figure-II is better because it has less stress
17. A butt welded joint, subjected to tensile
14. If permissible stress in plates of joint
force P is shown in the given figure, = length
through a pin as shown in the given figure is
200 MPa, then the width w will be of the weld (in mm0 h = throat of the butt weld
Pin (in mm0 and H is the total height of weld
A including reinformcement. The average tensile
2000N
stress t in the weld is given by
10 mmf 2000 N
w
P
2mm P
2mm
B h H
[ESE - 1999]
(a) 15 mm (b) 18 mm [ESE - 1997]
(c) 20 mm (d) 25 mm
P P
(a) t (b) t
15. Two metal plates of thickness ‘t’ and width H 2h
‘w’ are jointed by a fillet weld of 45° as shown (c) P (d) 1
2P
t
in given figure. When subjected to a pulling 2h h
force ‘F’, the stress induced in the weld will be
45° 18. A double fillet welded joint with parallel
F t
fillet weld of length L and leg B is subjected to
t F a tensile force P. Assuming uniform shear stress
distribution, the shear stress in the weld is given
[ESE - 1998] by
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[ESE - 1996] 19. The permissible stress in a fillet weld is 100
2P P N/mm2. The fillet weld has equal leg lengths of
(a) (b) 15 mm each. The allowable shearing load on
BL 2BL per cm length of the weld is:
P 2P [ESE - 1995]
(c) (d)
2BL BL (a) 22.5 kN (b) 15.0 kN
(c) 10.6 kN (d) 7.5 kN
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (d) Axially loaded unsymmetrical welded joints
The transverse portion fails under tension due to
normal stress and parallel portion will fail due 1
to shear.
1
Sol 2. (a) G
Sol 3. (d) 2
P = 0.707 s × 1 × 1 + 1.414 s × 2 ×
2
Given, s = 12.5 mm
t = 70 MPa
= 56 MPa P1
2 = A1
P1 = A1
1 = 70 mm
P1 = × t × 1
P = 85 kN
85 × 103 = 0.707 × 12.5 × 70 × 70 + 1.414 × P2 = × t × 2
12.5 × × 56 P1y1 = P2y2
or (1.414 × 1.25 × 56) = 41696.25 t 1= y1= = t 2 y2
or = 42.126 mm 1 y1 = 2y2
So Assertion and reason both are correct and R
Sol 4. (d) is correct explanation of A.
Load P h
Shear stress = t
Sol 8. (c)
Area t
2 C
x
P 1.141P D t
h P
h h
A
2 B
Sol 5. (a) The throat is the minimum cross-section of the
weld located at 45° to the leg h.
Sol 6. (d) i.e. t = h cos 45
Welded joints t = 0.707 h
1. It is permanent type of joint. The area of the throat for each weld is given as:
2. It is reliable and economical for pressure A = t L = 0.707 hL
vessel construction. (Note: The design of size of the weld is based
3. It is subjected to residual stresses due to non- upon the magnitude of stress developed on the
uniform heating. throat area).
4. Welding is a versatile and flexible metal The stress acting on the throat section BD Now,
joining process. Force P P
x
Area .707hL tL
Sol 7. (a)
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The above stress x is divided into two
2
components. One parallel to the plane () and ()
2
one perpendicular to the plane () BD.
2 2
Now, = x cos 45 = 0.707 x P
2
P P
2
P max
0.707 2hL 2hL hL
0.707 hL
P
P max 1.618
hL
hL
Also = x sin 45° = 0.707 x Sol 9. (b)
P Total length of the weld = 2 + 100
0.707
0.707hL Allowable shear per mm is 300 N
P 300 × (2 + 100) = 150 × 103
hL
Now the plane BD is subjected to normal stress 2 + 100 = 500
and shear stress . Applying principles = 200 mm
stresses we get.
(a) Maximum shear stress (max) Sol 10. (d)
Welded joint will be associated to fusion so as
2 2 2
P P
2
to enhance the strength of weld.
2 2hL hL Leaf spring related to nipping.
P Riveted joint related to fullering (method by
max 1.118 which Rivet joints are made).
hL Knuckle joints has relation with Angular
For design purpose we use the shear stress on
movement.
the throat area. The average shear stress
developed. Sol 11. (b)
P P
ave 1.414
0.707 hL hL
The average shear stress is 1.26 times greater
than the maximum shear stress developed.
Hence for all kind of loading the average shear
stress developed in considered for design
purpose.
(b) Maximum normal stress (max)
T the weld). Transverse fillet weld designed for
tensile strength.
r J
Figure-1: It is called parallel weld and they are
Td / 2 2T 3
2 J d t designed for shear strength.
3
.d .t d t 4 The magnitude of permissible tensile stress (220
4 N/mm2) is larger than shear strength (140
N/mm2) of weld.
Sol 12. (c)
The weakest area of the weld is throat. Sol 14. (a)
It will subjected to single shear as the pin will
Sol 13. (c)
be sheared at the junction of two plates.
Figure-2: Arrangement is called transverse
Permissible stress given for the plate.
fillet weld (the load acting is perpendicular to
2000 = (w – 10) × 2 × 10–6 × 200 × 106
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w = 15 mm. 1
P=t×L× hL
2
Sol 15. (a)
The throat h P
45° L t throat
t
h P
t
h h
sin 45
t
h = t sin 45° For double fillet
Area of minimum throat = w × h = wt sin 45° 1
F P 2 hL 2hL
Shearing force = 2
wt sin 45
p
t
Sol 16. (c) 2hL
Sol 17. (b) Sol 19. (c)
Because throat area is the minimum area and 2p
Athroat = h × L Shear stress is given by =
h
P p h 100 15
t
h 2 2
Sol 18. (c) Load/cm length = 1060 N/mm = 10.6 kN/cm
For single fillet
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CHAPTER - 4
RIVETED JOINTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Head
Shank
Rivet is specified by the shank diameter. A 20mm rivet means a rivet having 20mm shank
diameter.
4.1.1 Applications of Riveted Joints
1. Riveted joints are used where it is necessary to avoid the thermal after effects of welding.
2. Used for metals with poor weld ability such as aluminum alloys.
3. To join different materials like steel and asbestos.
4. Welded joints have poor resistance to vibrations and impact loads.
4.1.2 Advantages of Riveted Joint over Welded Joints
1. More reliable in case of vibration and impact loads.
2. Quality of riveted joint can be easily checked.
3. Can be dismantled work without much damaged parent material.
4.1.3 Disadvantages of Riveted Joints Compared to Welded Joint
1. More material cost, holes required for rivets weaker the plate and it is necessary to increase
plate thickness to compensate this loss.
2. More labor cost and less productive process.
3. More weight of riveted joints due to overlapping straps requirement.
4. Noisy process
5. Strep concentration is there near holes in plates.
4.2 TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS
t
t
1. 2.
Pt
Single Riveted Double Riveted
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Pd
P
t
3. 4. 5.
Triple Riveted
m
Chain Riveted Joint Zig-Zag Riveted Joint
4.2.1 Terminology
1.Pitch (P): Pitch of the rivet is defined as the distance between the centre of one rivet to the
centre of the adjacent rivet in the same row. Generally P = 3d
Where d = shank diameter of rivet
2. Margin (M): Margin is the distance between the edges of the plate to centre line of rivets in the
nearest row. Generally m = 1.5d
3. Transverse pitch (Pt): It is also called back pitch or row pitch. It is the distance between the
consecutive rows of rivets in the same plate generally t = 0.8P (chain), 0.6P (Zigzag)
4. Diagonal pitch (Pd): It is diagonal distance a and defined for zigzag.
4.3 TYPES OF BUTT JOINT
1. Single Strap Butt Joint Single Riveted
2. Double Strap Butt Joint Single Riveted
3. Double Rivet Double Strap Butt Joint
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4. Diamond Joint or Hozenge Joint
5. Bending of Plates in Lap Joints
No such bending in butt joints because line of action of force is in same plane.
P P
The strength of riveted joint is usually calculated considering one pitch length of the
plate.
4.3.1 Types of Failure
1. Shear failure of rivet
2. Tensile failure of the plate between two consecutive rivets.
3. Crushing failure of plate/rivet
4. Shear failure of plate in margin area.
5. Tearing of plate in margin area.
4.4 STRENGTH EQUATIONS
Mainly there types of failures are considered
1. Shear failure of rivet
2. Tensile failure of plate between rivets
3. Crushing failure of plate.
1. Shear Strength of Rivet
Shear failure in the rivet of a single riveted lap joint, rivet is in single shear.
PD d 2
4
For double or n number of rivets
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2
PS d n
4
In case of double strap butt
PS 2 d 2
4
In case of double strap butt joint, for n no. of rivets are subjected to double shear,
Ps 2 d 2 n (double shear)
4
2. Tensile Strength of Plate between Rivets or Tearing of Plate
Pt
t
Pt
w t
Pt = (W – 2d)t t
Or Pt = (P – d)t t {for one pitch length}
3. Crushing Strength of Plate or Rivet
PC
Pc = dtn
For n is no. of rivets
4.4.1 Efficiency of Joint
It is defined as the ratio of the strength of riveted joint to the strength of un-riveted solid plate
Strength of Un-riveted Plate = tWt
Lowest of Ps , Pt & Pc
t Wt
4.5 DESIGN OF RIVET JOINTS
That is to Find Diameter of Rivet, Pitch & Margin
1. When thickness of plate t is more than 8mm then Unwin’s Formula
d = 65t (t>8)
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(i) If (t < 8)
Crushing strength of rivet is equal to shear strength of joint
L dt d 2
4
Where d should not be less than t
2. For Pitch(P), Tearing strength of plate is equated to shear strength of plate
Example. For double riveted lap joint,
t (P d)t 2 d 2 for unit pitch length
4
But P 2d(always)
3. M = 1.5d
4.6 CAULKING AND FULLERING
It is used to obtain leak proof riveted joints. Caulking process is applied to edges of plates in a lap
joint and the edges of strap plate in a butt joint. These edges are first beveled to approximately 70°
to 75° and the caulking tool is hammered on the edge. The head of rivet is also hammered down
with the caulking tool. The slopes of cowlhiz tool closes the surface asperities and gases on the
contracting surfaces between two plates and also between the rivet and the plates resulting in
leackproof joint.
Caulhing
tool
Hammer
Fullering: Only difference is in tool shape.
Fullering tool
Example. Two plates subjected to a tensile force P are connected together by means of double
strap butt joint as shown.
w
P
P
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M Pt
t/2
t
t/2
The force P is 250kN and the width of plate w = 200mm. The rivets and plates are made of the
same steel with permissible stress in tension = 70, compression = 100, shear = 60N/mm2.
Calculate:
(i) Diameter of the rivets
(ii) Thickness of the plates
(iii) Dimensions of the P1, P2 and m
(iv) Efficiency of joint
Solution.
(i) Diameter of rivet
250 103 d 2 2 n {n = 5 (5 rivets subjected to double shear)}
4
250 103 d 2 60 2 5 = d = 23.03 = 25mm
4
(ii) Thickness plate, (W 2d) t t = P
Because, in case of tension in the plate, the first thought is to investigate the section with the holes.
However, if the main plate is to break at this section, the two hole section must also break.
(2002×25)t(70) = 250000
T = 23.81 = 25mm
(iii) Pitch of rivets,
width of plate 200
P 66.67mm
No. of rivets 3
P = 65mm
M = 1.5d = 1.5(25) = 37.56 or 40
Pt = 0.6P = 0.6(65) = 39 or 40
(iv) Efficiency of joint,
PS 2 d 2 n 2 (25) 2 (60)5 294524N
4 4
Pt = (W 2d)t t = (200 2 × 25) 25(70) = 262500N
Pc = dtcn = (25) (25)(100)5 = 312500N
P = Wtt = 200(25)700 = 350000N
P 262500
t 75%
P 350000
Example. Two tie bar plates of a bridge structure, 250mm wide and 20mm thick, are to be
connected by a double strap butt joint as shown. The rivets and the plates are made of steel. The
permissible stress in tension shear and compression are 80, 60 and 120 N/mm2 respectively.
(i) Determine the dia. of the rivet by using d 6 t
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(ii) Determine no. of rivets by equating strength of the plate with the strength of rivets. Assume
that shear resistance of one rivet in double shear is 1.875 times its resistance in single shear.
(ii) Efficiency of joint.
Assume M = 1.5d, Pt = 2d, thickness of strap = 0.625t
A B C
A B C
P t
Solution.
W= 250mm, t = 20mm, t = 80N/mm2, = 60, c = 120N/mm2
(i) Diameter of rivets, d 6 t 6 20 27mm
(ii) No. of rivets, PS 1.875 d 2 1.875 (27) 2 60 64412.4N
4 4
Crushing resistance of one rivet is given by:
Pc = dtc = 27(20)120 = 64800N
Since Pc > Ps therefore shear strength of rivet is the criterion of design. It is assumed that rivets are
so arranged that there is only one rivet in the outer row. Tensile strength of the plate in the outer
row is given by,
Pt = (W d)t t = (250 27) (20) (80) = 356800N
Equating the strength of the plate with the shear strength n rivets,
356800 = n(64412) n = 557 or 6 rivets
(iii) Efficiency of point,
Pt = (W d)t t
Along section AA, strength = (W d)t t = (250 27) 2080
= 356800N
Along section BB, (W 2d) t t + 1 × Ps
= (250 2 × 27) 20×80 + 64412.4
= 3780212N
Along section CC, = (W 3d) tt + 3 Ps
= (250 3 27) 20(80) + 3 64412
= 463637.4kN
Shear strength of all rivet= 6 Ps = 6 64412 = 386474N
Solid strength of plate = Wtt = 250(20)80
= 400000N
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356800
89.2%
= 40000
4.7 LONGITUDINAL BUTT JOINT FOR BOILER SHELL
1. It is usually double strap triple riveted butt joint.
2. Boiler and pressure verses are cylindrical vessels.
3. They are subjected to circumferential and longitudinal tensile stress. It can be proved that
circumferential stress is twice the longitudinal stress. Therefore, longitudinal joint should be
stronger than the circumferential joint and butt joint is used for longitudinal joint.
1. Thickness of Boiler Shell
PD
t i i
2 t
Where, t is Permissible tensile stress
Pi is Internal Pressure
Di is Internal Diameter
t is Thickness of Boiler Shell
PD
t 1 1
2 t
is efficiency of riveted joint
Corrosion allowance (CA): 1.5 to 2mm
PD
t i i CA
2t
Sut
t
FOS
Where Sut is UTS of plate(N/mm2)
FOS for boiler applications varies from 4.5 to 4.75 or usually 5.
2. Diameter of Rivet
(i) When thickness of plate is more than 8mm, the rivet diameter is calculate by Unwin’s formula
i.e., d = 65t.
(ii) When thickness of the plate is less than 8mm, the diameter of rivet is obtained by equating
shear resistance of rivets to crushing resistance.
Diameter of rivet hole d = dt(1 to 2mm)
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3. Pitch of Rivets
Pt = (P d)t t …(i)
Where Pt is tensile strength of plate per pitch length in outer row of rivets.
PS d 2 n1 18.75 d 2 n 2
4 4 ...(ii)
Where Ps is shear resistance of rivets
n1 is no. of rivets subjected to single shear per pitch length.
n2 is no. of rivets subjected to double shear per pitch length
Equating (i) and (ii)
We get pitch of rivets, and according IBR Pmin = 2d
Pmax = (t + 41.28)
Constant from table for various joints
4. Transverse Pitch(Pt)
Pt = 0.33P+ 0.67d {zigzag}
= 2d{chain riveting}
5. Margin, M = 1.5d
6. Thickness of Straps
Tt = 0.75t {wide strap} = 0.625t {Narrow step}
7. Efficiency of Circumferential Joint
Pd
P
Where P is pitch of circumferential joint
Example. Determine the diameter of rivets, 1 and permissible = 60N/mm2
Solution.
P
Primary shear force, P1' P2' P3' P4' 6250N
4
" P r1
Secondary shear force, P1 = 2 2 2 2
r1 r2 r3 r4
r1 = 150 r2 =50
r3 = 50 r4 = 150
" 25000 100 150
P4 P1
"
((150)2 (50) 2 ) 2 = 7500N
25000 100 50
P2" P3" 2500N
5000
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25kN
1
100
2 150=r1
r2=50 G
100
3 r3=50
150=r4
100
4
Resultant shear force at P P
1
' 2
1
" 2
= (6250)2 (7500)2 9762.8N
2
9762.8 = d d 14.39 15mm
4
Example. A riveted joint, consisting of four identical rivets, is subjected to an eccentric force of
5kN as shown. Determine the diameter of rivets, it permissible shear stress is 60 N/mm2
Solution.
P
Primary shear force =
4
200
4 100nm=R
3 P=5N
5000
P1' P2' P3' P4' 1250N
4
Secondary shear force P1” = P2” = P3” = P4” = Pe(r1)
Pr 5000(200)100
P1" P2" P3" P4" 2 2 2 1 2 2500N
r1 r2 r3 r4 4(100)2
P2 P2' P2" 2500N 1250 3750
3750
d 8.92 9mm
2
d
4
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GATE QUESTIONS
1. Consider the schematic of a riveted lap joint [GATE - 2017]
subjected to tensile load F, as shown below. Let (a) 13 (b) 15
d be the diameter of the rivets, and Sf be the (c) 17 (d) 30
maximum permissible tensile stress in the
plates. What should be the minimum value for 3. A horizontal plate has been joined to a
the thickness of the plates to guard against vertical post using four rivets arranged as shown
tensile failure of the plates? Assume the plates in figure. The magnitude of the load on the
to be identical. worst loaded rivet (in N) is ___
F F [GATE - 2016]
W/4 40mm
d
W W/2
d 500mm
L
40mm
400N
[GATE - 2017]
F F
(a) (b)
Sf (W 2d) Sf W 4. A cantilever bracket is bolted to a column
F 2F using three M12 1.75 bolts, P, Q and R. The
(c) (d) value of maximum shear stress developed in the
Sf (W d) Sf W
bolt P (in MPa) is _____.
[GATE - 2015]
2. A steel plate, connected to a fixed channel
using three identical bolts A, B and C, carries a
load of 6 kN as shown in the figure.
40 9kN
Considering the effect of direct load and
moment, the magnitude of resultant shear force 30 P
Q
(in kN) on bolt C is 30
Channel R 10mm thick
40
Steel plate
All dimension
are in mm
A B C
6kN
30 50 50 30 170
All dimensions are in mm
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SOLUTIONS
Sol.1. (a) 400 .5 0.2 2
sf is permissible tensile stress in plates
.02 2
2
d is diameter of rivet 4
F is tensile load 1767.766953 N
T=? P = 1839.837 N
For teasing failure of plates,
Syt Sol.4. (3410)
F (W 2d)t (W 2d) t Sf
FS P = 9kN , e = 250 mm
F Primary shear force
t P
q
(w 2d) s f
C.G
Pp
Sol.2. (c)
Pp Pq
p q
3 G2 1 Pp' Pq' Pr'
3kN
A B C 3 3
r2 r1 200
Secondary shear force :
50 50 By symmetry C.G. lies at the centre of bolt Q.
6kN rp = 30 mm
rr = 30 mm
6 rq = 0
Primary shear, load, Ps1 2kN R
3
Secondary shear, load, P 's1 kr1 Pr
Pe
= r1
r12 r22 r32 Pr
r1 = r3 = 50 & r2 = 0 & e = 250 mm Pe 9000 250
C 2 2 2 2 1250
6 250 rq rq rr 30 02 302
Ps'1 2 50
50 02 502 Ppn Prn C
6 250
= 56 15kN Ppn Crp 37.5kN
2 502
Resultant load on c, Pr' Crr 37.5kN
Ps Ps1 Ps'1 2 15 17kN Pqn 0
Resultant shear force
Sol.3. (1839.83) Due to symmetry stress in PQR will be equal in
400 magnitude
Shear load on all rivets 100N
4 Pp Pr (3)2 (37.5)2 38.5648kN
Secondary shear load, due to bending moment P 38.5648
= 340.987 MPa ~ 341 MPa
2 2 12 2
Pe r
A
0.012
2
r1 r1 r3 r4 4
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ESE OBJ QUESTIONS
1. A riveted joint may fail by C. Rivets in lap joint
1. tearing of the plate at an edge D. Bolts holding two flanges in a flange
2. tearing of the plate across a row of rivets coupling
3. shearing of rivets List-II
Which of the above are correct (i) Double transverse shear
[ESE - 2018] (ii) Torsional shear
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3only (iii) Single transverse shear
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (iv) Tension
[ESE - 2004]
2. The thickness of the continuous weld used Codes:
for connecting a horizontal square bar of 150 (a) A-iv, B-i, C-iii, D-ii
mm size and of cantilevered length 500 mm to a (b) A-iv, B-ii, C-iii, D-i
vertical plate, with the bar carrying a 25 kn (c) A-iii, B-i, C-iv, D-ii
vertical load at its outer tip, given that the (d) A-iii, B-ii, C-iv, D-i
permissible direct shear stress of the weld is 20
N/mm2, is 6. A riveted joint has been designed to support
[ESE - 2016] an eccentric load P. The load generates value of
(a) 3 mm (b) 4 mm F1 equal to 4 kN and F2 equal to 3 kN. The
(c) 5 mm (d) 6 mm cross-sectional area of each rivet is 500 mm2.
Consider the following statements.
3. Rivets undergo ingle shear in
[ESE - 2014] F2
(a) Lap joint and single-cover butt joint
(b) Single-cover butt joint and double-cover butt L
joint F1
(c) Lap joint and double-cover butt joint
(d) Lap joint only F2
4. A hole of diameter d is to be punched in a F1
plate of thickness t. For the plate material, the
maximum crushing stress is 4 times the
maximum allowable shearing stress. For 1. The stress in the rivet is 10 N/mm2
punching the biggest hole, the ratio of diameter2. The value of eccentricity L is 100 mm
of hole to plate thickness should be equal to: 3. The value of load P is 6 kN
4. The resultant force in each rivet is 6 kN
[ESE - 2013]
(a) 1/2 (b) 1/2 Which of these statements are correct?
(c) 1 (d) 2 [ESE - 2003]
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
5. Match List-I (Items in joints) with List-II (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
(Type of failure) and select the correct answer
using the codes below the lists: 7. An eccentrically loaded riveted joint is shown
with 4 rivets at P, Q, R and S.
List-I
A. Bolts in bolted joints of engine cylinder
cover plate
B. Cotters in cotter joint
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W W
+ +
P+ Q P+ Q
O O
+ + + +
S R S R
Which of the rivets are the most loaded? Which of the rivets are the most loaded?
[ESE - 2002] [ESE - 2000]
(a) P and Q (b) Q and R (a) P and Q (b) Q and R
(c) R and S (d) S and P (c) R and S (d) S and P
8. Assertion (A): In a boiler shell with riveted
11. Match List-I (Type of joints) List-II (Mode
construction, the longitudinal seam is jointed by
of connecting member) and select the correct
butt joint. answer using the codes given below the lists:
Reason (R): A butt joint is stronger than a List-I
riveted construction. A. Cotter joints
[ESE - 2001]B. Knuckle joint
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct C. Turn Buckle
explanation of A D. Riveted joint
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a the List-II
correct explanation of A (i) Connects two rods on bars permitting small
(c) A is true but R is false amount of flexibility.
(d) A is false but R is true (ii) Rigidity connect two members
(iii) Connects two rods having threaded ends.
9. Match List-I with List-II and select the (iv) Permanent fluid tight joint between two flat
correct answer using the codes given below the pieces.
lists: (v) Connects two shafts and transmits torque.
List-I [ESE - 2000]
A. Unwin’s formulae Codes:
B. Wahl factor (a) A-v, B-i, C-iii, D-ii
C. Reynold’s equation (b) A-ii, B-1, C-iiii, D-iv
D. Lewis form factor (c) A-v, B-iii, C-ii, D-iv
List-II (d) A-ii, B-iii C-i, D-iv
(i) Bearing
(ii) Rivets 12. For the brackets bolted as shown in the
(iii) Gears above figure, the bolts will develop
(iv) Springs
Bracket
[ESE - 2000]
Codes:
(a) A-i, B-iv, C-ii, D-iii
(b) A-ii, B-iii, C-i, D- iv Load
(c) A-i, B-iii, C-ii, D-iv
(d) A-ii, B-iv, C-i, D-iii
10. An eccentrically loaded riveter joint is
shown with 4 rivets at P, Q, R and S [ESE - 2000]
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(a) Primary tensile stresses and secondary shear (d) Primary tensile stresses and secondary
stresses compressive stresses
(b) Primary shear stresses and secondary shear
stresses 13. The rivet head used for boiler plate riveting
(c) Primary shear stresses and secondary tensile in usually
stresses [ESE - 1998]
(a) Snap head (b) Pan head
(c) Counter sink head (d) Conical head
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SOLUTIONS
Sol. 1. (d) Sol. 6. (d)
Sol. 2. (a) F2
Pmax = 0.707 t. . per
25 103 = 0.707 t 4 150 20 F1
L
or t = 2.94 mm 3mm
F2
Sol. 3. (a)
Lap joint: Rivets undergo single shear F1
Single cover butt joint: Rivets undergo single
shear.
Double cover butt joint: Rivets undergo Angle between the force component 90°.
double shear. Resultant = F12 F22 2F1F2 cos
Sol. 4. (c) Force on each rivet = F12 F22 as cos = 0
C = 4 cos 90° = 0
2
c d pd t = 16 9 = 5kN
4
5 103
c t = 10N/mm2
or 500
4 d
2F2 = P
t c
4
So, 1 3 × 2 = P = 6 kN.
d
d Sol. 7. (b)
or 1 Rivet Q and R are most heavily stressed because
t
the angle between primary shear force causing
direct shear stress and secondary force causing
Sol. 5. (a) bending stress have minimum angle at Q and R
Bolts in flange coupling induces torsional shear only.
P Q
b
R
S
Sol. 8. (a)
In the lap joints plates to be jointed overlap each
Cotter:double shear stress other over a sufficient amount of riveting while
Rivets are subjected to single shear. in butt joint the plates are in the same plane and
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butt against each other (There is a cover plate Since Q and R are the nearest to the line of
either on one or both sides. action of load, hence they are most loaded.
The longitudinal joint in a boiler shell is usually
a butt joint with two corner plates. This joint is Sol. 11. (b)
more efficient than lap joint. It is also stiffer to Cotter joint: Rigidly connects two member, do
maintain circularity of shell at ends of the not permit angular movement.
plates. Turn buckle: connect two members having
The circumferential joint is a lap joint. threaded ends, when rotated in one direction
But joints are more efficient than lap joints. they come closer and in other direction they go
farther.
Sol. 9. (d) Knuckle joint: The joints is used to connect
A. Unwin’s formulae: Rivets two rods or bars when a small amount of
d = 6.04 t flexibility or angular movement is necessary.
where t = thickness of plate in mm The axis of the rods may be collinear or
d = diameter of rivet in mm coplanar and intersecting.
B. Wahl factor: Springs
4C 1 0.615 Sol. 12. (b)
kW The primary load cause primary shear stress and
4C 4 C secondary shear stress arises to resist the torque
D due to eccentric load in the plane of member.
where C = = spring index
d
C. Reynold’s equation: Bearing Sol. 13. (a)
3 p 3 p h The Snap Heads are usually employed for
h h 6U structural work and machine riveting and fr
x x Z z x boiler shell.
There is no exact analytical solution for this The Counter sunk heads are mainly used for
equation. ship building where flush surface are necessary.
D. Lewis form factor: Gears The Conical heads are mainly used in case of
t2 hand hammering.
Y
6 hm The Pan head have maximum strength, but these
are difficult to shape.
Sol. 10. (b)
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CHAPTER - 5
FRICTION CLUTCHES
5.1 CLUTCH
It is a mechanical device, which is used to connect or disconnect the source of power from the
remaining parts of the power transmission system at the will of operator.
5.1.1 Classification of Clutches
1. Positive Contact Clutches: They include square jaw clutches, spiral jaw clutches and toothed
clutches. Power transmission is achieved by means of interlocking of jaws or teeth. No slip is
there.
2. Friction Clutches: They include single and multi plate clutches, cone clutches and centrifugal
clutches. Power transmission is achieved by means of friction between contacting surfaces.
3. Electromagnetic Clutches: They include magnetic particle clutches, magnetic hysteresis
clutches and eddy current clutches. Power transmission is achieved by means of magnetic field.
4. Fluid Clutches and Couplings: Power transmission is achieved by means of hydraulic pressure.
5.1.2 Advantages of Jaw Clutches
1. No slip and engagement is positive
2. No heat is generated during engagement or disengagement.
5.1.3 Disadvantages
1. It can be engaged only when both shafts are stationary or rotate with very small speed
difference.
2. It cannot be engaged at high speeds
5.2 SINGLE PLATE FRICTION CLUTCH
Driven
shaft
Driving shaft
Actuating spring
Driving flange
Friction lining Driven flange
1. One flange is rigidly hanged to the driving shaft, while the other is connected to the driven shaft
by means of splines. The splines permit free axial movement of the driven flange with respect to
driven flange shaft.
2. This axial movement is necessary for engagement and disengagement of the clutch.
3. The actually force is provided by a helical spring which forces the driven flange to move
towards driving flange.
4. Power is then transmitted from driving flange to driven flange by means of frictional force.
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5.2.1 Advantages of Friction Clutch
1. Engagement is smooth.
2. Slip occurs only during engaging operation and once the clutch is engaged, there is he slip
between contacting surfaces. Therefore, power loss and consequent heat generation do not create
problems, unless the operation requires frequent starts and stops.
3. Sometimes it acts as a safety device, it slips when the torque transmitted through it exceeds a
safe value.
5.2.2 Design of Friction Clutches
The following factors should be considered while designing friction clutches:
1. Selection of suitable friction material at the containing surfaces.
2. Engagement and disengagement should be without shack or jack.
3. Low weight for rotating parts to reduce inertia forces, particularly at high speeds.
4. Provision for taking or compensating clear of rubbing surfaces.
5. Provision for carrying away the heat generated at the rubbing surfaces.
5.2.3 Torque Transmitting Capacity
dr
r
D
Where D is outer diameter of friction desk (mm)
d is Inner diameter of friction desk (mm)
P is Intensity of pressure at radius r (N/mm2)
F is Total operating force (N)
T is Torque transmitted by clutch (N mm)
Consider an elemental ring of radius r and radial thickness dr,
Elemental area = 2r(dr)
Elemental axial force = 2(prdr) …(i)
Elemental friction force = P2rdr
Elemental friction torque = (P2rdr)r
Elemental friction torque = 2Pr2dr …(ii)
Integrating the expression (i)
F 2(prdr)
D/ 2
F 2 Prd r
d/2
Integrating expression (ii)
D/ 2
T 2r Pr
2
dr
d/2
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5.2.4 Theories to obtain Torque Capacity
Two theories are used to obtain the torque capacity of the clutch:
1. Uniform pressure theory
2. Uniform wear theory
1. Uniform Pressure Theory
In case of new clutches, employing a number of springs, the pressure remains constant over the
entire surface area of the friction disk with this assumption P is assumed to be constant.
D/ 2
F 2
d/2
Prdr {since P is constant}
D/ 2
D/ 2
r2
F 2P
d/2
rdr F 2 P
2 d / 2
P 2 2
F (D d ) …(i)
4
P
Uniform distribution of pressure
D/ 2
Also, T 2P r dr
2
d/2
P 3 3
T (D d ]
12
P
T …(ii)
12 [D d ]
3 3
2. Uniform Wear Theory
It is assumed that the wear is uniformly distributed over the entire surface area of the friction disk.
This assumption is used for work out clutches. The axial wear of the friction disk is proportional
to the frictional work. The work done by the friction force at radius r is proportional to friction
force P and rubbing velocity (2rN)
Where N is rpm
Wear (P)(2rN)
Assuming N & as constant
Wear Pr
And when wear is uniform, Pr = constant
The pressure distribution according to uniform wear theory is
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P
In this case P is inversely proportional to r
Maximum pressure at inner radius and minimum at outer periphery
d
Pr (Pa )
2
Where Pa is maximum intensity of pressure
From equation (1)
D/ 2 D/ 2
d
F 2 Pr dr 2Pa dr
d/ 2
2 d/ 2
P d
F a (D d) …(1)
2
d
D/ 2
P d 2 2
T 2 Pa rdr T a (D d ) …(iii)
2 d/2 8
Dd
(ii) Divide by (i), we get T F …(iv)
4
There are two phases of wear mechanism in friction lining, they are as follows:
1. When the friction lining is new, uniform pressure theory is applicable, P = constant.
2. On later stages, uniform wear theory is applicable.
Conclusion
The uniform pressure theory is applicable only when the friction lining is new, but major portion
of the life of friction lining comes under the uniform wear friction and it is more logical to use
uniform wear theory in design of clutches.
Equation (4) can be written as, T = FRf
Dd
Rf
4
Where Rf is friction radius for uniform wear theory
Equation (3) can be written as, T = FRf
1 D3 d 3
Rf 2
3 D d2
Where Rf is friction radius for uniform pressure theory.
Putting same values of D and d , we find that friction radius of uniform pressure theory is more
therefore, more torque transmitting capacity. On the other hand, the torque transmitting capacity of
worn out clutches is low due to lower friction radius therefore when we use uniform wear theory,
we are on the safe side and assume lower torque carrying capacity but actually such a clutch will
have alike more torque carrying capacity when new.
Torque transmitting capacity can be increased by the methods:
(a) Use friction material with a higher
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(b) Increase plate pressure (P)
(c) Increase the mean radius of the friction disk.
Generally Tdesign k s T
Where T is rotated torque
ks is service factor, which includes higher torque requirement during start up and other
fluctuations of torque.
Clutch should be proceed between engine and gearbox instead of gearbox and propellers shaft
because after engine speed is high and torque requirements are low. Therefore, smaller clutch will
be possible whereas after gearbox speed is low and torque requirements are high.
Example. A plate clutch consists of one pair of contacting surfaces. The inner and outer dia. of the
friction disk are 100 and 200mm respectively. The coefficient of friction is 0.2 and permissible
intensity of pressure is 1N/mm2. Assuming uniform wear theory (a) calculates the power
transmitting capacity of the clutch at 750rpm (b) Calculate power transmitting capacity using
uniform pressure theory
Solution.
(a) T = FRf
Dd
Rf 75mm
4
P d (1) 100(200 100)
F a (D d) 15700N
2 2
T = 0.2(15700) 75 = 235.5N-m
2(750)
P = T = 235.5 60 = 18.5kW
P 2 1
(b) F (D d 2 ) ((200)2 (100)2 ) 23550N
4 4
T = FRf
1 (D3 d3 ) 1 2003 1003
Rf
3 (D2 d 2 ) 3 2002 1002 = 77.77mm
T = 0.2(23550) (77.779)
= 366.33N-m
P = T = 28.79kW
Example. An automotive plate clutch consists of the pair of contacting surfaces with an asbestos
friction lining. The torque transmitting capacity of the clutch is 550N-m. The coefficient of
friction is 0.25 and the permissible intensity of pressure is 2.5N/mm 2. Due to space limitation, the
outer dia. of the friction disk is fixed as 250mm. Using uniform wear theory calculate:
(a) The inner diameter
(b) Spring force required to creep the clutch engaged
Solution.
(a) T = 550N-m
T is torque capacity of one pair
= 0.25
P = 0.5N/mm2
Pd 2 2
T (D d )
8
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550 103 0.25()(d) (0.5)
Nm (2502 d 2 )
2 8
d(2502 d2) = 5605095
d = 174, 286, 112mm
As a design engines this diameter should be taken d = 174mm
Pd
(b) Required spring force, F (D d)
2
(0.5)(174)
= (250 174) = 10386N
2
Example. A single plate clutch consists of only one pair of contacting surfaces. It is used for an
engine, which develops a maximum torque of 120N-m. Assume a FOS of 1.5 to account for
slippage at full-engine torque. The permissible intensity of pressure is 350MPa. Assuming =
d
0.35 and uniform wear theory. Find ID and OD of friction lining? Given 0.577
D
Solution.
T = 120 N-m, FOS = 1.5, = 0.35, Pa = 350MPa
Ta = 120×1.5 = 180Nm = 180000N-mm
rPa d 2 2
T (D d )
8
(0.35).35d(D2 d 2 )
180000 =
8
d(D2 d2) = 3741765.19 {d = 0.577D}
d = 123.22 mm D = 213.55mm
Example. A single plate clutch consists of one pair of contacting surfaces because of space
limitations, the OD of the friction disk is fixed as D. The permissible intensity of pressure is P a
and coefficient of friction = , Assuming uniform wear theory, plot the variation of the torque
transmitting capacity against the ratio of diameter (d/D). Show that torque carrying capacity of
d
clutch is maximum when 0.577
D
Solution.
d
Let x
D
Pa d 2 2
T (D d )
8
Pa Dx 2 2
T (D d )
8
d2
T Pa D3 x 1 2
D
T Pa D x(1 x 2 )
3
dT
x x 3 0 1 3x 2 0
dx
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T
Tmax
.577
d/D
1
x x 0.577
3
d D
x = 0.577 .577 or 3 1.732
D d
5.3 MULTI DISK CLUTCHES
4 pair of contacting surfaces
where no. of disks are 5
No. of disks (n1 + n2) = No. of contacting surfaces +(n) + 1
Where n1 is number of disks on driving shafts
n2 is number of disks on driven shaft
n = n1 + n2 1
Fn D3 d3
For uniform pressure, T
3 D2 d 2
Fn
For uniform wear, T (D d)
4
5.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SINGLE AND MULTI-PLATE CLUTCHES
1. Number of pairs of contacting surfaces in the single plate clutch is one or at the most two. There
are more number of contacting surfaces in the multi disk clutch.
2. As the number of contacting surfaces is increased, the torque transmitting capacity is also
increased. For a given torque capacity, the size of a multiple clutch is smaller than that of the
single plate clutch.
3. More heat is generated in the multi plate clutch due to increased number of contacting surfaces.
Heat dissipation is a serious problem in multi plate clutch therefore multi plate clutches are wet
clutches, while single plate are dry.
4. Coefficient of friction decreases due to cooling oil, thereby reducing the torque transmitting
capacity of the multi plate clutch.
5. Multi plate clutches are used in scooters, bikes whereas or single plate in trucks, busses etc.
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5.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DRY AND WET CLUTCHES
1. High coefficient of friction for dry clutches as compound to wet clutches.
2. Torque capacity of dry clutch is high for some dimensions.
3. Heat dissipation is more difficult in dry clutches.
4. Rate of wear is far less in wet clutches.
5. Engagement in wet clutch is smoother.
Example. An oil immersed multi disk clutch with cork sheet as friction material is used on a
scooter engine. The friction disk of such a clutch is shown. The torque transmitted by the clutch is
10N-m. The coefficient of friction between cash sheet and steel plate is 0.2. Pressure permissible =
0.1N/mm2. The ID = 65mm, OD = 95mm. There are radial slots, on the friction surface for the
circulation of coolant, which reduces the effective friction area. To account for these slots, the
number of contacting surfaces can be increased by 5%. Assuming uniform wear thereby calculate
the number of contacting surfaces.
Solution.
T = 10 N-m = 10 × 103 N-m
P = 0.1N/mm2
ID = 65mm
OD = 95mm
= 0.2
Pd
F (D d)
2
(0.1) 65
F (25 65)
2
F = 306.15N
Fn 10 103 3
T (D d) n
4 0.2 306.15(95060)
n = 4.08
Compensating slots, 4.08×1.05 = 4.284 = 5 (say)
But 6 will be taken, n= 6 and n1n2 = 7
Example. An oil immersed multi disk clutch, with moulded asbestos on one side and steel disks
on the other, is used in an application. The torque transmitted by the clutch is 75N-m, = 0.1, P =
0.5N/mm2. OP = 100mm, assuming uniform wear theory, calculate the ID and no. of disks?
Solution.
=d/D = .577 D = 57.7mm
T = 75N-m, = 0.1, P = 0.5N/mm2, D = 100mm
Pd
F (D d)
2
(0.5) d
F (100 d) …(i)
2
(0.5)(57.7)
From (i), F (100 57.7)
2
F = 1915N
Fn
T (D d)
4
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75 103 4
n
0.11915(100 57.7)
n = 9.93 = 10 (say)
n1 + n2 1 = n
n1 + n2 = 11
We use 6 plane steel disks and 5 steel disks with asbestos.
5.6 CONE CLUTCHES
Cone
The conical surface results in considerable friction force even with a small engaging force due to
the wedge action. Recommended semi cone length angle is 12.5°. The cone clutches are simple
in construction and easy to disengage.
1. Uniform Pressure
P 2 2
F= (D d )
4
P
T (D3 d 3 )
12sin
F D3 d 3
T
3sin D2 d 2
2. Uniform Wear Theory
P d
F a (D d)
2
Pa d 2 2
T (D d )
8sin
F
T (D d)
4sin
Conclusion
Torque capacity increases as semi cone angle decreases
(T)Cone clutch 1 1
In general 4.62
(T)Plane clutch sin Sin(12.5)
Dd
Face width, b
2sin
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Example. A cone clutch with asbestos friction lining transmission 30kW power at 500rpm. The
coefficient of friction is 0.2 and the permissible intensity of pressure is 0.35 N/mm2. = 12.5. OD
= 300mm. Assuming uniform wear theory, calculate
(a) ID
(b) Face width (b)
(c) Force required to engage the clutch.
Solution.
P 103 30000(60)
(a) T 572957.8N mm
2(500)
Pa d 2 2
T (D d )
8sin
(0.2)(0.35)
d(3002 d 2 )
57295.8 = 8 sin(12.5)
d(3002 d2) = 45413585.625
d3 (300)2d + 4513585.625 = 0
d = 270, 322, 51.6
Acceptable d = 270mm
Dd 300 270
(b) b 69.3mm
2sin 2(sin12.5)
F
(c) T (D d)
4sin
F = 4352N
Example. A cone clutch is used to connect an electric motor running at 1440 RPM with a machine
which is stationary. The machine is equivalent to a rotor of 150hg mass and radius of gyration as
250mm. The machine has to be brought to the full speed of 1440rpm from stationary condition in
40s. The semi cone angle is 12.5°. The mean radius of the clutch is twice the face width. =
0.2, P = 0.1N/mm2. Assuming uniform wear theory, calculates:
(a) D and d
(b) face width (b)
(c) F
(d) Amount of heat generated during each engagement of clutch
Solution.
N = 1440rpm, = 0.2, rm = 2b, Pa = 0.1N/mm2
= 12.5°, m = 150kg, k = 250mm, t = 40s
2N 2(1440)
(a) 1 = 0, 2 150.8rad / s
60 60
1 150.8 0
2 3.77rad / s 2
t t
T = I = mk2 = 150(0.25)23.77
T = 35342.92N-mm
Pa d 2 2
T (D d )
8sin
d(D2 d2) = 973978.34
D d = 2bsin …(i)
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Dd
2b …(ii)
4
Dd 8b 4
D d 2bsin sin
D 4 sin D2
2 1.2419
d 4 sin d
d2 = 1.2419d2
d(1.2419d2 d2) = 973978.3
d = 159mm
D = 177.5mm
Dd
(b) b 42mm
8
4T sin 4(35342.9)sin(12.0)
(c) F
(D d) 0.2(177.5 159)
F = 454382N
(d) Heat generated is
1 2 0 150.8
avg = = 75.4rad/s
2 2
Q = avg(t) = 75.4(40) = 3016rad
Hg = T × Q= 35.342 (3016) = 106585.44J = 106.5kJ
5.7 CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCHES
Whenever it is required to engage the load after the driving member has attained a particular
speed, a centrifugal clutch is used. The centrifugal clutches permit the drive motor or engine to
start, warm up and accelerate to the operating speed without load. Then the clutch is automatically
engaged and the driven equipment is smoothly brought up to the operating speed. Generally used
with IC engine which cannot start under load.
Friction lining
Sliding share
Drum
Spider
Since centrifugal force increases with speed. Centrifugal clutch consists of a spider which is
mounted on input shaft and which is provided with four equally spaced radial guides. A sliding
shoe is retained in each guide by mean of spring. The outer surface of sliding sheets provided with
a lining of friction material like asbestos. The complete assembly of spider, shoes and springs is
enclosed in a co axial drum which is mounted on output shaft. As the angular speed of I/P shaft
increases, the centrifugal force acting on the sliding shoes increases, causing the shoes to move in
a radially outward direction. The shoes continue to move with increasing speed until they contact
the inner surface of the drum. The clutch is disengaged when centrifugal force decreases.
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GATE QUESTIONS
1. Single - plate clutch has a friction disc with uniform pressure of 2 MPa and coefficient of
inner and outer of 20 mm and 40mm, friction of liner material 0.4, the torque carrying
respectively. The friction lining in the disc is capacity of the clutch is
made is such a way that the coefficient of [GATE - 2008]
friction varies radially as = 0.01 r, where r (a) 148 Nm (b) 196 Nm
is in mm. The clutch needs to transmit a friction (c) 372 Nm (d) 490 Nm
torque of 18.85 kN-mm. As per uniform
pressure theory, the pressure (in MPa) on the 4. A disk clutch is required to transmit 5 kW at
disc is _____ 2000 rpm. The disk has a friction lining with
[GATE - 2017] coefficient of friction equal to 0.25. Bore radius
of friction lining is equal to 25 mm. Assume
2. A disc clutch with a single friction surface uniform contact pressure of 1 MPa. The value
has coefficient of friction equal to 0.3. The of outside radius of the friction lining is
maximum pressure which can be imposed on [GATE - 2006]
the friction material is 1.5 MPa. The outer (a) 39.4 mm (b) 49.5 mm
diameter of the clutch plate is 200 mm and its (c) 97.9 mm (d) 142.9 mm
internal diameter is 100 mm. Assuming uniform
wear theory for the clutch plate, the maximum 5. Axial operation claw clutches having self-
torque (in N.m) that can be transmitted is locking tooth profile.
_______. [GATE - 1987]
[GATE - 2014] (a) Can be disengaged at any speed
(b) Can be disengaged only unloaded
3. A clutch has outer and inner diameter 100 (c) Can be engages only when unloaded
mm and 40 mm respectively. Assuming a (d) Can work only with load.
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (0.5) Sol 3. (b)
r1 = 40mm, r2 = 20mm, = 0.01 r, Using uniform pressure theory torque carrying
T = 18.85 kN-mm capacity of clutch is given by
p=c 2 R 3 r3
Torque, T = P 2rdr r T W 2 2
r1
3 R r
T P 2 r 2 dr
T R 3 r 3
2 W
2
(R r )
r2 2
3
r1
= P 2 0.01 r3 dr T
2
p(R 3 r 3 )
r2 3
r4 r4 2 100 3 40 3
= P 2 0.01 1 2 3.14 0.4 2
4 3 2 2
404 204 2
18.85 103 P 2 0.01 3.14 0.4 2(50 20 )
3 3
4 3
= 195936 N-mm = 195.936 Nm.
P = 0.5 N/mm 2
Sol 2. (529.875 Nm) Sol 4. (a)
Given, = 0.3 According to uniform pressure theory,
P = 1.5 MPa P = 1 MPa
d0 = 200 mm Power transmitted
T 2N
di = 100 mm P T
60
Axial load, W = P (d 02 d i2 )
4 60 5 103
T
W = 106 × 0.785 (0.22 – 0.12) 2 2000
W = 23550 N = 23.87 Nm
Mean Radius,
T r13 r23
2
R R i d 0 di
R 0 3
2 4
23.81 × 103 = 0.25 1 r13 -253 ×π
2
300
= 75 3
4 r1 = 39.4 mm.
T = WR
= 0.3 × 23550 × 75 × 10–3 Sol 5. (c)
= 529.875 Nm
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ESE OBJ QUESTIONS
1. Statement(I) : Regarding the power 3 (r )3 (r2 )3
transmitted by a clutch, greater the speed, lower (c) W 1 cos ec
the torque to be transmitted for fixed power
2 3
rating. 2 (r )3 (r2 )3
Statement (II): The clutch is placed on the low (d) W 1 cos ec
- speed side to transmit larger torque.
3 3
[ESE - 2016]
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are 4. A multi-disc clutch employs 3 steel and 2
individually true and Statement (II) is the bronze discs having outer diameter of 300 mm
correct explanation of Statement (I) and inner 0.25 and axial force on each pair of
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are surfaces is 5 kN, then the torque transmitted
individually true but Statement (II) is not the (assuming wear) is
correct explanation of Statement (i) [ESE - 2014]
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is (a) 416.6 Nm (b) 887.5 Nm
false. (c) 1093.75 Nm (d) 593.75 Nm
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is
true. 5. The effect of increasing the stiffness of spring
of centrifugal clutch is
2. Assertion (A): Centrifugal clutches are [ESE - 2012]
designed to provide automatic and smooth (a) The decrease of engagement speed
engagement of load to driving member. (b) The increase of engagement speed
Reason (R): Since the operating force is a (c) The increase of frictional force at maximum
function of square of angular velocity the speed
friction for accelerating a load is also a function (d) None of the above
of square of speed of driving member.
[ESE - 2015] 6. If there are n1 discs on the driving shaft and
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct n2 discs on the driven shaft in a multi-plate
explanation of A. clutch, then the number of pairs of contact
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct surfaces is
explanation of A. [ESE - 2011]
(c) A is true but R is false. (a) n1 + n2 (b) n1 + n2 – 1
(d) A is false but r is true. (c) n1 + n2 – 2 (d) n1 + n2 + 1
3. A truncated conical pivot bearing has semi- 7. Assertion (A): In design of friction clutches
cone angle and the two radii are r1 and r2 the torque transmission capacity is predicted
respectively with r1 > r2. The coefficient of from the condition of uniform rate of wear of
friction is 0.25 and axial force on each pair of friction plate.
surfaces is 5 kN, then the torque transmitted Reason (R): With the use of hard materials for
(assuming uniform wear) is the friction lining there is always perfect
[ESE - 2014] geometrical fit between two surfaces and hence
(a) W (r1 + r2) cosec pressure distribution over the contact zone is not
uniform.
1
(b) W (r1 + r2) cosec [ESE - 2010]
2 (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
explanation of A
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(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct (a) 11 (b) 12
explanation of A (c) 10 (d) 22
(c) A is true bit R is false
(d) A is false but R is true. 13. In a plate clutch axial force is 4 kN. The
inside radius of contact surface is 50 mm and
8. In a multiple-discs clutch, the axial intensity the outside radius is 100 mm. For uniform
of pressure in not to exceed 0.2 MPa. The inner pressure the mean radius of friction surface will
radius of the discs is 100 mm and is half the be
outer radius. The axial force per pair of contact [ESE - 2001]
surface in N is (a) 78 mm (b) 60 mm
[ESE - 2010] (c) 75 mm (d) 80 mm
(a) 2000 (b) 3000
(c) 4000 (d) 6000 14. In a multiple disc clutch in n1 and n2 are the
number of discs on the driving and driven shafts
9. In case of a multiple disc clutch, if n1 is the respectively, the number of pairs of contact
number of discs on the driving shaft and n2 is surfaces will be
the number of discs on the driven shaft, then [ESE - 2001]
what is the number of pairs of contact surfaces? (a) n1 + n2 (b) n1 + n2 – 1
[ESE - 2008] n +n
(a) n1 + n2 (b) n1 + n2 – 1 (c) n1 + n2 + 1 (d) 1 2
2
(c) n1 + n2 + 1 (d) n1 + 2n2
15. Match List-I with List-II and select the
10. Which one of the following is the correct correct answer using the codes given below the
expression for the torque transmitted by a lists:
conical clutch of outer radius R, inner radius r List-I
and semi-cone angle assuming uniform A. Single-plate friction clutch
pressure? (Where W = total axial load and = B. Multi-plate friction clutch
coefficient of friction) C. Centrifugal clutch
[ESE - 2004] D. Jaw clutch
W(R r) W(R r) List-II
(a) (b)
2sin 3sin (i) Scooters
(ii) Rolling mills
2W(R 3 r 3 ) 3W(R 3 r 3 ) (iii) Trucks
(c) (d)
3sin (R 2 r 2 ) 4sin (R 2 r 2 ) (iv) Mopeds.
[ESE - 2000]
11. Which one of the following is not a friction Codes
clutch? (a) A-i, B-iii, C-iv, D-ii
[ESE - 2002] (b) A-i, B-iii, C-ii, D-iv
(a) Discs plate clutch (c) A-iii, B-i, C-ii, D-iv
(b) Cone clutch (d) A-iii, B-i, C-iv, D-ii
(c) Centrifugal clutch
(d) Jaw clutch 16. Consider the following statements regarding
a centrifugal clutch
12. In the multiple discs clutch, if there are 6 1. It need not be unloaded before engagement.
discs on the driving shaft and 5 discs on the 2. It enables the prime mover to start up under
driven shaft, then the number of pairs of contact no-load conditions.
surfaces will be equal to 3. It picks up the load gradually with the
[ESE - 2001] increase in speed.
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4. It will not slip to the point of destruction. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
5. It is very useful when the power unit has a explanation of A
low starting torque. (c) A is true but R is false
Which of these are the advantages of a (d) A is false but R is true
centrifugal clutch?
18. On the motors with low starting torque, the
[ESE - 2000]
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 5 type of the clutch to be used is
(c) 2, 3 and 5 (d) 1, 3, 4 and 5 [ESE - 1999]
(a) Multiple-plate clutch
17. Assertion (A): In case of friction, uniform (b) Cone clutch
wear theory should be considered for power (c) Centrifugal clutch
transmission calculation rather than the uniform (d) Simple-plate clutch with both sides effective
pressure theory.
Reason (R): The uniform pressure theory gives 19. In a multiple discs dutch, if there are 6 discs
a higher friction torque than the uniform wear on the driving shaft and 5 discs on driven shaft,
theory. the number of pairs of contact surfaces will be
[ESE - 1999] equal to
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct [ESE - 1997]
explanation of A (a) 11 (b) 12
(c) 10 (d) 22
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (a) In case of a multiple disc clutch, if n1 is the
number of discs on the driving shaft and n2 is
Sol 2. (b) the number of discs on the driven shaft, then
number of pairs of contact surfaces
Sol 3. (b) = n1 + n2 – 1.
Sol 4. (d) Sol 10. (c)
Number of active surface, 2w(R 3 r 3 )
n = nb + ns – 1 = 2 + 3 – 1 = 4 T where is semicone angle.
3sin (R 2 r 2 )
D = 300 mm, d = 175 mm, = 0.25,
Wa = 5 kN
T = n Wa Rm Sol 11. (d)
Jaw clutch is example of positive clutch
(300 175)
= 0.25 × 4 × 5000 × × 10–3 whereas others are example of friction clutches.
4 Jaw clutch has no slip, so no heat generation but
= 593.75 accompanied with shock. It is very difficult to
engage them at high speed.
Sol 5. (b)
When the load is released from clutch lever, it Sol 12. (c)
again engages with the shaft. As the stiffness of n = n1 + n2 – 1 = 6 + 5 – 1 = 10
spring will increases, the restoring force on
clutch will increase and hence velocity of Sol 13. (a)
engagement will be more.
2 r 3 r 3 2 1003 503
rm 02 12 77.77
Sol 6. (b) 3 r0 r1 3 1002 502
For multidisc clutch, if n1 is the number of disc = 78 mm
on driving shaft and n2 is the number of discs on
driven shaft than number of pairs of contact Sol 14. (b)
surface = n1 + n2 – 1. Number of pair of containing surface
Application: Scooter’s = n1 + n2 – 1.
Sol 7. (c) Sol 15. (d)
Mopeds have centrifugal as one initially paddles
Sol 8. (d) up to achieve the speed so that shoes touch the
For multi-discs clutch rim it picks up the load gradually with increased
Axial intensity of pressure = 0.2 MPa in speed.
Ri = 100 mm; R0 = 200 mm Multi plate clutch is used in cars as there is less
W space to accommodate plates and multiple plate
Axial force, P clutch are always wet type lubrication done to
R 02 R i2
dissipate the heat. Single plate clutches in truck.
W = P. [2002 – 1002]
W = 0.2 [30,000] = 6000 N Sol 16. (c)
Centrifugal clutch will have slip as it is example
Sol 9. (b) of friction clutch.
It has to be unloaded before engagement.
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Fc = m2r Sol 18. (c)
Low starting torque permits the shoes to stick
Sol 17. (b) before running to full speed.
Uniform pressure theory is applicable theory is All the other clutches mentioned are for high
applicable only when the clutches are new i.e., torque.
the assumption involved is that axial force W is
uniformly distributed. Sol 19. (c)
Moreover torque transmitted in uniform n1 = 6, n2 = 5
pressure is more hence for safety in design N = n1 + n2 – 1 = 6 + 5 – 1 = 10
uniform wear theory is used.
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CHAPTER - 6
BRAKES
6.1 BRAKES
A brake is a mechanical device, which is used to absorb energy passed by a moving system or
mechanism by means of friction.
Brake capacity depends upon the following three factors.
1. The until presence between braking surfaces.
2. The contacting area of braking surfaces.
3. Radius of brake drum
4.
5. Ability of the brake to dissipate heat that is equivalent to the energy being absorbed.
6.2 ENERGY EQUATIONS
Consider a mechanical system of mass m, moving with velocity V 1 is slowed down to velocity V2,
1
During the period of breaking, the KE = m(V12 V22 )
2
1
Similarly for a rotating body, KE = I(1 22 )
2
2
1
KE mk 2 (12 22 )
2
Where k is radius of gyration
In certain applications, like hoists, the brake absorbs the potential energy released by the moving
weight during the braking period.
PE = mgh
Depending upon the type of applications, the total energy absorbed by the brake is determined by
E=T×
Where is angle through which brake drum rotates during the breaking period (rad)
Example. A solid CI disk, 1m in diameter and 0.2m thick is used as flywheel. It is rotating at
350rpm. It is brought to rest in 1.5s by means of a brake calculate
(a) The energy absorbed by the brake
(b) The torque capacity of the brake P a = 7200kg/m3
Solution.
D = 1m, t = 0.2m, N1 = 350rpm, N2 = 0
t = 1.5s
1
(a) E mk 2 (12 22 )
2
2(350)
1 36.63rad/sec
60
m = (r2h) (7200)
m = (.5)2×(.2) (7200) = 1130.97kg
d
k (for solid disk about its axis of rotation)
8
1 1
k k2
8 8
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1 1
E (1130.97) (36.63) 2 949465
2 8
E
(b) E = TQ T
Q
36.65
Q 1 t (1.5) 27.49 rad
2 2
94946
T 3453.86Nm
27.49
Example. A four wheeled automobile car has a total mass of 1000kg. The MOI of each wheel
about a transverse axis through its CG is 0.5 kg-m2. The rolling radius of the wheel is 0.35m. The
rotating and reciprocating parts of the engine and the transmission system are equivalent to a MOI
2.5kg-m2 which rotates at five times the road wheel speed. The car is travelling at a speed of
100km/hr on a plane road. When the brakes are applied, the car deaccelerates at 0.5g. There are
brakes on all our wheels calculate
(a) The energy absorbed by each brake
(b) The torque capacity of each brake
Solution.
I = 0.5 kg-m2
r = 0.35m
(a) KE of car :
5
V1 = 100km/hr = 100× = 27.78m/s
18
V2 = 0
KE m V12 V22 (1000)(27.75) 2 = 385802.445J
1 1
2 2
KE of Wheels
V 27.78
1 1 79.37 rad/s
R 0.35
2 = 0
KE of four Wheel = K 4 I 12 22 4 (0.5)(79.37)2 6298.8J
1 1
2 2
KE of engine and transmission system
1 = 5(79.37) = 396.83rad/s, 2 = 0
KE I 12 22 2.5(396.83)2 196837.5
1 1
2 2
V1 1.5
KE of drum 1 2rad / s
R .75
KE mk 2 12 22 50(0.7)2 (2)2 495
1 1
2 2
PE of mass = mgh = 2500(9.81) (0.5) = 12262.55
E = 2812.5 + 49 + 12262.5 = 15124J
E
T , Q radius = 0.5m
Q
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0.5
Q 0.667rad
0.75
E 1514
T 22686N m
Q 0.667
6.3 BLOCK BRAKE WITH SHORT SHOE (2 < 45°)
Case-A. Clockwise Rotation
Drum
R
2
N N Shoe
Block N N
C
F applied force
Layer length
O
Rx
a
Ry
b T=NR (N-m)
(breaking torque)
Where is coefficient of friction
N is Normal reaction
N is Reaction force applied by drum to counteract friction.
N = P() (generally)
P is Permissible pressure between the block and brake drum
F is applied force (N/mm2)
is length
T = NR (Nm)
T is braking torque
Assumptions
1. The block is rigidly attached to the lines.
2. The angle of contact between the block and brake drum is small, resulting in uniform pressure
distribution.
Taking moment of forces acting on liver about point O.
F × b Na + N × C = 0
a C
F N
b
Three cases may be studied depending upon magnitude of coefficient of friction and distance C.
Case-I. a > C
In this case the friction force N helps to reduce the magnitude of the force applied. As it can be
seen that moment due to braking effort (F × b) and moment due to friction force N × C are both,
anticlockwise. Such a brake is called “self emerging brake”. This condition is desirable.
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Case-II. a C
In this case force required is zero, such a brake is called self locking brake. This condition is not
desirable.
Case-III. a < C
In this case force required becomes negative this is a dangerous operating condition resulting in
uncontrolled braking.
Case-B. Anticlockwise Rotation of Drum
N
N
C
F
Layer
a
O
b
F × b N a N × C = 0
(a C)
N
F= b
Conclusion
For anticlockwise rotation, the actuating force F is more than that of clockwise rotation.
a
Generally: = 2 and [ for not self locking]
c
Where is length of block and is width of block
Example. A single block brake with a torque capacity of 250N-m is shown. The brake drum
rotates at 100rpm and the coefficient of friction = 0.35.
F 300 200
50
R=200
Calculate
(a) The actuating force and the hinge pin reaction for clockwise rotation of drum.
(b) The actuating force and the hinge pin reaction for anticlockwise rotation of drum.
(c) The rate of heat generated during bracking action?
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Solution.
Ry=N–P
Rx= N
250 103
T = NR N 5771N
0.35 200
(a C)
(a) F N
b
(200 (0.35)(50))3571
F
500
F = 1303N
Rx = N = 0.35(3571) = 1250N
Ry = N – F = 2268
R R 2x R 2y 2589.5N
Where R is reaction on hinge
(a C)
(b) Anticlockwise is F N
b
(200 (0.35)(50))3571
F 1553.3N
500
Rx = N = 1250N
Ry = N – F = 3571 – 1553.3 == 2018N
R R 2x R 2y 2373N
(c) Heat generated = Frictional force × (average velocity)
DN
V1
60
2 = 0, V2 = 0
V V2
Average Velocity = 1 = 1.047m/s
2
Q = N(1.047) = 13.8.7
6.4 BLOCK BRAKE WITH LONG SHOE(2 > 45°)
Angle of contact is greater than 45°
T = NR
4sin
'
2 sin 2
6.5 BAND BRAKES
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Q R
Drum
Band
T2 F
T1
Lever
Pivot
a
T1
e
T2
T = (T1 T2)R
Where T1 is Tension on tight side (N)
T2 is Tension on the loose side (N)
is coefficient of friction
is angle of wrap (rad)
6.5.1 Forces on Lever
T1 T2 F
a
F ×= T2 ×a
T2 a
F
6.5.2 Differential Band Brake
F
b
T2
O
a T1
Taking moment about pivot
F × + T1 × b T2 × a = 0
T2 a T1b T1
F e
T2
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T2 (a be )
F
For self locking F = 0 or negative
a b × e
a
or
b
The self locking property is undesirable in most of the applications of the brake, since the brake is
out of control. A band in contact with the drum automatically grabs and the operator cannot
prevent it. Sometimes self locking is advantageous in back stop mechanism. A back stop brake is a
device, which is used to prevent the reverse rotation of the drum when such a rotation would have
harmful effects.
6.5.3 Advantages of Band Brake
1. Lesser cost
2. More reliable
3. Require little maintenance
6.5.4 Disadvantages
1. Heat dissipation capacity of a band brake is poor.
2. The wear is uneven
6.5.5 Applications
1. Brake conveyers, hoists etc.
Example. A differential band brake is shown. The width and the thickness of the steel band are
100mm and 3mm respectively. The maximum tensile strap in the band is 50N/mm2. The
coefficient of friction between the friction lining and the brake drum is 0.25. Calculate
(i) Tension in the band
(ii) Actuating force F
(iii) Torque capacity of brake
(iv) Check whether self locking or not
Solution.
300
2400
1200
500 750
T1
(a) e , = 0.25
T2
240
4.188rad
180
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T1
2.849 …(i)
T2
T1 T1
t 50 T1 1500N
A 100 3
1500
T2 T2 5265N
2.849
(b) F × 950 T2(200) + T1 × 50 = 0
5265 200 15000 50
F F 318.5N
950
(c) T = (T1 T2)R (15000 5265) 300
T = 2920N-m
(d) For Self locking
a 200
e 2.849 5 2.849
b 4
Not self locking
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GATE QUESTIONS
1. For the following brake, the magnitude of 1000 N m. The maximum tension (in kN)
braking torque (Nm) is equal to? developed in the band is
300 mm [GATE - 2010]
100 m (a) 1.88 (b) 3.56
300 mm (c) 6.12 (d) 11.56
100 mm
5. A block – brake shown below has a face
width of 300 mm and a mean coefficient of
friction of 0.25. For an activating force of 400N,
200 mm
the braking torque in Nm is
The coefficient of friction between drum and [GATE - 2007]
shoe is 0.3 ?
200mm 400mm
[GATE - 2018]
300mm
2. A four-wheel vehicle of mass 1000 kg moves
150mm
uniformly in a straight line with the wheels 45°
revolving at 10 rad/s. The wheels are identical,
each with a radius of 0.2 m. Then a constant
braking torque is applied to all the wheels and
(a) 30 (b) 40
the vehicle experience a uniform deceleration.
(c) 45 (d) 60
For the vehicle to stop in 10 s, the braking
torque (in N.m) on each wheel is ________. Linked statement for Q.6 & Q.7
[GATE - 2014] A band brake consists of a lever attached to one
end of the band. The other end of the band is
3. A drum brake is shown in the figure. The fixed to the ground. The wheel has a radius of
drum is rotating in anticlockwise direction. The 200 mm and the wrap angle of the band is 270°.
coefficient of friction between drum and shoe is The braking force applied to the lever is limited
0.2. The dimensions shown in the figure are in to 100 N, and the coefficient of friction between
mm. The braking torque (in N-m) for the brake the band and the wheel is 0.5 No other
shoe is _________. information is given.
[GATE - 2014] 200mm
1000N 800
480
100N
100
1m 1m
20
0
Drum
6. The maximum tension that can be generated
in the band during braking is
[GATE - 2005]
4. A band brake having bandwidth of 80 mm, (a) 1200 N (b) 2110 N
drum diameter of 250 mm, coefficient of (c) 3224 N (d) 4420 N
friction of 0.25 and angle of wrap of 270
7. The maximum wheel torque that can be
degrees is required to exert a friction torque of
completely braked is
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[GATE - 2005] the coefficient of friction required between
(a) 200 N.m (b) 382 N.m drum and the band is
(c) 604 N.m (d) 844 N.m [GATE - 2003]
(a) 0.20 (b) 0.25
8. In a band brake the ratio of tight side band
(c) 0.30 (d) 0.35
tension to the tension on the slack side is 3. If
the angle of overlap of band on the drum is 180°
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (8.18 Nm) Mt = (T1 – T2) . R
Given, friction torque,
Sol 2. (10N-m) Mt = 1000 Nm
Initial velocity, 1000 = (T1 – T2) × 0.125
u = r = 10 × 0.2 = 2 m/s T1 – T2 = 8000 N …(i)
For vehicle to stop 270
T1 0.25
v = u – at By, e e 180
0 = u – at T2
u 2 = 3.248
a 0.2m / s 2 T1 = 3.248 T2 ...(ii)
t 10
Putting T1 from equation (ii) into equation (i)
Braking force = Total mass × deceleration
8000
F = 1000 × 0.2= 200 N T2 3558.7 N
200 2.248
Feach wheel 50 N and T1 = 3.248 × 3558.7
4 = 11.56 kN
Braking torque on each wheel
= 50 × 0.2
Sol 5. (c)
= 10 N-m 200mm 400mm 400N
Sol 3. (64N-m)
1000N A
800 f
150mm
480 N
Since, it is equilibrium, moment about A should
100 be zero.
F Taking moment about point A.
200 RN MA = N × 200 – 400 × 600 = 0
N = 1200 N
f = N = 0.25 × 1200 = 300 N
(All dimensions are in mm) Braking Torque = f × 150 =300 × 150
Taking M0 = 0 = 45 N.m
1000 × 800 = Ft × 100 + RN × 480
8000 = Ft + 4.8 RN Sol 6. (b)
Ft = RN = 0.2 RN
0.2 RN + 4.8 RN = 8000 200mm
or
100N
8000
RN 1600 N O
5
1m 1m
Ft = RN = 0.2 × 1600
Braking torque, = 270°
T = Ft × r = 320 × 0.2 = 0.5
= 64 N-m Taking moment about O,
SMo = 0
Sol 4. (d) T × 1 – 100 × 2 = 0
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T = 200 N Sol 8. (d)
3
T1 0.5 T1
e e 2 e
T2 T2
T1 = 2110 N 3 = e
Maximum tension produced in band is 2110 N n 3 =
= 0.345 = 0.35
Sol 7. (b)
Braking torque = (T1 – T2) × r
= (2110 – 200) × 0.2 = 382 Nm
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ESE OBJ QUESTIONS
1. Consider that a wire rope is subjected (d) Gauge number of the wire.
following stress
1. Direct stress on account of axial force 6. A 6 × 19 rope implies that there are
2. Bending stress [ESE - 2003]
3. Stress due to acceleration of the moving mass (a) 6 wires in each strand and 19 strands in the
Which of the above are correct? rope
[ESE - 2014] (b) 6 strands and 19 wires in each strand
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 6 large diameter wires and 19 small diameter
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 wires
(d) 19 large diameter wires and 6 small diameter
2. A rope has been designated as 6 × 19. The wires.
numbers 6 and 19 respectively stand for
[ESE - 2011] 7. A 6 × 19 rope implies that there are
(a) Rope diameter and the number of wires [ESE - 2001]
(b) Rope diameter and the number of strands. (a) 6 wires in each strand and 19 strands in the
(c) Number of strands and the number of wires rope.
(d) Number of wires and the number of strands. (b) 6 strands and 19 wires in each strands
(c) 6 large diameter wires and 19 small diameter
3. In wire ropes which one of the following wires
statements is correct? (d) 19 large diameters wires and 6 small
[ESE - 2011] diameter wires.
(a) Bending stress is directly proportional to the
wire diameter and inversely proportional to the 8. Consider the following types of stress in
sheave diameter. respect of a hosting rope during acceleration of
(b) Both fatigue and wear are due to the tensile load.
stress on the wire bearing against the sheave. 1. Direct stress due to weight hoisted and
(c) Bending stress is inversely proportional to weight of the rope.
the wires diameter and directly proportional to 2. Bending stressed due to bending of rope over
sheave diameter the sheave.
(d) Both fatigue and wear are due to shear stress 3. Stresses due to initial tightening.
on the wires bearing against the sheave. 4. Acceleration stresses.
Which of these are the correct types of stresses
4. An elevator weighing 10000 N attains an induced in hoisting rope during acceleration of
upward velocity of 4 m/s in 2 seconds with load?
uniform acceleration. Then what is the tension [ESE - 2000]
in the wire rope? (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
[ESE - 2009] (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
(a) 8000 N (b) 5000 N
(c) 2500 N (d) 12000 N 9. Given that W = weight of load handled, Wr =
weight of rope and f = acceleration, the
5. In a 6 × 20 wire rope, No. 6 indicates the additional load in ropes of a hoist during
[ESE - 2007] starting is given by
(a) Diameter of the wire rope in mm [ESE - 1997]
(b) Number of strands in the wire rope
(c) Number of wires
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W Wr W Wr (a) Axial load plus stress due to bending
(a) Fa f (b) Fa f (b)Acceleration/retardation of masses plus stress
g g due to bending
W W (c)Axial load plus stress die to acceleration/
(c) Fa f (d) Fa r f
g g retardation
(d)Bending plus stress due to acceleration/
10. Effective stress in wire ropes during-normal Retardation
working is equal to the stress due to
[ESE - 1996]
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (d) 35 6 19
Sol 2. (c)
6 19 dia of No.of No.of wire
(Number of strands) (Number of wires in each strand)
rope wire strand ineach Strand
Sol 3. (a)
Sol 8. (c)
In wire ropes, bending stress is directly
Only stress due to initial tightening not
proportional to wire diameter and inversely
considered.
proportional to sheave diameter. Wire ropes
Effective stress during acceleration of load.
sheave are made of either cast iron or mild steel.
= fb + fd + fa
(w w r )
Sol 4. (d) 1. f d (Direct stress due to weight
Let g = 10 m/s2 A
Mass of Elevator = 1000 kg hoisted)
4 E.d w
Upward acceleration = = 2 m/sec2 2. Bending stress b fb
2 D
Tension in the rope = m (g + a) w wr a
= 1000 (10 + 2) = 1200 N 3. Acceleration stress fa
g A
a is acceleration,
Sol 5. (b)
w is Load lifted
35 6 20
Wr is weight of the rope
dia of No.of No.of wire
rope wire Strand in each Sol 9. (b)
strand.
mass of rope mass of weight
acc l
n
Sol 6. (b) to be raised be raised
35 6 19 = inertia force acting as addition load.
Sol 10. (a)
dia of No.of No.of wire Because during normal acceleration avoided. So
rope wire strand ineach Strand direct stress and bending stress accounted.
Sol 7. (b)
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CHAPTER - 7
BELTS
7.1 BELT DRIVES
Belt, chain and rope drives are called flexible drives.
Gear drives are rigid drives.
Belts are used to transmit power between two shafts by means of friction.
7.1.1 Advantages of Belt Drives
1. Operation is smooth and silent
2. It can transmit power over considerable distance between the axes of driving and driven shafts.
3. They can transmit only a definite load, which if exceeded, will cause the belt to slip over the
pulley.
4. It has ability to absorb shocks and damp vibration
5. It has low cost and simple design.
7.1.2 Disadvantages of Belt Drives
1. It has large dimensions and occupies more space.
2. The VR is not constant due to belt slip.
3. It has low efficiency
4. It has short life
Two types of cross section
(i) Flat belt (ii) V-belt
7.1.3 Advantages of Flat Belts Over V-Belts
1. Relatively cheap and easy to maintain
2. Their maintenance consists of periodic adjustment in the centre distance between shafts in order
to compensate stretching.
3. Different VR can be obtained by using a stepped pulley, where the belt is shifts from one step to
another, having different diameter.
4. Simple and inexpensive
5. Can be used for long distances up to 15m
6. Efficiency of flat belt is more than efficiency of V-belt
7.1.4 Disadvantages of Flat Belt Drives Over V-Belt Drives
1. The power transmitting capacity of flat belt is low.
2. VR is less than V-belt
3. Flat belts are nosier than V-belts
4. Only horizontal and not vertical.
7.1.5 Advantages of V-Belts
1. Force of friction between the surfaces of the belt and v-grooved pulley is high due to wedge
action. This wedging action permits a smaller arc of contact, increases the pulling capacity of the
belt and consequently results in increase in power transmitting capacity.
2. Shorter distance belts
3. High VR up to 7: 1
4. Smooth operation
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5. The drive is positive because the slip is negligible due to wedge action
6. Can be operated in vertical position.
7.1.6 Disadvantages of V-Belts
1. It has more bending stress
2. Efficiency is lower than flat belts
3. Construction is complicated.
1. VR of flat belts 4 :1
2. VR of V-belt 7:1
3. VR of Chain drive 15 : 1
7.2 DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF BELT MATERIALS
1. It should have high coefficient of friction with pulleys.
2. It should have high tensile strength to withstand belt tensions.
3. It should be wear resistant.
4. It should be rigid to avoid bending stress.
Belts are made up of leather, canvas, rubber or fabric and synthetic materials.
7.3 GEOMETRICAL RELATIONSHIP
1. Open 2. Crossed
Open Closed
Open Closed
1. Both shafts rotate in same directions 1. Both shafts rotate in opposite direction
2. Angle of wrap is less 2. Angle of wrap is more because power
transmitting capacity is more
3. Open belt drives are more popular then 3. In crossed belt drive, the belt subs
crossed belt drives against itself while crossing. Also, the belt
has more wear and reduced life.
b
g
d a s 1 b D
O
f e
D
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Construction
Draw a line og perpendicular to line O, C such that OgCb is a rectangle(Ob = gC).
O g O C Ob
sin 1 1
OO1 OO1
D d
Dd
sin 2 2
C 2C
Dd
S = 180 2 = 180 2sins1
2C
Dd
b = 180 + 2sin1
2C
Length of belt (L) = Arc ab + bc + arc Cde + ef
d D
( ) c cos (s ) c cos
= 2 S 2
d D
L ( 2) 2c cos ( 2)
2 2
(D d)
L (D d) 2c cos
2
Dd 2
2 1
For small value of , = sin = 2c and cos = 1 sin 2 2
(D d)2
cos 1
8c2
(D d) (D d) (D d) 2
L (D d) 2c 1
2 2c 8c2
(D d) (D d)2
L 2C
2 4c
7.4 CROSS BELT
Dd
sin
2c
Dd
s = b = 180 + 2 = 180 + 2sin1
2C
(D d) (D d)2
L 2C
2 4C
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Example. The length of a leather belt drive transmitting 15kW of power is shown. The centre
distance between the pulleys is twice the diameter of the bigger pulley. The belt should operate at
a velocity of 20m/s approximately and the stress in the belt should not exceed 2.25N/m2. The
density of leather is 0.95g/cc and = 0.35. The thickness of the belt is 5mm. Calculate
(i) Diameter of pulley
(ii) Length and width of belt
(iii) Belt tension.
Solution.
480RM
1440RPM
d D
2D
(a) Diameter of pulleys
dN 60V 60(20)
V d
60 N (1440)
d = .265m = 0.270m
D 1440
D .810m
d 480
(b) Length of belt (c)
(D d) (D d) 2
2c
2 4c
(.810 .270) (.810 .270)2
= 2 × 2 × .810 +
2 4 2 .810
= 3.24 + 1.6956 + .045 = 4.98m
Width of belt:
dN (.27)(1440)
V 20.36m / s
60 60
Dd
s 180 2sin 1
2C s
0.810 .270
s 180 2sin 1 160.80
2 2 0.810
160.8
S 2.81rad
13
Volume for 1m length of belt = Length width thickness
b 5
1 m volume
1000 1000
b 5
950 4.75 103 kg/m
1000 1000
mv2 = (4.75×103)b(20.36)2 = 1.97b
Also, e = e(0.35)(2.81) = 2.67
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T1 mv 2
2.67
T2 mv 2
T1 1.97b = 2.67 (T1 1.97b)
T1 2.67T2 + 3.29b = 0 …(i)
T
Maximum stress, t 1
bt
T1 = (t)bt = 2.25(5b) = (11.25b) …(ii)
Also P = (T1 T2)V
15000
T1 T2 736.74N …(iii)
20.36
From (i), (ii) and (iii),
b = 127.92 = 130mm
T1 = 1428.9N, T2 = 692.26N
Example. The following data is obtained for a V-belt connecting a 20kW motor to a compress:
Motor pulley Compress Pulley
Pitch diameter(mm) 300 900
Speed (RPM) 1440 480
0.2 0.2
The centre distance between the pulleys is 1M and the dimensions of the cross section of the belt
are shown. 0.97g/cc and allowable tension per belt is850N. Find no. of belts required?
Solution.
P = 20kW, D = 900mm, d = 300mm
C = 1M, = 0.97g/cc, T1 = 850N, = 0.2, n = 1440, = 40.
()smell pulley < ()large pulley
Design will based on small pulley.
Dd
s 180 2sin 1
2C
.900 .300
s 180 2sin 1 s 145.08
2
145.08
s 2.53rad
180
s
e sin( ) 4.4
bc
tan 20 bc 14 tan 20
ba
b2 = 22 – 2bc = 11.81mm
1
Area of cross- section = (11.81 22)14 236.67mm2
2
m = × volume = 970 × 236.67×10-6 ×1 = 0.23kg/m
dn (.300)1440
V 22.62
60 60
2 2
mv = 0.23(22.62 = 117.68)
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T1 mv 2
e sin
T2 mv 2
T1 117.68
4.4 T1 850N(given)
T2 117.68
T2 = 284.11N
(850 284.11)22.62
P T1 T2 V 12.84W
1000
20
No. of belts = 1.56 or 2 belts
12.8
Example. The following data is given for an open type V-belt drive:
Diameter of driving pulley = 150mm
Diameter of driven pulley = 300mm
Centre distance = 1m
Groove angle = 40°
Mass of belt = 0.25kg/m
Maximum permissible tension = 750N
= 0.2
Calculate the maximum power transmitted by the belt and corresponding belt velocity.
Solution.
D = 300mm, d = 150mm, C = 1m, T 1 = 750N,
= 0.2, m = 0.25kg/m, = 40°
22
b c
14
a
b2
40°
Dd 1 .300 .15
s = 180 2sin1 = 180 2sin
2C 2 1
(a) Belt velocity is
1714
Maximum Power s = 171.4° s 2.99rad
180
s (0.2)(2.99)
e sin e sin 20
5.75
T1 mv 2
5.75 (but maximum tension is there when v = 0)
T2 mv 2
T1
5.75
T2
T1 = 750N
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T1 T2
Ti = 440.2N
2
T2 = 130.43N
Ti 4400
V
3m 3(0.26)
V = 24.23m/s
(b) Maximum power transmission
T1 + T2 = 2Ti
T1 + T2 = 880.11 …(i)
T1 mv2 T1 (0.25)(24.23) 2
5.75 5.75
T2 mv2 T2 (0.25)(24.23) 2
T1 = 646.73N, T2 = 233.7N
(646.73 233.7)(24.23)
P T1 T2 V P = 10.01kW
1000
(c) Variation of tension and power against belt velocity
Consider v = 10m/s
T1 (0.25)(10) 2
5.75 …(ii)
T2 (0.25)(10) 2
From (i) and (ii)
T1 = 732.4N, T2 = 148N
P(T1 T2) v = 5384kW
Pmax
24.23m/s
V
The transmitted power will be zero when T 1 = T2
Ti = T1 = T2 = 440.22N
T1 0.25v 2
5.75
T2 0.25v 2
T1
v 41.96m/s
0.25
Again at v= 41.96m/s, =0
Example. The following data is given for an open type V-belt drive :
Diameter of driving pulley = 200mm
Diameter of driven pulley = 600mm
2 = 34°
m = 0.5kg/m
Maximum permissible tension = 500N
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= 0.2
s = 157°
N = 1440RPM (small pulley)
Find no. of V-belt to be used.
Solution.
157
s () 2.73rad
180
s 0.2(2.73)
e sin e sin17 6.52
dN (.2)(1440)
V 15.08m / s
60 60
mv2 = 0.5(15.08)2 = 113.7N
T1 mv2
6.52 T1 6.52T2 627.61 0 …(i)
T2 mv2
10 1000
(T1 T2 ) V T1 T2 663.13 …(ii)
15.08
From (i) and (ii)
T1 = 896.96N, t2 = 233.83N
Maximum tension in belt 896.96
Number of belts 1.79 2(say)
Allowable belt load 500
Example. It is required to design a V-belt drive to connect a 7.5kW, 1440RPM induction motor to
a fan, running at 480RPM, for a service of 24 hours per day. (CD = 1M) Fa = 1.3 i.e., service
correction factor.
Solution.
Consider correction factor for belt pitch length Fc = 1.08
Correction factor for arc of contact (Fd) = 0.94
Design power = FaP =1.3(7.5) = 9.75kW
(D d) (D d)2
Length 2C
2 4C
Let, d = 200mm, D = 200×3 = 600mm
(.6 .2) (.6 .2)
L 2(1)
2 4
L = 3.296m
From table power rating of single V-belt of size 200mm pulley and B-section,
Pr = 5.9 + 0.46 = 6.36
VR =3
P Fa 9.75
no. of belts 1.51 or 2(say)
Pr Fc F 6.36 .94 1.08
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GATE QUESTIONS
1. A wire rope is designated as 6 × 19 standard (c) Number of strands × number of wires in
hoisting. The numbers 6 × 19 represent each strand
[GATE - 2003] (d) Number of wires in each strand × number of
(a) Diameter in millimeter × length in meter strands
(b) Diameter in centimeter × length in meter
SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (c)
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ESE OBJ QUESTIONS
1. Assertion (A): In chain drives, angle of 2. V-belts are used at the low-speed end.
articulation through which link rotates during 3. V-belts are standard lengths.
engagement and disengagement, is greater for a 4.V-angles of pulleys and belts are standardized.
small number of teeth. Select the correct answer using the code given
Reason (R): The greater angle of articulation below:
will increase the life of the chain. [ESE - 2014]
[ESE - 2015] (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct 6. Statement (I): In short open-belt drives, an
explanation of A idler pulley is used in order to increase the angle
(c) A is true but R is false. of contact on the smaller pulley for higher
(d) A is false but R is true. power transmission.
Statement (II): The idler pulley facilitates
2. If the velocity ratio o=for an open belt drive changing the speed of the driven shaft, while the
is 8 and the speed of driving pulley is 800 r.p.m, main or driven shaft runs at constant speed.
then considering an elastic creep of 2% the [ESE - 2014]
speed of the driven pulley is (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
[ESE - 2015] individually true and Statement (II) is the
(a) 104.04 r.p.m. (b) 102.04 r.p.m. correct explanation of Statement (I).
(c) 100.04 r.p.m. (d) 98.04 r.p.m. (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true but Statement (II) is NOT the
3. If the angle of warp on smaller pulley od correct explanation of Statement (I).
diameter 250 mm is 120° and diameter of larger (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is
pulley is twice the diameter of smaller pulley, false.
then the center distance between the pulleys for (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is
an open belt drive is true.
[ESE - 2015]
(a) 1000 mm (b) 750 mm 7. Considering the effect of centrifugal tension
(c) 500 mm (d) 250 mm in a flat drive with T1 = tight side tension and Tc
= centrifugal tension and m = mass per unit
4. If T1 and m represent the maximum tension length of belt, the velocity of the belt for
and mass per unit length of a belt, the maximum maximum power transmission is given by:
permissible speed of the belt is given by [ESE - 2013]
[ESE - 2014] T1 Tc
(a) V (b) V
T1 3T1 3m 3m
(a) (b)
3m m (T1 Tc ) (T1 Tc )
(c) V (d) V
2T1 T1 3m 3m
(c) (d)
3m m
8. Statement (I): Generally, for larger size
5. Which of the following statements are correct pulleys, curved arms are used.
regarding power transmission through V-belts?
1. V-belts are used at the high-speed end.
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Statement (II): Curved arms are less liable to 12. Assertion (A): The centrifugal tension in a
fracture from internal stresses set-up due to belt is Tc = mv2.
unequal rates of cooling of the hub and the rim. Reason (R): Since this expression is
[ESE - 2012] independent of the cross-section, it follows that
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are TC is independent of the belt size.
individually true and Statement (II) is the [ESE - 2011]
correct explanation of Statement (I). (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are explanation of A.
individually true but Statement (II) is NOT the (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
correct explanation of Statement (I). explanation of A.
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is (c) A is true but R is false.
false. (d) A is false but R is true.
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is
true. 13. Assertion (A): Two pulleys connected by a
crossed belt rotate in opposite directions.
9. Creep of belt can be controlled by Reason (R): The length of the crossed belt
[ESE - 2012] remains constant.
(a) Decreasing belt length [ESE - 2008]
(b) Reducing stress in belt (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
(c) Increasing belt velocity. explanation of A.
(d) Reducing belt velocity (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
explanation of A.
10. In a flat belt drive the maximum tension (c) A is true but R is false.
which the belt can be subjected to is T and the (d) A is false but R is true.
mass of the belt per unit length is m kg. The
velocity of the belt for maximum power 14. In a flat belt drive the belt can be subjected
transmission is to a maximum tension T and centrifugal tension
[ESE - 2012] TC. What is the condition for transmission of
T T maximum power?
(a) (b) [ESE - 2008]
3m m
(a) T = T (b) T 3Tc
T T
(c) (d) (c) T = 2 Tc (d) T = 3 Tc
3m m
15. Consider the following:
11. Consider the following statements
V-belts are specified by their
pertaining to V belts in power transmission.
1. Nominal inside length in mm
1. Standard V belts are available in 7 sizes of
2. Nominal pitch length
cross section A to G.
3. Belt cross section symbol
2. Standard V belt are available in 5 sizes of
4. Weight/unit length of the belt
cross section A to E.
Which of these statements are correct?
3. Standard V belt are available in 5 size of
[ESE - 2008]
cross section A to E.
(a) 1, 2, 3, and 4 (b) 1 and 2 only
4. The included angle for the belt groove in
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 3 and 4 only
usually around 35°.
Which of these statements are correct?
16. Which one of the following statements
[ESE - 2011]
relating to belt drives is correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 4
[ESE - 2007]
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
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(a) The rotational speeds of the pulleys are 20. The power transmitted by a belt is
directly proportional to their diameter. dependent on the centrifugal effect in the belt.
(b) The length of the crossed belt increases as The maximum power can be transmitted when
the sum of the diameters if the pulleys the centrifugal tension is
increases. [ESE - 2002]
(c) The crowing of the pulleys is done to make 1
the drive sturdy (a) of tension (T1) on the tight side
3
(d) The strip increase the velocity ratio.
1
(c) of total tension (Tt) on the tight side
17. Consider the following statements is case of 3
belt drives: 1
(c) of the tension (T2) on the slack side
1. Centrifugal tension results in the increase the 3
transmitted power. 1 1
2. Centrifugal tension does not affect the driving (d) 3 of sum of tension T1 and T2 i.e., 3 (T1 +
tension.
T)
3. Maximum tension in the belt is always three 2
times the centrifugal tension.
21. Assertion (A): In design of arms of pulley,
Which of these statements is/are correct?
in belt drive, the cross-section of the arm is
[ESE - 2007]
elliptical with minor axis placed along the plane
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only
of rotation.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1 only
Reason (R): Arms of a pulley in belt drive are
subjected to complete reversal of stresses and is
18. In case of belt drives, the centrifugal tension
designed for bending in the plane of rotation.
is to
[ESE - 2001]
[ESE - 2006]
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
(a) Cause the belt to leave the pulley and
explanation of A.
increase the power to be transmitted.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
(b) Cause the belt to stay on the pulley and
explanation of A.
increase the power to be transmitted.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(c) Reduce the driving power of the belt.
(d) A is false but R is true.
(d) Stretch the belt in longitudinal direction.
22. Assertion (A): For similar materials having
19. The length of the belt in the case of a cross-
the same maximum permissible tensile, V-belt
belt drive is given terms of center distance
transmits more power than flat belt with same
between pulleys (C), diameter of the pulley D
velocity ratio and center distance.
and d as
Reason (R): As two sides of V-belt are in
[ESE - 2002]
contact with side faces of pulley in belt drive
(D d) 2
subjected to complete reversal of stresses and is
(a) 2C (D d)
2 4C designed for bending the plane of rotation.
(D d)2 [ESE - 2001]
(b) 2C (D d) (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
2 4C explanation of A.
(D d)2 (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
(c) 2C (D d)
2 4C explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(D d)2
(d) 2C (D d) (d) A is false but R is true.
2 4C
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23. The creep in a belt drive is due to the (c) Harmful because it increases belt tension
[ESE - 2001] and reduces the power transmitted
(a) Material of the pulleys (d) A hypothetoical phenomenon and does not
(b) Material of the belt actually exist in belts.
(c) Unequal size of the pulleys
(d) Unequal tension on tight and slack sides of 27. Given that T1 and T2 are the tensions on the
the belt tight and slack of the belt respectively, the
initial tension of the belt taking centrifugal
24. Which one of the following statements with tension TC is equal to
regard to belt drives is NOT correct? [ESE - 1997]
[ESE - 2000] T1 T2 TC T1 T2 2TC
(a) Increase in the angle of warp of the belt (a) (b)
3 2
enables more power transmission.
(b) Maximum power is transmitted when the T1 T2 3TC T1 T2 4TC
(c) (d)
centrifugal tension is three times the tight side 3 4
tension.
(c) Wide and thin belt is preferable for better 28. In the case of a vertical belt drive with T C as
life than a thick and narrow one. centrifugal tension and T0 as the initial tension,
(d) Crown in provided on the pulley to make the the belt would tend to hang clear of the lower
belt run centrally on the pulley pulley when
[ESE - 1997]
25. Match List-I (Application) with List-II (a) TC < T0 (b) TC = T0/3
(Drive element) and select the correct answer (c) TC > T0 (d) TC = T0/2
using the codes given below the lists:
List-I 29. If is the actual coefficient of friction in a
A. Automobile differential belt moving in a grooved pulley, the groove
B. Bicycle angle being 2, the virtual coefficient of friction
C. Planing machine will
D. Radiator fan of automobile [ESE - 1997]
List-II (a) /sin (b) /cos
(i) Flat belt (c) sin (d) cos
(ii) V-belt
(iii) Chain drive 30. When belt drive is transmitting maximum
(iv) Gear drive power
[ESE - 2000] [ESE - 1996]
Codes: (a) Effective tension is equal to centrifugal
(a) A-iv, B-iii, C-i, D-ii tension
(b) A-i, B-iii, C-iv, D-ii (b) Effective tension is half of centrifugal
(c) A-iv, B-ii, C-i, D-iii tension
(d) A-i, B-ii, C-iv, D-iii (c) Driving tension on slack side is equal to the
centrifugal tension
26. Centrifugal tension in belts is (d) Driving tension on tight side is twice the
[ESE - 1999] centrifugal tension.
(a) Useful because it maintains some tension
even when no power is transmitted. 31. In flat belt drive, if the slip between the
(b) Not harmful because it does not take part in driver and the belt is 1%, that between belt and
power transmission follower is 3% and driver and follower pulley
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diameters are equal, then the velocity ratio of
maximum power can be transmitted when the
the drive will be centrifugal tension is
[ESE - 1996] [ESE - 1996]
(a) 0.99 (b) 0.98 (a) 1/3 of tension (T1) on the tight side
(c) 0.97 (d) 0.96 (b) 1/3 of total tension (Tt) on the tight side
(c) 1/3 of the tension (T 2) on the slack side
32. The power transmitted by a belt dependent (d) 1/3 of sum of tension T 1 and T2 i.e. 1/3 (T1 +
on the centrifugal effect in the belt. The T2)
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (c) 1
For greater life of chain, angle of articulation P = (T1 – T2) T1 1 em V
should be reduced to minimize wear of chain
and fatigue of rollers. = (T – T C) VC
1
Where C = 1
Sol 2. (d) e
Wdriving P = (T – mV2) VC
V.R. 8 For maximum power,
Wdriven
T
Ndriving 800rpm V
3m
Ndriving S
Ndriven 1 (T1 TC )
V.R. 100 V
3m
S = 2%
800 2 Sol 8. (a)
Ndriven = 1 98rpm
8 100
Sol 9. (a)
Sol 3. (d) Creep of belt occur due to slip of belt over the
d = 120° two pulleys. When a belt moves over pulley.
d = 250 mm Tension exist in it and hence its length increases
D = 500 mm depending upon its Young’s modulus of
2 = 180° – d elasticity.
= 30°
Sol 10. (a)
Dd
Sin (Open drive) For maximum power transmission centrifugal
2c tension.
(D d) Must be equal to 1/3rd of maximum tension
C
2sin TC = mV2
C = 250 mm 1
T = mV2
3
Sol 4. (a) Tmax
Tmax T1 Vmax
Vopt 3m
3m 3m
Sol 11. (b)
Sol 5. (d) Standard V belt are available in 5 size of cross-
section A to E with A having largest cross-
Sol 6. (c) section. The groove angle for the belt is 40°.
The idler pulley is provided to obtain high The groove angle for pulley is from 34° to 38°.
velocity ratio and when the required belt tension
cannot be obtained by other means. Sol 12. (c)
Sol 7. (d) Sol 13. (b)
When centrifugal tension is considered
T = T1 + Tc
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Two pulleys connected by open belt rotate in It will not help to improve power transmission
same direction whereas two pulleys connected but it is disadvantageous from the design point
by crossed belt rotate in opposite direction. of view.
The length of crossed belt is given by
r r Sol 18. (c)
2
LC (r1 r2 ) 2C 1 2 Ft1 = F1 + Fc
C Ft1 = Total tension due to friction between
So length of crossed belt in constant. Both the pulley and belts
statements are correct but Reason is not correct F1 = Ft1 – FC
explanation of Assertion. P = (F1 – F2)v
FC , F1
Sol 14. (b) Power transmitted will decrease
Condition for maximum power transmission:
P = (T1 – T2) Sol 19. (a)
T1
e (D d)2
T2 Lopen 2C (D d)
2 4c
1 (D d)2
P (Tmax TC ) 1 V L 2C (D d)
e cross
2 4c
P Tmax v mv 1
3 1
e Sol 20. (b)
P = (F1 – F2) v
Tmax 3mv2 0
dP
1
dv
T
P F1 1
v F1 1 e
v
mv 2 max F1 / F2
3 P = (Ft1 – FC) V (1 – e–)
TC max
T = (ft1 v – mv3) (1 – e–)
3 fc = mv2
Tmax = 3Tc dP
0
dV
Sol 15. (a) Ft1 – 3mV2 = 0
V-belt designation Ft1 = 3FC
B : type of v belt F
2786 : nominal inside length FC t1
3
Gr50 : standard size of belt
Sol 16. (b) Sol 21. (d)
A is false but R is true.
Length of crossed belt
The arm of pulley have elliptical cross-section
(r r ) 2
= (r1 + r2 ) + 2C + 1 2 in the plane of rotation.
C The major axis of elliptical cross-section is in
Hence length of the crossed belt increases as the the plane of rotation.
sum of the diameters of the pulleys increases.
Sol 22. (a)
Sol 17. (b) E.t / 2 Et
Centrifugal tension is independent of the tight b d / 2 d d = dia of small pulley.
side tension and slack side tension. For a given Power transmission is more in V-belt because
belt, it depends only on the velocity of the belt. tension on slack side of V-belt is less that of flat
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belt. There is wedging action between pulley nd
belt. Where ' called effective coefficient
sin
of friction.
Sol 23. (d)
Constant creep rate due to
T1 = T2 Sol 30. (d)
F F F
FC t1 1 C 3FC F1 FC
Sol 24. (b) 3 3
T1 2F C = F 1
e (Statement 1 correct)
T2
Sol 31. (d)
For maximum power transmission
N 2 d1 S S
F 1 1 2
FC t1 (Statement 2 is incorrect) N1 d 2 100 100
3
V S S
2 1 1 2
Sol 25. (a) V1 100 100
Differential have gear drive. Bicycle have chain V 1 3
drive. 2 1 0.96
V1 100 100
Sol 26. (c)
Increase in centrifugal force is harmful as belt Sol 32. (b)
tries to come out of the pulley and it also P = (F1 – F2) v
reduces the power transmission. 1
P F1 1
v F1 1 e
v
Sol 27. (b) F1 / F2
Ft1 = Fi + Fi – Ft2 P = (Ft1 – Fc)v (1 – e–)
2Fi = Ft1 + Ft2 dP
0 ( Fe = mv2)
F1 F2 2FC T1 T2 2TC dV
Fi
2 2 Ft1 – 3mV2 = 0
Ft1 = 3Fc
Sol 28. (c) F
FC t1
3
Sol 29. (a) 1
Limiting tension ratio of the v-belt is of total tension on tight side.
3
T1 .
e sin
T2
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CHAPTER - 8
CHAIN DRIVES
8.1 INTRODUCTION
A chain can be defined as a series of links connected by pin joints.
It has some features of belt drive and some of gear drive.
8.1.1 Advantages
1. It can be used for long as well as short distance range.
2. Number of shafts can be driven
3. Small overall dimensions
4. Positive drive and has no slip
5. High efficiency (96% to 98%).
6. No initial tension required
7. Easy to replace.
8.1.2 Disadvantages
1. More wear.
2. Less précised motion
3. Noisy operation
8.2 DESIGN OF SPUR GEARS
A mechanical drive is defined as a mechanism, which is intended to transmit mechanical power
over a certain distance, usually involving a change in speed and torque.
Two groups of mechanical drives are
1. Mechanical drives that transmit power by means of friction e.g. belt and rope drive.
2. Mechanical drives that transmit power by means of engagement e.g. chain drive and gear drive.
1. Selection of a proper mechanical drive for a given application depends upon
number of factors such as centre distance, VR, shifting arrangement, maintenance
and cost.
2. Gear drive is a positive drive and has constant speed.
8.3 CHAIN
The belt drive is not a positive drive because of creep and slip .The chaibn drive is a positive drive
.Like belts , chains can be used for larger centre distances .They are made of metal and due to this
chain is heavier than the belt but they are flexible like belts .It also requires lubrication from time
to time .The lubricant prevents chain from rusting and reduces wear.
The chain and chain drive are shown in figure .The sprockets are used in place of pulleys.The
projected teeth of sprockets fit in the recesses of the chain .The distance between roller centers of
two adjacent links is known as pitch .The circle passing through the pitch centrers is called pitch
circle.
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Roller
Bushing
(a) Pin Pitch
pitch
(b)
r
(c) Sprocket
(d)
Let ‘’ be the angle made by the pitch of the chain , and ‘r’ be the pitch circle radius , then
p
Pitch , p = 2r sin or r = cosec
2 2 2
The power transmission chains are made of steel and hardened to reduce wear .These chains are
classified into three categories
(i) Block chain (ii) Roller chain (iii) Inverted tooth chain (silent chain)
Out of these three categories roller chain shown in figure is most commonly used .The
construction of this type of chain is shown in figure .The roller is made of steel and then hardened
to reduce the wear .A good roller chain is quiter in operation as compared to the block and chain
and it has lesser wear .The block chain is shown in figure .It is used for low speed drive .The
inverted tooth chain is shown in Figures (c) and (d) .it is also called as silent chain because it runs
very quietly even at higher speeds
8.3.1 Kinematics of Chain Drive
The chain is wrapped round the sprocket as shown in figure .The chain in motion is shown in
figure .it may be obserbed that the position of axial line changes between the two position as
shown by the dotted line and full line .The dorred line meets at point B when extended with the
lien of centers .The firm line meets the line of centers at point A when extended .The speed of the
dribing sprocket say ‘1’ shall be constant. But the eocity of chain will vary between 1 ×O1C and
1 ×O1D .Therefore
2 O1A
1 O 2 B
The variation in the chain speed causes the variation in the angular speed of the driven sprocket
.The angular speed of the driven sprocket will vary between
ON OA
1 1 and 1 1
O2 B O2 A
This variation can be reduced by increasing number of teeth on the sprocket
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ESE OBJ QUESTIONS
1. For roller chain drive with sprocket having 10 1. Friction between chain and sprocket teeth.
teeth, the velocity of the driven shaft with 2. Overcoming the chain stiffness.
respect to that of drive will be approximately. 3. Overcoming the friction in shaft bearing.
[ESE - 2008] 4. Frictional resistance to the motion of the
(a) Same chain in air or lubricant.
(b) 5% above To correct sequence of descending order of
(c) 5% below power loss due to these sources is
(d) 5% above to 5% below [ESE - 1995]
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 1, 2, 4, 3
2. Source of power loss in a chain drive are (c) 2, 1, 3, 4 (d) 2, 1, 4, 3
given below:
SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (d) For smooth operation at moderate and high
180 speeds, it is considered a good practice to use a
Vmax Vmin 1 cos driving sprocket with at least 17 teeth. For
z durability and noise considerations, the
In order to reduce the variation in chain speed, minimum number of teeth on the driving
the number of teeth on the sprocket should be sprocket should be 19 or 21.
increased. It has been observed that the speed
variation is 4% for a sprocket with 11 teeth, Sol 2. (a)
1.6% for sprocket with 17 teeth, and less than This is the decreasing order in which losses
1% for a sprocket with teeth. takes place.
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CHAPTER - 9
GEARS
9.1 GEAR DRIVES
Gears are defined as toothed wheels or multi lobed comes, which transmit power and motion from
one shaft to another by means of successive engagement of teeth.
9.1.1 Advantages
1. It is a positive drive with constant VR
2. CD between shafts is small therefore compact construction
3. It can transmit very large power, even beyond the range of chain and belt drive
4. It can transmit motion at very low velocity which is not possible with belt drives
5. 99% efficiency
6. Provision of gear shifting is there in gear boxes.
9.1.2 Disadvantages
1. Gear drives are costly and their maintenance cost is also higher.
2. Precise alignment is also required.
9.2 TERMINOLOGY
Top hand
Face width
Face
Addendum
hd
Pitch
circle Flank
Bottom hand
Dedendum
hd
1. Pinion: smaller of the two mating gear
2. Gear: larger of the two rotating gear
3. Pitch circle: Pitch circle is the curve of intersection of the pitch surface of revolution and the
plane of rotation. It is an imaginary circle that rotates without slipping with the pitch circle of a
mating gear corresponding diameter is pitch circle dia. (PCD)
4. Addendum (ha): height of tooth above PCD
5. Ddendum (hd): height of tooth below PCD
6. Clearance (C): Clearance is the amount by which dedendum of a given gear exceeds the
addendum of its mating tooth.
7. Face width (b): It is width of tooth measured parallel to axis.
8. Tooth space: The width of the space between two adjacent teeth measured along the pitch
circle is called the tooth space.
9. Working depth: Sum of addendum of gear is engagement.
10. C.D: It is the distance between centres of pitch circles of mating gears.
11. Pressure angle: It is the angle which the line of action makes with the common tangent to the
pitch circles. The pressure angle is also called angle of obliquity.
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12. Contact ratio: Number of pair of teeth that are simultaneously engaged is called ontact ratio
usually (1.4 to 2)
13. Circular pitch(P): circular pitch is the distance measured along the pitch circle between two
similar points on adjacent teeth.
D
P
Z
Where D is PCD
Z is number of teeth
Z
Diameter pitch (PD) =
D
P × PD =
14. Module(m): It is inverse of diametrical pitch.
D
m D mZ
Z
Module of gears in engagement is always constant.
If Zp is Number of teeth of pinion
Zg is Number of teeth of gear
m(Zp Zg )
C.D
2
Zg N P
G.R.
Zp N g
9.3 STANDARD SYSTEMS OF GEAR TOOTH
There are three types:
1. 14.5° Full Depth Involute System
145°
Adddendum = m
Deddendum=1.157m 1.5708m
tooth frictionless
2. 20° Full Depth Involute System
20°
1.25m 1.5708m
tooth thickness
3. 20° Stub Tooth Involute System
20°
0.8m
m 1.5708m
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9.4 BACKLASH
It is defined as the amount by which the width of tooth space exceeds the thickness of engaging
tooth measured along pitch circle.
B ack
lash
9.4.1 Objectives for Proving Backlash
1. Backlash prevents the mating teeth from joining together. This allows the teeth roll smoothly
2. Backlash compensates for machine errors
3. Compensates for thermal expansion
R
N
9.4.2 Force Analysis
O1
FN Fr
Pitch
point Fr
O2
Fig. shows the tooth of the driving pinion exerting a force F N on the tooth of the driven gear.
Where FN acts along the pressure line
It can be resolved into two components; tangential component Ft and radial component Fr.
The tangential component Ft is useful because it determines the magnitude of the torque and
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consequently the power, which is transmitted.
The radial component Fr is a separating force, which is always directed towards the centre of gear.
2N
P T
60
P 60
T
2N
Where T is Torque transmitted by gear
Also
D
T (Ft )
2
Where D is diameter of that gear
2T
Ft
D
Fr = Ft tanf
F
FN t
cos f
Assumptions in above Analysis
1. As the point of contact moves, the magnitude of the resultant force F N changes. This effects
neglected.
1. It is assumed that only one pair of teeth take the entire load, generally two pair are in contact,
this effect is neglected.
2. The analysis is valid under static conditions i.e. when the gear is running at very low velocities.
In practice, there is dynamic force in addition to force due to power transmission.
4. Idle gear never transmits any torque to its shaft.
Example. The pitch circles of a gear train of spur gear are shown. Gear A receives 5kW of power
at 700RPM through its shaft and rotates in the clockwise direction. Gear B is the idler while gear
C is driven gear. ZA = 30, ZB = 60, ZC = 40 respectively while module = 5 mm. calculate
(i) The torque on each gear shaft
(ii) The components of gear tooth forces
Assume 20° involute system
Solution.
45° 45°
Drive gear A, 3.5 kW and NA = 700RPM
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P 60 3.5 1000 60
TA 47.7N-m
2N 2(700)
Torque on gear B is idler i.e., idler = 0
Torque on shaft gear C
PA = PC (conservation of energy)
TA×(N)A = (TC)×(NC)
Z
TC TA C
ZA
47.77 40
TC
30
TC = 63.661Nm
(b) Component of Forces
2T
Ft A DA MZA 5 30 150mm
DA
2 47.77
Ft A 637N
.15
Fr = Ft tanf = 637 tan20 = 231.5N
Since gear B is idler, whatever torque it receives from gear A is transmitted to gear C.
Tangential component of gear (Ft)C = (Ft)A and also (Fr)A = (Fr)C
Example. A planetary gear train is shown. The sun gear A rotates in a clockwise direction and
transmits 5k of power at 1440RPM to the gear train. Z A = 30, ZB = 60, ZC = 150 respectively.
Module = 4mm f = 20°. Calculate the torque that the arm D can deliver to its output shaft?
Solution.
DA = MZA = 120mm
DB = MZB = 240mm
DC = MZC = 600mm
B
Arm
DA DB 120 240
LArm 180mm
2 2
5 103 60
TA 33.157Nm
2(1440)
2(TA )
(Ft )A 552.62N
DA
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(Ft)c (Ft)
2Ft
(Ft)B
LD
(Ft)A
Torque(ARm) = 2Ft × LD = 2 × 552.62×.18 = 198.94N-m
9.4.3 Selection of Material
Desirable properties of gear materials are:
1. The load carrying capacity of the gear tooth depends upon the UTS or field strength of the
material. When the gear tooth is subjected to fluctuating forces, the endurance strength of the tooth
is the deciding factor.
2.In many cases, it is wear rating rather than strength rating which decides the dimensions of the
gear tooth. The gear material should have sufficient surface endurance strength to avoid failure
due to destructive pitting.
3. For high speed power transmission, the sliding velocities are very high and the material should
have low coefficient of friction.
2
1. Number of teeth: Minimum number of teeth to avoid interference Zmin
sin 2 f
2. For 20° full depth involutes system, it is always safe to assume the no. of teeth on
the pinion as 18 to 20.
3. Face width (b): Lies between {8m < b < 12m}
9.5 BEAM STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH (LEWIS EQUATION)
The Lewis equation is based on the following assumptions:
1. The effect of the radial component Fr which induces compressive stress is neglected.
2. It is assumed that tangential component Ft is uniformly distributed over the face width of the
gear. This is possible when gears are rigid and accurately machined.
3. The effect of stress concentration is neglected.
4. Only one pair of teeth takes a load at one time.
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(Ft)
b
x
h total depth of tooth
At section xx, moment M = Ft × h
Assumed weakest section due to maximum moment.
bt 3 t
I ,y
12 2
M y (Ft h) t
b 12
F bt 3 2
t2
Ft bb
bh
Multiplying numerator and denominator by mm, we get
t2
Ft mmbb
6mm
t2
Let, y Ft mmbb y
6mm
Where y is lewis form factor
When this b reaches a value which is equal to permissible magnitude of bending stress, the
corresponding Sb is beam strength therefore, beam strength is the maximum value of tangential
force that (Sb) the tooth can transmit without bending failure.
Sb = mb(b)permissible
Values of y can be taken from table.
9.6 PERMISSIBLE BENDING STRESS UNDER FLUCTUATING LOAD
The tooth of the gear is subjected to fluctuating bending stress as it comes in contact with the
meshing tooth. Following observations are made from figure.
1. The teeth of the driving and driven gears are subjected to stress in one direction only as shown.
It is called repeated stress.
Driving Idler Driven
max
(i) For driving and driven gear, m a max
2 and 2
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Where m is mean stress
a is stress amplitude
(ii) For idler, reversed stress due to stress in both directions,m = 0 and a = max
Since the teeth are subjected to fluctuating stress, endurance limit stress (S e) is the design criteria
Maximum bending stress is equal to endurance limit stress of the gear tooth
S
Sn general, b Se ut (suggested by Buckingham)
3
9.6.1 Effective Load on Gear Tooth
2T
Generally Ft , in practical applications, the torque developed by the source of power varies
D
during work cycle therefore, torque also varies. Initial torque requirements are high (Tmax).
Therefore to compensate that a factor Cs(service factor) is introduced.
T (F )
Cs max t max
T Ft
Where Tmax is maximum torque and T is rated torque
Tmax = CsT and (Ft)max = (Cs)Ft
Where Cs is compensate shock load while starting
It gear rotate at very low speed, then Ft is considered as actual force, but , if gears rotate at an
appreciable speed and it becomes necessary to consider the dynamic force resulting from the
impact between mating teeth.
3
To compensate this, a velocity factor Cv is introduced and Cv (v < 10m/s)
3 v
4.5
Cv (v 15 m/s)
4.51v
6
CV (v 20 m/s)
6v
CF
(Ft )eff s t
Cv
9.6.2 Disadvantages of The Velocity Factor Method
1. The dynamic load depends upon a number of factors such as the mass of gears, mass connected
to the gear shaft and properties of gear material.
Also, (Ft )eff . Cs Ft Fd if Fd Ft
21v(Ceb Ft )
Also Fd
21v Ceb Ft
Where Fd is Dynamic load (N)
v is Pitch line velocity (m/s)
C is deformation factors (N/mm2)
e is sum of errors between tow meshing teeth (mm)
b is face width (mm)
Ft is Tangential force due to rated torque (N)
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k
C
1 1
EP EG
k = 0.107 {14°.5 full depth}
k = 0.111 {20° full depth}
Where k is constant depending upon form of tooth
k = .115 (for 20° strub)
Ep, Eg is modulus of elasticity pinion and gear (N/mm2)
9.6.3 Estimation of Module Based on Beam Strength
Sb
(Ft )eff . (Recommended FOS is 1.5 to 2)
FOS
T
m 1.26
(b . y) wea ker gear z1
b
(lies between 8 to 12)
m
Where Z1 is Number of teeth on weaker gear
Gear drive is always designed for which has lesser value of product of (by) for same material of
pinion and gear. Gear drive is always designed for pinion.
9.7 WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH (Fw)
It should also be checked, since we always want that our gear must not wear out.
Fw = D1 Q k.b (N)
Where b is face width
es sin f cos f 1
2
1
k is constant =
(1.4) G
E E P
2G
Q
G 1
Where G is Gear ratio
+ is for external gear
is for internal gear
es is surface endurance limit.
f is pressure angle
For safe designing Fw (Ft)eff. > Fd
Example. A pair of straight teeth spear gears having 20° full depth involute teeth is to transmit
20kW. The pinion runs at 300RPM and speed ratio 3 : 1. Data given is no. of teeth on pinion = 15,
3 0.912
service factor Cs = 1, C y , V is Pitch line velocity (m/s), y = 0.154
3 V T
T is No. of teeth, b = 14m(module in mm), p = 120N/mm2 and G = 100N/mm2
Check the gear for wear if the surface endurance limit is 600MPa and E P = 200GPa, EG = 100 GPa
respectively
Solution.
ZP = 15 [G = 3:1]
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ZG = 45
0.912
Yg yg 0.154 Yg 0.42
45
0.912
YP yP 0.154 YP 0.295
15
Design criteria G YG = 100×.24 = 42MPa
PYP = 120×.293 = 35.10MPa
Design is based on pinion
C F
(Ft )eff modulus bP YP s t modulus bP YP …(i)
CV
20000 60 20000 60
T 636.62Nm
2N P 2(300)
dp
T Ft Ft d p 2T 1273.24Nm …(ii)
2
dP dP
Module of pinion, m
ZP 15
And b =14m {given}
Putting (i), we get
1.Ft 1.Ft 14 2
14m 2 p Yp d p 35.16 106
Cv Cv 152
Multiply by dp both sides, we get
1 Ft d p 14d 3p 35.16 166
3 225
3 v
d p 300
v 15.7d p
60
And Ft × dp = 1273.24N-m {from (ii)}
3 15.7d p 14 d3p 35.16 106
3 225 1273.24
1.94×104 + 3.0458 ×103dp = dp3
dp = 95.5mm, .47.7mm, 47.7mm
dp = 95.5mm and dG = 286.5mm
dp
m 6.36mm
15
d p N p (.095 300)
v 1.5m/s
60 60
b = 14m = 14(6.36) = 89mm
CF
From (i) (Ft)eff = s t
Cv
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2T
Ft 13,332N
dP
113332(3 15)
(Ft )eff . 19998N
3
s2 sin f cos f 1 1
Wear load, k
1.4 EP EG
Fw = bQdpk
2G 23
Q 1.5
G 1 3 1
600 sin 20cos 20 1
2
1
k 5
2 10 10
5
1.4
k 82644 1.5 105 1.24MPa
Fw = 99(1.5)(1.24)(95.5) = 15809N
Since (Ft)eff > (Fw)
Design will fail since (Ft)eff > (Fw)
Example. A spur steel pinion ((SO)P = 200MPa) is to drive and spur steel gear ((SG) = 140MPa).
The diameter of the pinion is to be 100mm and the centre distance is 200mm. the pinion is to
transmit 5kW at 700RPM. The teeth are to be 20° full depth. Determine the necessary module and
width of face to given greatest no. of teeth. Design for strength only using Lewis equation.
Solution.
So is the endurance strength corrected for average stress concentration
3
Allowance stress = S S ,
3 V
Vis velocity
Assume 20 teeth on pinion.
Yp for 20 teeth and 20° full depth = 0.102
YG for 60 teeth and 20° full depth = 0.134
Since dp = 100mm CD = 200mm dG = 300mm
150
50
100nm
200
Power on pinion, 5kW at 900RPM,
5000(60)
T 53.05(N m)
2(900)
2T
Ft 1061.033N
dp
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3
Allowable stress on pinion, S So
3 N
d N (0.1) 900
v P P
60 60 = 4.7124m/s
3
SP 200 SP 77852MPa
3 4.71
SP YP 77.82((0.102)) 24.92
GYG or SGYG = 54.4((0.134)) = 22.88
We will design for gear Lewis equation for gear.
Ft = mbGYG {Let b = 12m}
1061N = m(12m)(22.88)
m2 = 3.862 m = 1.86mm
or m = 2mm
Example. The pitch circle diameter of pinion and gear are 100mm and 30mm respectively. The
pinion is made of cast steel, Sut = 600N/m2 while the gear is of CI, Sut = 300N/mm2. The pinion
receives 5kW power at 500RPM through the shaft. The service factor and FOS are 1.5 each and b
= 10m. Assume velocity factor accounts dynamic load. Calculate
(i) Module
(ii) Number of teeth on each member
Assume Y = 0.32(for both)
Solution.
(S ) 600
Allowable stress in gear G ut 4 200N/mm2
3 3
10
Allowable stress in pinion, P (100) 100N/mm2
3
d p N p (0.1)500
v 2.618m/s
60 60
3 3
Cv 0.534
3 v 5.618
Cs = 1.5, FOS = 1.5
P(60) 5000 60
T 95.5Na
2N 2(500)
2T 2 95.5
Ft 41910N
DP .1
Cs .Ft 1.5 1910
(Ft )eff 5365.2N
Cv .534
Strength of tooth bean, S (Ft )eff FOS
= 5365.2×1.5 = 87047.75N
and S = mbY
Consider pinion as weak since p < G,
and consider 20 teeth on pinion and Y = 0.32
8047.75 = m(10m)(100×.32)
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m = 5mm
no. of teeth on gear = 60
Example. A pair of spur gear with 20° full depth involute teeth consists of 25 teeth pinion
meshing with 60 teeth gear. The pinion is mounted on 25kW motor at 1440 RPM. The starting
torque is 150% of rated torque. The allowance stress in pinion is 140N/mm2 and in gear it is
70N/mm2. FOS = 1.5 design the gear based on Lewis equation and assume velocity factor account
dynamic load? (Cs = 1.5)
Solution.
ZP = 25, Zg = 60, Cs = 1.5, p = 150N/mm , g = 72N/mm ,FOS = 1.5
2 2
Assume Yp = 0.34, YG = 0.421
Assume b = 10mm
0.912
YP 0.514 0.34
25
0.912
YG 0.514 0.421
60
pYp = 150×.34 = 47.6N/mm2
aYa = 72×.421 = 29.47N/mm2
Hence, gear is weak
S = bm GyG
FOSCS (Ft ) 1.5 Ft 1.5
S 10m2 (29.47) …(i)
Cv Cv
25000 60
T 29.4N m
21440
2T 2 209.4 16.752
Ft Ft
DG m(ZP ) m
Assuming velocity less than 10m/s
3 d P N p mp Zp N p (m)(25)(1440)
Cv ,v
3 v 60 60 = 60
v = 1.588m
3
Cv ,
3 1.558m
Now, put Ft and Cv in (1), we get
2.25(3 1.558m) 16.753
294.7m2
3m
m = 9.65 or m = 10mm, b = 10m = 100mm
(.25)(1440)
dp = 25×10 = 250mm, V 18.85m / s
60
6
Hence the velocity assumptions was wrong assume (10 v 20)
6 v
6
CV
6 1.885m
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(1.5)2 16.753
294.7m2
6
6 1.558m
m = 7.6 m = 8mm
Diameter of pinion = 8×25 = 200mm
Diameter of gear = 8×60 = 480mm
b = 10×m = 80mm
Example. A pair of spur gears of 20° full depth involute is designed. The input shaft rotates at
1500 RPM and takes 124kW power from electric motor. The allowable stress of gears material is
240N/mm2. The service factor is taken as 1.5. Assuming dynamic load proportional to velocity.
The elasticity modulus of gear material is 210 GPa and FOS = 1.5. Find.
(a) Module of gear taking output rotation 500RPM.
(b) Determine FOS for pitting assuming surface endurance strength of gear = 640N/mm 2.
Solution.
P(60) (1200)60
T 76.394N m
2N 2(1500)
Given NP = 1500, NG = 500RPM
ZG 1500
3
ZP 500
Assuming no. of teeth on pinion(Zp = 20) and on gear ZG = 60
2T 2 76.394 7.6394
Ft =
DP m(20) m
Cs .Ft
(Ft )eff . ,
Cv
3
Assuming Cv (v less than 10m/s2)
3 v
3 3
Cv
d p N p (m 20)1500
3 3
60 60 1000
3
Cv
3 1.57m
1.5 7.6394
(Ft )eff .
3
m
37.1.57m
Also, S = (FOS) (Ft)eff. = bm(Y)
Let b = 10m
1.5 1.5 7.6394
(3+1.57m) = 10m2×240×.32
3m
Lets gear weaker in YG = 0.32
m = 4.2mm m = 5mm
dP = ZP M = 100mm
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d p N p (0.1)1500
v 7854m/s
60 60
Hence assumption is right v less than 10m/sec
Diameter of gear = ZG × m = 60×4 = 240mm
b = 10m = 40mm
(ii) FOS in pitting , Sw = Qkdpb
2G 23
Q 1.5
G 1 3 1
(wt )2 1 1
k SinfCosf
1.4 EP EG
(640)2 1 1
k
1.4 210 10 210 103 Sin20°Cos20° = 0.8955N/mm
3 2
Sw = 1.5×0.8950×40×100 = 5373.18N
C F 1.5 7.6364 10(3 1.57 5)
(Ft )eff . s t
Cv 5 (3)
(Ft)eff = 8288N
S 5373.18
(FOS) w 0.648
(Ft )eff . 8288
Gear is not safe in wear according to Cv method therefore exact dynamic analysis is done by
equation. (Ft)eff = CsFt+Fd is spott’s equation
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GATE QUESTIONS
1. A spur pinion of pitch diameter 50 mm Linked Statement for Q.6 & Q.7
rotates at 200 rad/s and transmits 3 kW power. A 20° full depth involute spur pinion of 4 mm
The pressure angle of the tooth of the pinion is module and 21 teeth is to transmit 15 kW at 960
20°. Assuming that only one pair of the teeth is rpm. It face width is 25 mm.
in contact, the total force (in newton) exerted by 6. The tangential force transmitted (in N) is
a tooth of the pinion on the tooth on a mating [GATE - 2009]
gear is ___________. (a) 3552 (b) 2611
[GATE - 2014] (c) 1776 (d) 1305
2. A pair of spur gears with module 5 mm and a 7. Given that the tooth geometry factor is 0.32
center distance of 450 mm is used for a speed and the combined effect dynamic load and
reduction of 5: 1. The number of teeth on pinion allied factors intensifying the stress is 1.5; the
is _________. minimum allowable stress (in MPa) for the gear
[GATE - 2014] material is
[GATE - 2009]
3. Which one of the following is used to convert (a) 242.0 (b) 166.5
a rotational motion into a translational motion? (c) 121.0 (d) 74.0
[GATE - 2014]
(a) Bevel gears 8. One tooth of a gear having 4 module and 32
(b) Double helical gears teeth is shown in the figure. Assume that the
(c) Worm gears gear tooth and the corresponding tooth space
(d) Rack and pinion gears make equal intercepts on the pitch
circumference. The dimensions ‘a’ and ‘b’,
4. For the given statements: respectively, are closest to:
a
I. Mating spur gear teeth is an example of
higher pair.
Pitch circle m b
II. A revolute joint is an example of lower pair.
Indicate the correct answer.
[GATE - 2014]
(a) Both I and II are false
[GATE - 2008]
(b) I is true and II is false (a) 6.08 mm, 4 mm (b) 6.48 mm, 4.2 mm
(c) I is false and II is true (c) 6.28 mm, 4.3 mm (d) 6.28 mm, 4.1 mm
(d) Both I and II are true.
5. Two cutting tools are being compared for 9. Match the type of gears with their most
machining operation. The tool life equation are: appropriate description.
Carbide tool: VT1.6 = 3000 Type of gear
HSSS tool: VT0.6 = 200 A. Helical
Where V is the cutting speed in m/min and T is B. Spiral Bevel
the tool life in min. The carbide tool will C. Hypoid
provide higher tool life if the cutting speed in D. Rack and pinion
m/min exceeds. Description
[GATE - 2013] (i) Axes non parallel and non intersecting
(a) 15.0 (b) 39.4 (ii) Axes parallel and teeth are inclined to the
(c) 49.3 (d) 60.0 axis
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(iii) Axes parallel and teeth are parallel to the 14. Twenty degree full depth involute profiled
axis 19-teeth pinion and 37-teeth gear are in mesh. If
(iv) Axes are perpendicular and intersecting, the module is 5 mm, the center distance
and teeth are inclined to the axis. between the gear pair will be
(v) Axes are perpendicular and used for large [GATE - 2006]
speed reduction (a) 140 mm (b) 150 mm
(vi) Axes parallel and one of the gears has (c) 280 mm (d) 300 mm
infinite radius.
[GATE - 2008] 15. Match the following
Codes: Type of gears
(a) A-ii, B-iv, C-i, D-vi P. Bevel gears
(b) A-i, B-iv, C-v, D-vi Q. Worm gears
(c) A-ii, B-vi, C-iv, D-ii R. Herringbone gears
(d) A-vi, B-iii, C-i, D-v S. Hypoid gears
Arrangement of shafts
10. A spur gear has a module of 3 mm, number (i) Nonparallel offset shafts
of teeth 16, a face width of 36 mm and a (ii) Nonparallel intersecting shafts
pressure angle of 20°. It is transmitting a power (iii) Nonparallel, non-intersecting shafts
of 3 kW at 20 rev/s. Taking a velocity factor of iv( Parallel shaft
1.5 and a form factor of 0.3, the stress in the [GATE - 2004]
gear tooth is about. (a) P-iv, Q-ii, R-i, S-iii
[GATE - 2008] (b) P-ii, Q-iii, R-iv, S-i
(a) 32 MPa (b) 46 MPa (c) P-iii, Q-ii, R-i, S-iv
(c) 58 MPa (d) 70 MPsa (d) P-i, Q-iii, R-iv, S-ii
16. Two mating spur gears have 40 and 120
11. The resultant force on the contacting gear
teeth respectively. The pinion rotates at 1200
tooth is N is
rpm and transmits a torque of 20 N.m. The
[GATE - 2007]
torque of 20 N.m. The torque transmitted by
(a) 77.23 (b) 212.20
gear is
(c) 2258.1 (d) 289.43
[GATE-2004]
(a) 6.6 Nm (b) 20 Nm
Linked Statement for Q.12 & Q.13
(c) 40 Nm (d) 60 Nm
A gear set has a pinion with 20 teeth and a gear
with 40 teeth. The pinion runs at 30 rev/s and Linked Statement for Q.17 & Q.18
transmits a power of 20 kW. The teeth are on The overall gear ratio in a 2 stage speed
the 20° full-depth system and have a module of reduction gear box (with all spur gears) is 12.
5 mm. The length of the line of action is 19 mm. The input and output shafts of the gear box are
12. The center distance for the above gear set incollinear. The countershaft which is parallel to
mm is the input and output shafts has a gear (Z2 = 15
[GATE - 2007] teeth) to mesh with pinion (Z1 = 16 teeth) on the
(a) 140 (b) 150 input shaft and gear (Z4 teeth) on the output
(c) 160 (d) 170 shaft respectively. It was decided to use a gear
ratio of 4 with 3 module in the first stage and 4
13. The contact ratio of the contacting tooth is module in the second stage.
[GATE - 2007] 17. Z2 and Z4 are
(a) 1.21 (b) 1.25 [GATE - 2003]
(c) 1.29 (d) 1.33 (a) 64 and 45 (b) 45 and 64
(c) 48 and 60 (d) 60 and 48
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18. The center distance in the second stage is (iii) Nonparallel, non-intersecting shafts
[GATE - 2003] (iv) Large speed ratios
(a) 90 mm (b) 120 mm [GATE - 1995]
(c) 160 mm (d) 240 mm Codes:
(a) A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, D-i
19. The minimum number of teeth on the pinion (b)A-iv,B-iii, C-ii, D-i
to operate without interference in standard full (c) A-iii, B-iv, C-ii, D-i
height involute teeth gear mechanism with 20° (d)A-i,B-iii, C-iv, D-ii
pressure angle is
[GATE - 2002] 25. Interference in a pair of gears is avoided, if
(a) 14 (b) 12 the addendum circles of both the gears intersect
(c) 18 (d) 32 common tangent to the base circles with in the
points of tangency.
20. Large speed reduction (greater than 20) in [GATE - 1995]
one stage of a gear train are possible through (a) True (b) False
[GATE - 2002]
(a) Spur gearing (b) Worm gearing 26. For a pinion of 15 teeth, under cutting …….
(c) Bevel gearing (d) Helical gearing (increases/decreases)with….. increase/decrease)
of pressure angle.
21. A 1.5 kW motor is running at 1440 rev/min.
[GATE - 1991]
It is to be connected to a stirrer running at 36
rev/min. The gearing arrangement suitable for 27. In order to test the efficiency of reducer gear
this application is train 1 kW input was given at the input end at a
[GATE - 2000] speed of 1440 rpm and at the output end the
(a) Differential gear (b) Helical gear measured torque was 56.36 Nm. If the ratio of
(c) Spur gear (d) Worm gear speed reduction in this unit is 10 : 1, the
22. To make a worm drive reversible, it is efficiency is about.
necessary to increase [GATE - 1989]
[GATE - 1997] (a) 78% (b) 85%
(a) Center distance (c) 63% (d) 96%
(b) Worm diameter factor
(c) Number of starts 28. Modern gear tooth profile is given involute
(d) Reduction ratio shape because
[GATE - 1989]
23. In spur gears, the circle on which the (a) This is a very easy curve for manufacturing
involute is generated is called the (b) Sliding does not takes place anywhere on
[GATE - 1996] meshing teeth.
(a) Pitch circle (b) Clearance angle (c) Involute is the only profile that gives
(c) Base circle (d) Addendum circle conjugate action
(d) Change in the center distance does not
24. Match the following change gear ratio.
List-I (Gear Types)
A. Worm gears 29. For null depth of involute spur gear,
B. Cross helical gears minimum number of teeth of pinion to avoid
C. Bevel gears interference depends upon.
D. Spur gears [GATE - 1988]
List-II (Application) (a) Pressure angle (b) Speed ratio
(i) Parallel shafts (c) Circular pitch (d) Pitch diameter
(ii) Nonparallel, intersecting shafts
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SOLUTIONS
Sol. 1. (638.5N ) Double helical gears: Rotational motion
Given, d = 50 mm transfer between parallel axes.
= 200 rad/s Rack and Pinion gears: Rotational to linear
P = 3000 W motion conversion.
f = 20°
P 3000 Sol. 4. (d)
T 15 N.m Example of Lower Pair:
200
F Revolute pair, Prismatic joint, Screw pair,
cylindrical joint, spherical joint.
f Example of higher pair:
FT Wheel rolling an surface, cam and follower
contact, meshing teeth of two gears.
FT × r = T Sol. 5. (b)
T 15 T0.16 = 3000/V ...(i)
FT 600 N T0.6 = 200/V ...(ii)
r 0.025
FT = F cos f T1.6 3000
0.6
600 T 200
F 638.5 N T1.6 – 0.6 = 15
cos 20
T = 15 min
Sol. 2. (30) V(15)1.6 = 300
V = 39.4 m/min
G(Gear) If the cutting speed exceeds 39.4 m/min, the
carbide tool life.
C
Sol. 6. (b)
Tooth geometry factor, Y = 0.32
P(Pinion) Combined effect for of dynamic load and allied
NP T factors intensifying the stress is fs = 1.5.
5 G bY
NG TP Ft b m
TG = 5 TP fs
m b (25mm) (0.32) (4 mm)
C (TP TG ) 3552 N
2 1.5
2C 2 450 b = 166.5 MPa
TP TG = 180
m 5
Sol. 7. (a)
or 6TP = 180 or TP = 30
Module, m = 4 mm
Sol. 3. (d) Number of teeth, T = 21
Bevel gears: Rotational motion transfer Speed, N = 960 rpm
between axes at right angle. Pressure angle, f = 20°
Worm gears: For large reduction ratio in a Face width, b = 25 mm
single stage. Full depth involute spur pinion
Transmission of power,
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P = 15 kW at 960 rpm Rack and pinion: Axes parallel and one of the
Power = Torque × Angular speed gears has infinite radius.
P = Tw = Ft × r ×
P = Tangential force × Radius × Sol. 10. (b)
D mT 4 21 Given;
Radius, r 42mm P = 3 kW = 3000 W
2 2 2
N = 20 rps
P = Ft × r × Y = From factor
2 960
15 × 1000 = Ft × 45 × 10–3 × b = face width = 36 mm
60 Cv = Velocity factor = 1.5
Ft = 3554.36 N m = Module = 3 mm
Z = teeth = 16
Sol. 8. (d) 2T
Given: m = 4 and T = 32 Ft
D1
So, D = m × T
D = mZ
= 4 × 32 = 128 mm
= 3 × 16 = 48 mm
D 128
PC P = 2NT where N is rps
T 32 P 3000
PC = 12.566 mm T
2N 2 20
but PC = a + a = 2a
(because tooth thickness = tooth space) = 23.8732 Nm
2a = 12.566 = 23.8732 × 103 Nmm
a = 6.28 mm We know
and b = 4.1 mm (Fd)Lewis Fs
C Ft × CV (b . y b m)
b m Pitch circle 2T
F
× CV = (b) y b m
G E
D
R
2 23.8732 103 1.5
= (b) 0.3 × 36 × 3
48
f b = 46 N/mm2
64
b = 46 MPa
A
360 Sol. 11. (c)
f 2.8
32 4 For resultant force on contacting gear tooth:
AR = 64 × cos 2.8° = 63.9° f
Fn
FR
b = m + FR [ FR = FA – AR] Ft
= m + (64 – 63.9) b = 4.1 mm
Addendum = module
Ft = Fn cos f
Dedendum = 1.1 × module
Sol. 9. (a)
Helical gear: Axes parallel and teeth are
inclined to the axis. 60 P
Spiral Bevel: Axes are perpendicular and Torque (T) = (N 1800 rpm)
2 N
interesting and teeth are inclined to the axis.
Hypoid: Axis nonparallel and non-interesting.
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60 20, 000 95 185
= 106.10 N-m Center distance = = 140 mm
2 1800 2
D
m Sol. 15. (b)
T
D = 5 × 20 = 0.1 m
Ft × R = 106.10 Sol. 16. (d)
Power transmitted
106.10
Ft 2122 N Pinion Gear
0.05
C1 C2
Ft 2122
Fn = 2258.1 N.
cos 20 cos 20
2NG TG 2N P TP
P
Sol. 12. (c) 60 60
Length of line of action = 19 mm NGTG = NPTP (where T is Torque)
Length of arc of contact
N Z
19 mm and, P G (where z is number of Teeths)
20.21mm N G ZP
cos 20
1200 120
d
Circular pitch = = × 5 = 5 mm NG 40
z
NG = 400 r.p.m
length of arc 20.21
Contact ratio = 1.29 Hence,
circular pitch 5 400 × TG = 1200 × 20
TG = 60 N.m.
Sol. 13. (b)
Pinion Gear Sol. 17. (b)
Center distance in second stage
C1 C2 D D
m 3 4
Z3 Z4
Zp = 20, ZG = 40 D4
4
NP = 30 rev/s, NG = ? 45
Pressure angle = 20° D4 = 180 mm
Module m = 5 mm 180
dp dG D3 60 mm
m 3
Z p ZG 180 60
Center distance = =120 mm
dp = 5 × 20 = 100 mm 2
dG = 5 × 40 = 200 mm
dp dG Sol. 18. (a)
Center distance = = 150 mm Z1=16
2 N1 N4 Z4
Sol. 14. (a)
Given Tp = 19, Ta = 37
m=5
m = D/T N2
Z2 N3 Z3=15
DP = 95
DG = 185
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N1 For this kind of reduction, worm gear
12 arrangement is most suitable.
N4
N1 D Sol. 22. (c)
4 2
N2 D1
Sol. 23. (c)
m1 = 3, m2 = 4
D D
Since, 1 2 Sol. 24. (b)
Z1 Z2 A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1
Z1 D1 N 2 1
Sol. 25. (a)
Z2 D2 N1 4
Z2 = Z1 × 4 = 64 Sol. 26.
N D D4 Interference decreases with increase in pressure
and 1 2
N 4 D1 D3 angle.
D4
12 4 Sol. 27. (b)
D3
Speed reduction = 10 : 1.
D4 1440
3 Output speed = = 144 rpm
D3 10
Z3 D3 2144
Since, Output power = T = 56.36 ×
Z4 D 4 60
D4 = 849.88 W
Z4 Z3 15 3 45 Output
D3 % Efficiency = 100
Input
Sol. 19. (c) 849.88
100 = 84.9 85%
1000
Sol. 20. (b)
Reductions greater than 20 should be carried out Sol. 28. (d)
by worm gears. Change in center distance doesn’t effects gear
ratio.
Sol. 21. (d)
36 1 Sol. 29. (a)
Velocity reduction =
1440 40 For full depth, interference is dependent on
pressure angle.
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ESE OBJ QUESTIONS
1. A gear of 28 cm pitch circle diameter has 40 (b) The pressure angle for involute gears
teeth. The circular pitch will nearly be depends upon the size of teeth.
[ESE - 2016] (c) In a gear having involute teeth, the normal to
(a) 11 mm/tooth (b) 22 mm/tooth the involute is a tangent to the base circle.
(c) 33 mm/tooth (d) 44 mm/tooth (d) For commercially cut gears, the limiting
pitch line velocity is 60 m/min.
2. Consider the following statements regarding
gear tooth designing for gear drive: 5. The problem of interference in involute
1. Tooth profiles not designed as per ‘law of profile gears can be overcome by which one of
gearing’ will cause vibration and impact the following means?
problems even at low speed. [ESE - 2016]
2. As the gears go through their mesh, the pitch (a) Decreasing the centre distance
point must remain stationary on the line of (b) using composite profile with cyclodal curve
centres. at the root of the tooth
3. in a correctly designed tooth profile, the line (c) using stub teeth of height more than the full
of action of successive instantaneous points of depth teeth
contact will pass through the stationary pitch (d) proper lubrication
point. Sol. (b)
Which of the above statements are correct ? 6. While selecting the elements of power
[ESE - 2016] transmission with speed reduction, the order of
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only preference based on a minimum cost is
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only [ESE - 2016]
(a) Spur gear, belt pulley, worm and worm
3. Consider two shafts connected with two gears wheel
as per the following options; (b) Belt pulley, spur gear, worm and worm
1. One on each shaft wheel
2. Through an intermediate gear mounted on an (c) Worm and worm wheel, spur gear, belt
intermediate shaft, and every shaft having one pulley
gear only (d) Worm and worm wheel, belt pulley, spur
3. Through an intermediate gear mounted on an gear
intermediate shaft, with the intermediate shaft
having two gears, whereas the other shafts have 7. What shall be the centre distance between
one gear each the axes of pinion and gear when a 20° full-
Which of the above represent(s) a simple gear depth involute profile pinion with 20 teeth
train? meshes with a gear that has 50 teeth for a
[ESE - 2016] module of 6 mm?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only [ESE - 2016]
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) 70 mm (b) 140 mm
(c) 210 rnrn (d) 280 mm
4. Which one of the following statements is
correct ? 8. Assertion (A): Lewis equation for design of
[ESE - 2016] involute gear tooth predicts the static load
(a) The product of diametral pitch and circular capacity of a cantilever beam of uniform
pitch is equal to unity. strength.
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Reason (R): For a pair gears in mesh, pressure 12. Consider the following statements: The axes
angle and module must be same to satisfy the of spiral bevel gear are non-parallel and
condition of interchange ability and correct intersecting.
gearing. 1. The most common pressure angle for spiral
[ESE - 2015] bevel gear is 20°.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct 2. The most common spiral angle for spiral
explanation of A bevel gear is 35°.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct 3.Spiral bevel gears are generally
explanation of A interchangeable.
(c) A is true but R is false 4. Spirals are noisy and recommended for low
(d) A is false but R is true. speeds of 10 m/s.
Which of the above statements are correct?
9. In skew bevel gears, the axes are [ESE - 2015]
[ESE - 2015] (a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 4
(a) Non-parallel and non-intersecting, and teeth (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4
are curved.
(b) Non-parallel and non-intersecting, and teeth 13. A worm gear set is designed to have
are straight. pressure angle of 30° which is equal to the helix
(c) Intersecting, and teeth are curved and angle. The efficiency of the worm gear set at an
oblique. interface friction of 0.05 is
(d) Intersecting and teeth are curved and can be [ESE - 2015]
ground. (a) 87.9% (b) 77.9%
(c) 67.9% (d) 57.9%
10. In case the number of teeth on two bevel
gears in mesh is 30 and 60 respectively, then the 14. The load on a gear tooth is 50 kN. If the
pitch cone angle of the gear will be gear is transmitting a torque of 6000 Nm, the
[ESE - 2015] diameter of the gear is approximately (consider
pressure angle as 20° and cos 20° = 0.94).
(a) tan–1 2 (b) tan 1 2 [ESE - 2014]
2
(a) 0.5 m (b) 0.75 m
(c) tan 1 0.5 (d) tan–1 0.5 (c) 1 m (d) 0.25 m
2
15. Assertion (A): Worm and worm wheel
11. Consider the following statements: In case drive can be reversible.
of helical gears, teeth are cut at an angle to the Reason (R): If the friction angle is more than
axis of rotation of the gears. the lead angle, the drive will be reversible.
1. Helix angle introduces another ratio called [ESE - 2014]
axial contact ratio. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
2. Transverse contact ratio is equal to axial explanation of A.
contact ratio in helical gears. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
3. Large transverse contact ratio does not allow explanation of A.
multiple teeth to share the load. (c) A is true but R is false.
4. Large axial contact ratio will cause larger (d) A is false but R is true.
axial force component.
Which of the above statements are correct? 16. For a proper design and longer gear life.
[ESE - 2015] (a) Wear load must be more than dynamic load.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (b) Wear load must be less than dynamic load.
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 3 and 4 (c) Dynamic load must be more than endurance
strength.
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(d) Wear load must be less than endurances 21. Match List-I with List-II and select the
strength. correct answer using the code given below the
lists:
17. A spur gear transmits 10 kW at a pitch line List-I
velocity of 10 m/s; driving gear has a diameter A. Worm gear
of 1.0 m. Find the tangential force between the B. Spur gear
driven and the follower, and the transmitted C. Herringbone gear
torque respectively. D. Spiral bevel gear
[ESE - 2009] List-II
(a) 1 kN and 0.5 kN-m (i) Impose no thrust load on the shaft.
(b) 10 kN and 5 kN-m (ii) To transmit power between two non-
(c) 0.5 kN and 0.25 kN-m intersecting which are perpendicular to each
(d) 1 kN and 1 kN-m other.
(iii) To transmitted power when the shafts are
18. Assertion (A): The Lewis equation for parallel.
design of gear tooth predicts the static load (iv) To transmit power when the shafts are at
capacity of a cantilever beam of uniform right angles to one another.
strength. [ESE - 2007]
Reason (R): According to law of gears Codes:
interchangeability is possible only when gears (a) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv
have same pressure angle and same module. (b) A-ii, B-iii, C-i, D-iv
[ESE - 2008] (c) A-i, B-ii, C-iv, D-iii
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct (d) A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, D-i
explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct 22. If = helix angle, and pc = circular pitch;
explanation of A. then which one of the following correctly
(c) A is true but R is false. expresses the axial pitch of a helical gear.
(d) A is false but R is true. [ESE - 2007]
pc
19. Compared to gear with 20° pressure angle (a) pc cos (b)
cos
involute full depth teeth, those with 20°
pressure angle and stub teeth have. pc
(c) (d) pc sin
1. Smaller addendum tan
2. Smaller dedendum
3. Smaller tooth thickness 23. Consider the following statements regarding
4. Greater bending strength improvement of efficiency of worm gear drive.
Which of these statements are correct? 1. Efficiency can be improved by increasing the
[ESE - 2007] spiral angle of worm thread to 45° or more.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4 2. Efficiency can be improved by adopting
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 proper lubrication.
3. Efficiency can be improved by adopting
20. The velocity ratio between pinion and gear worm diameter as small as practicable to reduce
in a gear drive is 2.3, the module of teeth is 2.0 sliding between worm-threads and wheel teeth.
mm and sum of number of teeth on pinion and 4. Efficiency can be improved by adopting
gear is 99. What is the center distance between convex tooth profile both for worm and wheel.
pinion and the gear? Which of these statements are correct?
[ESE - 2007] [ESE - 2006]
(a) 49.5 mm (b) 99 mm (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 148.5 mm (d) 198 mm
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(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3, and 4 [ESE - 2004]
(a) p cos (b) p sec
24. Consider the following statements (c) p tan (d) p cos
pertaining to the basic Lewis equation for the
strength design of spur gear teeth. 28. The limiting wear load of spur gear is
1. Single pair of teeth participates in power proportional to (where Ep = Young’s modulus
transmission at any instant. of pinion material; Eg = Young’s modulus of
2. The tooth is considered as a cantilever beam gear material.
of uniform strength. [ESE - 2003]
3. Loading on the teeth is static in nature. Ep Eg
4. Lewis equation takes into account the (a) (Ep + Eg)–1 (b)
E E
inaccuracies of the tooth profile. p g
5. Meshing teeth come in contact suddenly. Ep Eg
(c) 1 (d) 1
E
Which of these statements are correct?
E
[ESE - 2006] g p
(a) 1, 3, 4 and 5 (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 4 and 5 29. Assertion (A): If the helix angle of a helical
gear is increased, the load carrying capacity of
25. Assertion (A): When a pair of spur gears of the tooth increases.
the same material is in mesh, the design is based Reason (R): The form factor of a helical gear
on pinion. increases with the increase in the helix angle.
Reason (R): For a pair of gears of the same [ESE - 2002]
material in mesh, the strength factor’ of the (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
pinion is less than that of the gear. explanation of A.
[ESE - 2004] (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
explanation of A. (c) A is true but R is false.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct (d) A is false but R is true.
explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false. 30. Match List-I with List-II select the correct
(d) A is false but R is true. answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I
26. The dynamic load in a gear is due to A. Unwin’s formula
1. Inaccuracies of tooth spacing. B. Wahl factor
2.Irregularities in tooth profile. C. Reynold’s equation
3. Deflection of the teeth under load. D. Lewis form factor
4. Type of service (i.e., intermittent, one shift List-II
per day, continuous per day). (i) Bearing
Which of the above statements are correct? (ii) Rivets
[ESE - 2004] (iii) Gears
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (iv) Springs
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4 [ESE - 2002]
Codes:
27. A helical gear has the active face width (a) A-i, B-iv, C-ii, D-iii
equal to b, pitch p and helix angle . What (b) A-ii, B-iii, C-i, D-iv
should be the minimum value of b in order that (c) A-i, B-iii, C-ii, D-iv
contact is maintained across the entire active (d) A-ii, B-iv, C-i, D-iii
face of the gear?
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31. Consider the following statements: 34. Assertion (A): Shafts supporting helical
The form factor of a spur gear tooth depends gears must have only deep groove ball-bearings.
upon the: Reason (R): Helical gears produce axial thrusts.
1. Number of teeth [ESE - 1999]
2. Pressure angle (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
3. Addendum modification explanation of A
4. Circular pitch (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
Which of these statements are correct? explanation of A.
[ESE - 2001] (c) A is true but R is false
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (d) A is false but R is true.
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 4
35. Consider the following characteristics:
32. In the formulation of Lewis equation for 1. Small interference
toothed gearing, it is assumed that tangential 2. Strong tooth
tooth load FT acts on the 3. Low production cost
[ESE - 2001] 4. Gear with small number teeth
(a) Pitch point Those characteristics which are applicable to
(b) Tip of the tooth Stub 20° involute system would include
(c) Root of the tooth [ESE - 1998]
(d) Whole face of the tooth (a) 1 alone (b) 2, 3 and 4
33. Which one of the following pairs is (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 4
correctly matched?
[ESE - 2000] 36. The design of gear on account of Spott’s
(a) Beauchamp Tower: First experiment on equation which account for dynamic load based
journal bearing on
(b) Osborne Reynolds: Antifriction bearings [ESE - 1998]
(c) Sommerfeld Number: Pivot and Collar (a) Contact stress based on Hertz theory
bearings (b) Allowable stress based on maximum shear
(d) Ball bearings: Hydrodynamic bearings stress theory
(c) Distortion energy theory
(d)Octahedral stress theory
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (b) cos tan
D 280 87.9%
Pc cos cot
T 40
= 7 = 21.99 mm/tooth = 22 mm/tooth Sol 14. (d)
FN
Sol 2. (d) f
Sol 3. (b) FT
Sol 4. (c)
Sol 5. (b) FT = Fn cosf
FT = 50 × 103 cos 20°
Sol 6. (b) FT = 50 × 103 × 0.94
FT = 47000 N
Sol 7. (c)
d
Centre distance = R + S T FT
mT mt 6 50 6 20 2
2T 2 6000
2 2 7 2 d =0.2553 m
= 150 + 60 = 210 mm FT 47000
Sol 8. (b) Sol 15. (c)
Both are true but B is not the correct When friction angle is more than the lead angle,
explanation of A. the torque required to lower the load will be
positive, indicating that an effort is applied to
Sol 9. (a) lower the load, It is known as self locking
screws.
Sol 10. (a)
Pitch cone angle of gear (for mitre gears) i.e. Sol 16. (a)
where is the angle between two shafts.
T Sol 17. (a)
60
P2 tan 1 G tan 1 Power transmitted = Force × Velocity
TP 30 10 × 103 = Force × 10
–1
P2 = tan (2) 10 103
Force = = 1000 N
10
Sol 11. (c)
Torque transmitted
diameter
Sol 12. (a) Force
2
Sol 13. (a) 1
1000 1000 0.5
Pressure angle () = 30° 2
= 0.05 = 500 N-m = 0.5 kN-m
Helix angle () = 30°
Lead angle, = 90° – = 60° Sol 18. (b)
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Sol 19. (b) Sol 23. (c)
20° Stub Involute System: The gear in this The efficiency of worm gear is maximum when
system have shortly addendum and shorter lead angle is 45° increasing angle more than 45°
dedendum. The interfering portion of the tooth, will reduce the efficiency.
that is, a part of addendum is thus removed. Worm lead angle (worm wheel driving)
Therefore these theeth have still smaller 1.5 90° 45° 100%
interference. This also, reduces the 2.0
undercutting. In this system, the minimum 3.5
number of teeth on pinion to avoid interference 4.0
=0.
is 14. Since the pinion is small, the drive
Efficiency loss
Efficiency
become more compact.
01
Stub teeth are stronger than full depth because
=
of smaller moment arm of bending force.
0.0
Therefore, stub system transmit very high load.
2
Stub teeth results in lower production cost, as =
0.
less metal be cut away. The main drawn back of 03 60
the system is that the contact ratio is reduced 40 40
90 20
due to short addendum. Due to insufficient 100 0
overlap, vibration is likely to occur. 0°worm lead angle (worm driving)90°
Sol 20. (b) Sol 24. (c)
Zp and Zg are the number of teeth of pinion and In 1932, Lewis proposed the equation to design
gear respectively. gear which was based on Static Strength of
Given Zg = 2.3 ZP …(i) tooth in bending by considering it as Cantilever
and Zg + Zp = 99 …(ii) beam. Stress concentration at the tooth root was
From (i) and (ii) not considered since Stress Concentration factor
Zp = 30 was not considered at that time.
Zg = 69 Buckingham has incorporated the effect of
(Zp m Zg m) inaccuracies of tooth profile.
Now centre distance =
2 Lewis has assumed that full load is acting at up
(30 69) 2 of single teeth. (So, option 1 is true) effect of
99mm radial force neglected and load is uniformly
2
distributed across full width and frictional
forces sue to teeth siding are neglected.
Sol 21. (b)
(a) Worm gear: To transmit power between
Sol 25. (a)
two non-intersecting shafts which are
perpendicular to each other. Because bY (b – beam endurance strength Yp
(b) Spur gear: To transmit power when he = Lewis factor) bp YP < YP < bg . Yg.
shafts are parallel
(c) Herringbone gear: Impose no thrust load Sol 26. (a)
on the shaft. The dynamic load between the meshing teeth
(d) Spiral bevel gear: To transmit power when arises due to following factors:
the shafts are at right angles to one another. 1. Inaccuracies of tooth profile.
2. Error in tooth spacing
Sol 22. (c) 3. Runout of gear
4. Gear mesh stiffness variation
circular pitch
Axial pitch = 5. Inertia of rotating masses
tan 6. Deflection of teeth
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7. Stiffness of rotating parts. Unwins formula d = 6.1 t for rivets.
But dynamics factor mainly depends upon tooth
4c 1 0.615
error and pitch line velocity. Wahls factor Kw for spring to
4c 4 c
Sol 27. (d) take in account of stress concentration Reynold
equation for Journal bearing.
Pt Sol 31. (c)
Pt The form factor of (Lewis) depends upon
1. Number of teeth
2. Tooth system (pressure angle)
3. Point of application of load (addendum
b modification as length of assumed cantilever
b
keeps on increasing)
Face advance
MF
Transverse circular pitch Sol 32. (d)
b.tan Lewis equation is based on the following
MF assumptions.
pt The tangential component is uniformly
b = pt . cot distributed over the face width of the gear.
Sol 28. (b) Sol 33. (a)
Wear load FW = dp bQK Beauchamp tower is the first experiment on
where dp is diameters of pinion journal bearing.
d is face width
2Zg Sol 34. (a)
Q for external gear Helical gears has three force component Ft, Fr,
Zg Zg
F1 (Tangential, radial and axial) so deep groove
k is load stress factor ball bearing must be used as it can take radial
2 sin f 1 1 and thrust force simultaneously.
CS
1.4 Ep Eg
Sol 35. (d)
20° stub tooth involute: Stub mean 20% less
Sol 29. (a)
working depth than full depth gear so addendum
Fb (beam strength) = . MnY
is shorter (small interference is stub system. The
Y is lewis form factor based on virtual number
tooth becomes stronger as the lever arm of
of teeth
bending moment on tooth is reduced.
Z is virtual number of teeth Machining cost is less as compared to full depth
Z system as less metal must be cut away
Z' as .
cos3 minimum no of teeth on pinion to avoid
Cos decreases as Z’ , Y’
3 interference is 14.
2.87
because y ' 0.484 Sol 36. (a)
Z'p It is based on contact stress based on Hertz
Therefore Fb . Y’ given form factor. theory. It arises when-there is point contact and
dynamic load is acting.
Sol 30. (d)
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CHAPTER - 10
BEARING
10.1 INTRODUCTION
When a rotating shaft is subjected to an axial load, the thrust (axial force) is taken either by a pivot
or a collar. Examples are the shaft of a steam turbine and propeller shaft of a ship.
10.1.1 Collar Bearing
A collar bearing or simply a collar is provided at any position along the shaft and bears the axial
load on a mating surface.
The surface of the collar may be plane (flat) normal to the shaft (Fig.) of conical shape (Fig.).
Ro R0
Ri
r Ri r
r
r
F
2
10.1.2 Pivot Bearing
When the axial load is taken by the end of the shaft which is inserted in a recess to bear the thrust,
it is called a pivot bearing or simply a pivot. It is also known as footstep bearing.
Ro Ro
C
p 2rdr
Ri
Ri
r
2rdr
Ro
2C.dr = (2Cr) = 2 C (Ro – Ri) = 2 pr (Ro – Ri)
Ro
Ri
Ri
or pressure intensity p at a radius r of the collar,
F
p
2r (R o R i )
In a flat pivot, in which Ri = 0, the pressure would be infinity at the centre of the bearing (r = 0),
which cannot be true. Thus, the uniform wear theory has a flaw in it.
Collars and pivots, using the above two theories, have been analysed below:
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10.2 COLLARS
10.2.1 Flat Collar
Let p is uniform normal pressure over an area
F is axial thrust
N is speed of the shaft
is coefficient of friction between the two surfaces
Consider an element of width r of the collar at radius r. Friction force on the element (Fig.),
W W‟
b a b
P
Rn4 Rn4
Rn4
y G S y R4
R n2 R 'n2 z
O Rn3
G R1
Rn3
C H R3
R 'n2 c os Rn3
x x ‟ S
‟
' '
R R F
n2
B n2
B
R 'n2 sin D R2
F ‟ F
Rn1 R1 +‟
A Rn1 R2
Rn1 ‟
(a) (b) (c)
F = × axial force
= × p × area of the element
= × p × 2 r r
Friction torque about the shaft axis,
T = F × r
= × p × 2 r r × r
= 2 p r2 r
Ro
2pr dr
2
Total friction torque, T =
Ri
1. With Uniform Pressure Theory
Pressure is uniform over the whole area and is given by
F
P
(R 0 R i2 )
2
Ro
F
T 2r
2
dr
Ri
(R R i2 )
2
o
Ro
2F 2 2F r3
Ro
r dr 2 .
Ri
R o2 R i2 R o R i 3 Ri
2
2F(R 3o R i3 )
3(R o2 R i2 )
2. With Uniform Wear Theory
Pressure p at a radius r of the collar is given by
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F
P
2r(R o R i )
Ro
F
T 2r 2 dr
Ri
2r(R o R i )
Fr
Ro
F(R o2 R i2 )
dr
Ri
Ro Ri 2(R o R i )
F
2 (Ro + Ri)
= F × Mean radius of the collar bearing
10.2.2 Conical Collar (Frustum of Cone)
This is also known as trapezoidal or truncated conical pivot. Consider an elementary area of width
r at a radius r of the bearing (Fig. above).
Axial force
Normal force on the elementary area =
sin
Axial force 1
Normal pressure on the elementary area = .
sin Surface area
Axial force 1
= .
sin 2r . r / sin
Axial force
=
2r . r
Axial force
=
Area to axial force
= Axial pressure (p)
i.e., normal pressure on the surface is equal to the axial pressure on a flat collar surface.
Friction force on the element,
F = ×p × Area of the element
r
= × p × 2r
sin
Friction torque about the shaft axis,
2 pr 2
T = F × r = sin r
Total friction torque,
2 pr 2
Ro
T r
Ri
sin
1. With Uniform Pressure Theory
2r 2
Ro
F
T
Ri
sin (R o2 R i2 )
dr
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Ro
2F r3
sin (R o2 R i2 ) 3 R
i
2F R 3o R i3
3sin R o2 R i2
1
i.e., the torque is increased in the ratio from that for flat collars.
sin
2. With Uniform Wear Theory
2r 2
Ro
F
T
Ri
sin 2r (R o R i )
dr
F
Ro
rdr
Ri
sin (R o R i )
Ro
F r2
sin (R o R i ) 2 R
i
F
(R o R i )
2 sin
F
× mean radius of the bearing
sin
1
i.e., the torque is increased by times from that for flat collars.
sin
10.3 PIVOTS
Expressions for torque in case of pivots can directly be obtained from the expressions for collars
by inserting the values Ri = 0 and Ro = R.
1. Flat Pivot
2
(i)Uniform pressure theory, T = FR
3
1
(ii)Uniform wear theory, T = 2 FR
2. Conical Pivot
2FR
(i)Uniform pressure theory, T =
3sin
FR
(ii)Uniform wear theory, T =
2sin
The above expressions reveal that the value of the friction torque is more when the uniform
pressure theory is applied. In practice, however, it has been found that the value of the friction
torque lies in between that given by the two theories. To be on the safer side, out of the two
theories, one is selected on the basis of the use.
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A clutch plate transmits torque through the force of friction. Thus, through a clutch will surely be
transmitting torque given by the uniform wear theory (lower value), it is not necessary that the
clutch can also transmit a torque given by the uniform pressure theory (higher value). Therefore, it
is safer to say that the clutch transmits a maximum torque based on the uniform wear theory and
design it accordingly. However, the actual torque transmitted will be a little higher.
On the other hand, while calculating the power loss in a bearing, it is to be on the basis of uniform
pressure theory, thought the actual power loss will be a little less than that calculated.
Example. In a thrust bearing, the external and the internal diameters of the contacting surfaces are
320 mm and 200 mm respectively. The total axial load is 80 kN and the intensity of pressure is
350 kN/m2. The shaft rotates at 400 rpm. Taking the coefficient of friction as 0.06, calculate the
power lost in overcoming the friction. Also, find the number of collars required for the bearing.
Solution.
Ro = 0.16 m F = 80 × 103 N
Ri = 0.1 m = 0.06
N = 400 rpm p = 350 × 103 N/m2
Using uniform pressure theory as we are to find the power loss in a bearing,
2 R 3 R i3
T F 2o
3 R 0 R i2
2 (0.16)3 (0.10)3
0.06 80 103 2
(0.16) (0.10)
2
3
= 3200 × 0.1985 = 635.12 N.m
2N 2 400
P = T = T = 635.12 ×
60 60
= 26.602 W or 26.602 kW
total load
Number of collars =
load per collar
F
=
p (R o2 R i2 )
80 103
=
350 10 [(0.16)2 (0.10)2 ]
3
= 4.66 or 5 collars
Example. A conical pivot with angle of cone as 1000 supports a load of 18 kN. The external radius
is 2.5 times the internal radius. The shaft rotates at 150 rpm. If the intensity of pressure is to be
300 kN/m2 and coefficient of friction as 0.05, what is the power lost in working against the
friction?
Solution.
F = 18 kN Ro = 2.5Ri
P = 300 kN/m2 N = 150 rpm
= 0.05 = 500
In case of uniform pressure, normal pressure
F
p=
(R o2 R i2 )
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18 103
or 300 × 103 =
[2.5 Ri) 2 R i2 ]
18
or 2.5R i – R i2
2
300
Ri = 0.0603 m
Ro = 0.0603 × 2.5 = 0.1508 m
2 F R 3o R i3
T=
3 sin R o2 R i2
2 0.05 18000
T
3 sin 500
(0.1508)3 (0.0603)3
2 = 131.6 N.m
(0.1508) (0.0603)
2
F
P = T = T
p (R o2 R i2 )
2N 2150
P = T = T = 131.6 ×
60 60
= 2067 W or 2.067kW
Example. A thrust bearing of a propeller shaft consists of a number of collars. The shaft is of 400
mm diameter and rotates at a speed of 90 rpm. The thrust on the shaft is 300 kN. If the intensity of
pressure is to be 200 kN/m2 and coefficient of friction is 0.06, determine external diameter of the
collars and the number of collars. The power lost in friction is not to exceed 48 kW.
Solution.
Ri = 200 mm; N = 90 rpm; F = 300 × 103 N; p = 200 kN/m2 = 0.2 N/mm2
P = 48 kW; = 0.06
2N 2 90
P = T. or 48.000 = T.
60 60
or T = 5093 N-m = 5093 × 103 N.mm
Let Ro be the external radius of the collar.
2 R 3o R i3
T = F 2 2
3 Ro Ri
2 (R R i ) (R o2 R i2 R o R i )
F o
3 (R o R i ) (R o R i )
2 R 2 R i2 R o R i
F o
3 Ro Ri
2
or5093 × 103 = × 0.06 × 300 × 103
3
R o 200 200R o
2 2
R o 200
or 424.4 (Ro + 200) = Ro2 + 2002 + 200Ro
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or R o 2 – 224.4Ro – 44880 = 0
224.4 224.42 4 44880
or Ro =
2
= 352 mm (taking positive sign only) In case of uniform pressure, normal pressure
F 300 103
p= or 0.2 =
n (R o R i )
2 2
n[3522 2002 ]
Thus, number of collars = 6
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GATE QUESTIONS
1. A self –aligning ball bearing has a dynamic radial clearance is 20 m and bearing is
load rating (C10, for 106 revolutions) of 35 kN. lubricated with an oil having viscosity 0.03
If the equivalent radial load on the bearing is 45 Pa.s, the sommerfeld number of the bearing is
kN, the expected life (in 106 revolutions) is __________.
[GATE - 2018] [GATE - 2014]
(a) Below 0.5 (b) 0.5 to 0.8
(c) 0.8 to 1.0 (d) Above 1.0 5. Ball bearings are rated by a manufacturer for
a life of 106 revolutions. The catalogue rating of
2. The force F1 and F2 in a brake band and the particular bearing is 16 kN. If the design load is
direction of rotation of the drum are as shown in 2 kN, the life of the bearing will be p × 106
the figure. The coefficient of friction is 0.25. revolutions, where p is equal to _________.
The angle of wrap is 3/2 radians. It is given [GATE - 2014]
that R = 1m and F2 = 1N. the torque (in N-m)
exerted on the drum is_________ 6. A solid circular shaft needs to be designed to
[GATE - 2016] transmit a torque of 50 N.m. If the allowable
shear stress of the material is 140 MPa,
assuming a factor of safety of 2, minimum
allowable design diameter in mm is
R
[GATE - 2012]
F2
(a) 8 (b) 16
(c) 24 (d) 34
F1
7. Two identical ball bearings P and Q are
3. For the brake shown in figure, which one of operating at loads 30 kN and 45 kN
the following is TRUE ? respectively. The ratio of the life of bearing P to
F the life of bearing Q is
Break shoe
[GATE - 2011]
8. A lightly loaded full journal bearing has
journal diameter of 50 mm, bush bore of 50.05
mm and bush length of 20 mm. If rotational
Brake speed of journal is 1200 rpm and average
drum
viscosity of liquid lubricant is 0.03 Pa s, the
[GATE - 2016] power loss (in W) will be
(a) Self energizing for clockwise rotation of the [GATE - 2010]
drum (a) 37 (b) 74
(b) Self energizing for anti – clockwise rotation (c) 118 (d) 237
of the drum
(c) Self energizing for rotation in either 9. A journal bearing has a shaft diameter of 40
direction of the drum mm and a length of 40 mm. The shaft is rotating
(d) not of the self energizing type at 20 rad/s and the viscosity of the lubricant is
4. A hydrodynamic journal is subjected to 2000 20 MPa.s. The clearance is 0.020 mm. The loss
N load at a rotational speed of 2000 rpm. Both of torque due to the viscosity of the lubricant is
bearing bore diameter and length are 40 mm. If approximately.
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[GATE - 2008] the pulley, the average shear stress developed in
(a) 0.040 Nm (b) 0.252 Nm the key is given by
(c) 0.400 Nm (d) 0.652 Nm [GATE - 2003]
4T 16T
10. A natural feed journal bearing of diameter (a) ld (b)
ld 2
50 mm and length 50 mm operating at 20
8T 16T
revolution/sec. carries a load of 2.0 kN. The (c) 2 (d)
lubricant used has a viscosity of 20 MPa/s. The ld d 3
radial clearance is 50 m. The sommerfield
number for the bearings is 15. The dynamic load capacity of 6306 bearing
[GATE - 2007] is 22 kN. The maximum radial load it can
(a) 0.062 (b) 0.125 sustain to operate at 600 rev/min, for 2000
(c) 0.250 (d) 0.785 hours is
[GATE - 1997]
11. A ball bearing operating at a load F has (a) 4.16 kN (b) 3.60 kN
8000 hours of life. The life of the bearing, in (c) 6.25 kN (d) 5.29 kN
hours when the load is doubled to 2F is
[GATE - 2006] 16. To restore stable operating condition in a
(a) 8000 (b) 6000 hydrodynamic journal bearing, when it
(c) 4000 (d) 1000 encounters higher magnitude of loads.
[GATE - 1997]
12. Which one of the following is criterion in (a) Oil viscosity is to be decreased
the design of hydrodynamic journal bearings? (b) Oil viscosity is to be increased
[GATE - 2005] (c) Oil viscosity index is to be increased
(a) Sommerfield number (d) Oil viscosity index is to be decreased.
(b) Rating life
(c) Specific dynamic capacity 17. In thick film hydrodynamic journal
(d) Rotation factor bearings, the coefficient of friction
[GATE - 1996]
13. The basic load rating of a ball bearing is (a) Increase with increase in load
[GATE - 2005] (b) Is independent on load
(a) The maximum static radial load that can be (c) Decreases with increase in load
applied without causing any plastic deformation (d) May increase or decrease with increase in
of bearing components. load
(b) The radial load at which 90% of the group of
apparently identical bearings run for on million 18. Spherical roller bearings are normally used
revolutions before the first evidence of failure. [GATE - 1992]
(c) The maximum radial load that can be (a) For increased radial load
applied during operation without any plastic (b) For increased thrust load
deformation of bearing components. (c) When there is less radial load
(d) A combination of radial and axial loads that (d) To compensate for angular misalignment
can be applied without any plastic deformation.
19. Starting friction is low in
[GATE - 1992]
14. Square key of side “d/4” each and length
(a) Hydrostatic lubrication
is used to transmit torque “T” form the shaft of (b) Hydrodynamic lubrication
diameter “d” to hub of a pulley. Assuming the (c) Mixed (or semi fluid) lubrication
length of the key to be equal to the thickness of (d) Boundary lubrication
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20. Match the rolling element bearings with the [GATE - 1992]
most appropriate loading condition 21. If the load on a ball bearing is reduced to
Bearing-type half, the life of the ball bearing will
A. Ball bearing [GATE - 1988]
B. Roller bearing (a) Increase 8 times (b) Increase 4 times
C. Needle bearing (c) Increase 2 times (d) Not change
D. Taper roller bearing
22. The expected life of a ball bearing subjected
Loading condition to a load of 9800 N and working at 1000 rpm is
(i) Tangential load 3000 hours. What is the expected life of the
(ii) Radial load same bearing for a similar load of 4900 N and
(iii) Heavy radial load with impact speed of 2000 rpm.
(iv) Light radial load with space limitation [GATE - 1987]
(v) Heavy radial and axial load (a) Unchanged (b) 12000 hours
(vi) Fatigue load (c) 1500 hours (d) 6000 hours
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SOLUTIONS
Sol 1. (a) where
L10 is Basic life rating in millions of revolutions
Sol 2. (2.248) C is Basic dynamic load rating
3 P is Equivalent dynamic radial load factor
F1 0.25
e e 2
3.248 3
F2 16
L10 512
F1 = 3.248 N 2
Torque, T = (F1 – F2) r
= (3.248 –1) 1 = 2.248 N-m Sol 6. (b)
T = 50 Nm
Sol 3. (a) = 140 MPa
For clockwise rotation N=2
MPIVOT = 0 + F × l – RN × X + RN × a = 0 permissible
140
70 MPa
l
F N
x 16T
per 3
d
1/3
16T
RN d
a
RN per
Pivot
16 50
1/3
d 6
When applied moment and frictional moment 70 10
are in same direction is called self energizing d 0.0153 m
brake. d 15.37mm
d 16 mm
Sol 4. (0.8)
r = 20 mm Sol 7. (b)
N = 2000 rpm 3
C
c = 20 × 10–3 L
= 0.03 Ns/m2 P
Where L = Life of bearing
2000 w
p N / mm2 p P = Load
1600 A 3
(Life) P (Life)Q
= 1.25 MPa, S = ?
2 (Life)Q (Load)3P
ZN r
S 3
60p c 45 27
3.375or
0.03 2000 20
2
30 8
= 0.8
60 1.25 106 20 103
Sol 8. (a)
Tangential velocity of shaft
Sol 5. (512)
DN .50 103 1200
C
3
u
L10 60 60
W u = 3.14 m/s
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Clearance, P 2000
p 0.8 N / mm2
50.05 50 d 50 50
y = 0.025 mm
2 3
25 20 20 10
2
du S 3
= 0.125
By . shear stress on shaft 50 10 0.8 106
dy
3.14 Sol 11. (d)
0.03 3768 N / m2
0.025 103 Life of bearing
K
Shear force on shaft C
F = × Area L 106
w
= 3768 × D × L
Where K = 3 for ball bearing at load F,
= 3768 × × 50 × 10-3 × 20 × 10–3 K
C
1
= 11.83 N L1 C FLK
D 50 103 F
Torque, T = F × 11.83 3
C FL
2 2 1/3 3
= 0.2953 Nm at load 2F L2
2F 2F
2NT
Power loss = 3
60 L1/3
1000 hours .
21200 0.2953 2
37.1W
60
Sol 12. (a)
Sol 9. (a) Sommerfield number
v 2
ZN D
c S
P C
20 103 20 20 103
It is also called bearing characteristic number
0.02 103 Where Z is Abs. viscosity of lubricant
= 400 N/m2 N is Speed (RPM)
Force = A P is Bearing pressure on projected bearing area.
= 400 × 3.14 × 0.04 × 0.04N (F = .dl) (N/mm2)
D is Diameter of the journal
Torque = 400 × 3.14 × 0.04 × 0.04 × 0.02
C is Clearance diameter
( Torque = F × r) = 0.040 Nm.
Sol 13. (b)
Sol 10. (b)
Sommerfield number Sol 14. (c)
r N
2
S
c p
Where, r s radius of journal d/4
is viscosity of lubricant
N is number of revolution per second d/4
p is bearing pressure on projected Area Diameter of shaft = d
C is radial clearance Torque transmitted = T
Therefore, Force acting on circumference of shaft
T 2T
F
d/2 d
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d
Resisting Area = Sol 19. (a)
4
Average shear stress Due to thick fluid friction from the beginning.
F 2T 4 8T
Sol 20.
A d d d 2 a-q, b-r, c-s, d-t
Sol 15. (d) Sol 21.
L = 600 × 60 × 2000 LP3 = K
= 72 × 106 rev 3
P
C
3 3
22 L1P13 L2 1
L 106 rev 72 106 106 2
P P
L2 = 8L1
P = 5.29 kN
Sol 22. (b)
Sol 16. (b) L(P)3 = Constant
3
Sol 17. (c) L1 P2
N L 2 P1
f
P
1000 60 3000 4900
3
Where, is viscosity
N is speed 2000 60 t 2 9800
and P is load t2 = 12000 hrs
Sol 18. (d)
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ESE OBJ QUESTIONS
1. In a journal bearing, the diameter of the (c) 4.2 times its earlier life
journal is 0.15m , its speed is 900rpm and the (d) 3.4 times its earlier life
load on the bearing is 40kN. Considering =
0.0072, the heat generated will be nearly 6. If the equivalent load in case of radial ball
[ESE - 2018] bearing is 500 N and the basic dynamic load
(a) 1 kW (b) 2 kW ration is 62500 N, then L10 life of this bearing is
(c) 3 kW (d) 4 kW [ESE - 2015]
(a) 1.953 million of revolutions
2. The bearing modulus for a bearing is 1628. (b) 3.765 million of revolutions
What is the bearing characteristic number (c) 6.953 million of revolutions
considered for bearing design? (d) 9.765 million of revolutions
[ESE - 2016]
(a) 1628 (b) 3256 7. Consider the following statements in
(c) 4884 (d) 6512 connection with thrust bearings:
1. Cylindrical thrust bearing have higher
3. A thick lubrication is coefficient of friction than ball thrust bearings.
[ESE - 2016] 2. Taper rollers cannot be employed for thrust
(a) a stable lubrication and there is no metal to bearings.
metal contact 3. Double row thrust ball bearing is not
(b) a stable lubrication because there is some possible.
amount of metal to metal contact 4. Lower race, outer race and retainer and
(c) an unstable lubrication because there is some readily separable in thrust bearings.
amount of metal to metal contact Which of these above statements are correct?
(d) an unstable lubrication because there is no [ESE - 2015]
metal to metal contact (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
4. A journal bearing sustains a radial load of
3672 N. The diameter of the bearing is 50 mm 8. Consider that modern machines mostly use
and the length is 0.1m. The diametral clearance short bearings due to the following reasons:
is 0.1m. The diametral clearance is 0.1 mm and 1. /d of the most modern bearings is in the
the shaft rotates at 500 r.p.m. If the absolute
1
viscosity of the oil is 0.06 kg/m-s, the value of range of to 2.
Sommerfeld number is 4
[ESE - 2016] 2. No end leakage of oil form the bearing
(a) 5.2 10 6
(b) 10.3 10 6 3. Shaft deflection and misalignment do not
(c) 15.2 10 6
(d) 20.3 10 6 affect the operation.
4. Can be applied to both hydrodynamics and
hydrostatic cases.
5. If the dynamic load capacity of a ball bearing Which of the above are correct?
is increased to 1.5 times its earlier value without [ESE - 2015]
changing its equivalent load, the life of the (a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
bearing increase to (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
[ESE - 2016]
(a) 6.4 times its earlier life
(b) 5.2 times its earlier life
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9. Two shafts A and B are of same material, and [ESE - 2014]
A is twice the diameter of B. The torque that (a) 50.24 mm (b) 55 mm
can be transmitted by A is (c) 45 mm (d) 60.24 mm
[ESE - 2015]
(a) 2 times that of B (b) 8 times that of B 14. Statement (I): The journal while rotating
(c) 4 times that of B (d) 6 times that of B inside a bearing automatically shifts its center to
one side and thus the journal is eccentric inside
10. If the permissible crushing stress for the the bearing.
material of a key is double the permissible shear Statement (II): The wedge shape of oil film
stress, then the sunk key will be equally strong gives rise to thin film lubrication, which is
in shearing and crushing if the key is a considered as stable lubrication.
[ESE - 2015] [ESE - 2013]
(a) Rectangular key with width equal to half the (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
thickness individually true and Statement (II) is the
(b) Rectangular key with width equal to twice correct explanation of Statement (I).
the thickness (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(c) Square key individually true but Statement (II) is NOT the
(d) Rectangular key with width equal to one- correct explanation of Statement (I).
fourth the thickness. (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is
false.
11. In a particular application, the shaft is (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is
subjected to bending loads and also large axial true.
loads. The bearing suitable for supporting a
shaft is 15. Removal of metal particles from the race-
[ESE - 2014] way of a rolling contact bearing is a kind of
(a) Thrust bearing failure of bearing, known is
(b) Tapered roller bearing [ESE - 2013]
(c) Ball bearing (a) Pitting (b) Wearing
(d) Spherical roller bearing (c) Spalling (d) Scuffing
12. When a shaft rotates in anti-clockwise 16. If the load on a ball bearing is reduced to
direction at high speed in a bearing, it will one third, then its life would increase by:
[ESE - 2014] [ESE - 2013]
(a) Move towards right of the bearing making (a) 3 times (b) 9 times
metal to metal contact (c) 27 times (d) 81 times
(b) Have contact at the lowest point of the
bearing 17. The bearing characteristic number depends
(c) Move towards left of the bearing making no on:
metal to metal contact [ESE - 2013]
(d) Move towards left of the bearing making no (a) Length and diameter on the bearing and the
metal to metal contact. radial load.
(b) Length and diameter of the bearing, bearing
13. If a rectangular key of 8 mm width and 6 load and speed of rotation.
mm height and a shaft of a diameter 32 mm are (c) Length and diameter of the bearing, bearing
made of same material, then the necessary load and viscosity of the lubricant.
length of the key for equal shear strength f shaft (d) Length and diameter of the bearing, bearing
and key will be (neglecting stress concentration load, speed of rotation and viscosity of the
on the shaft) lubricant.
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18. In case of hydrodynamic lubrication in a (d) Axial movement of the outer sleeve
junction bearing the attitude is the ratio of:
[ESE - 2013] 23. A flat end foot-step bearing supports a
(a) Minimum film thickness and diametral vertical shaft of 150 mm diameter rotating at 10
clearance rad/s. The shaft carries a vertical load of 20 kN.
(b) Eccentricity and minimum film thickness Assuming uniform pressure distribution and
(c) Eccentricity and diameter clearance coefficient of friction equal to 0.05, the power
(d) Eccentricity and radial clearance lost in friction is
[ESE - 2012]
19. Consider the following statements: (a) 500 W (b) 750 W
The basic reason why shafts are made of steel (c) 1000 W (d) 1125 W
and its alloys is:
1. Shaft is subjected to normal and shear 24. Which of the following hardness tests uses
stresses. the principle of measurement of depth of
2. The shaft stress alternates with respect to indentation for obtaining the hardness value of
time. the material being tested?
3. The shaft is subjected to pure compressive [ESE - 2012]
stress. (a) Brinell (b) Rockwell
4. The shaft is subjected to stress of constant (c) Vickers (d) Barcol
intensity.
Which of these statements are correct? 25. The piston pin bearing in heavy duty diesel
[ESE - 2013] engines are:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 [ESE - 2012]
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 4 and 1 (a) Needle roller bearings
(b) Tapered roller bearings
20. Which of the following is a joint formed by (c) Spherical roller bearings
interference fits? (d) Cylindrical roller bearings
[ESE - 2013]
(a) Joint of cycle axle and its bearing 26. In hydronamic bearings
(b) Joint between I.C. Engine piston and [ESE - 2012]
cylinder (a) The oil film is maintained by supplying oil
(c) Joint between a pulley and shaft transmitting under pressure
power (b) The oil film pressure is generated only by
(d) Joint of lathe spindle and its bearing. the rotation of journal.
(c) External supply of lubricant is not required.
21. In the assembly of pulley, key and shaft: (d) Grease is used for lubrication.
[ESE - 2013]
(a) Pulley is made the weakest 27. In a hydrodynamic journal bearing, if the
(b) Key is made the weakest clearance ratio is halved then the Sommerfeld
(c) Key is made the strongest number S and the coefficient of friction will
(d) All the three are designed for equal strength change as
[ESE - 2011]
22. The shoulder provided on the shaft using (a) S becomes double and is halved
antifriction bearing is to prevent: (b) S becomes four time and is doubled
[ESE - 2013] (c) S becomes four times and is halved
(a) Axial movement of the shaft (d) S becomes double and is also doubled.
(b) Tangential movement of the shaft
(c) Rotation of the outer sleeve of the bearing 28. An axle is a machine part that is subjected to
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[ESE - 2011] 33. Hydrodynamic bearings are preferred over
(a) Transverse loads and bending moment rolling element bearings in some applications in
(b) Twisting moment only which
(c) Twisting moment and axial load [ESE - 2010]
(d) Bending moment and axial load. (a) Power losses are minimum
(b) High loads are to be carried at relatively
29. When a journal in anticlockwise direction at high speed.
high speed in a bearing having adequate supply (c) Higher loads are to be carried at relatively
of lubricant, it will be low speed.
[ESE - 2011] (d) They are available „off the shelf‟ in the
(a) Pushed to the left of the bearing center and is market
likely to have no metal contact with the bearing.
(b) Resting just below the bearing center ZN
without making metal to metal contact. 34. In journal bearing design, the factoris
P
(c) Pushed to the right of the bearing center and
called the „Bearing characteristic number‟
make no metal to metal contact. where Z = absolute viscosity of the lubricant, N
(d) Running concentric with the bearing center = speed of journal in rpm and P = bearing
and make no metal to metal contact. pressure on the projected bearing area. The
ZN
30. Antifriction bearing are normally used in value of corresponding to the minimum
shafts P
1. Running at 20,000 to 40, 000 rpm amount of fiction is called the bearing modulus
2. Running at speeds up to 6,000 rpm „K‟. For hydrodynamic lubrication of the
3. Of diameters up to 500 mm ZN
bearing, should be
4. Of diameter more than 500 mm P
[ESE - 2011] [ESE - 2010]
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 (a) Larger than K (b) Smaller than K
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 (c) Equal to K (d) Equal to zero
31. Assertion (A): Splines are useful in 35. Consider the following statements:
situations where the connected component is The bearing characteristic number is
required to move axially while transmitting 1. Dimensionless.
torque. 2. Inversely proportional to speed.
Reason (R): Splines are similar to number of 3. Directly proportional to viscosity.
keys provided on a circumference of the shaft. 4. Independent of journal radius.
[ESE - 2010] Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct [ESE - 2010]
explanation of A (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 1 and 3 only
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not a correct (c) 1 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false 36. On what does the basic static capacity of a
(d) A is false but R is true. ball bearing depends?
[ESE - 2009]
32. A shaft transmits 1000 kW of power at 100 (a) Directly proportional to number of balls in a
rad/s. Then the torque transmitted in kN-m is row and diameter of ball.
[ESE - 2010] (b) Directly proportional to square of ball
(a) 0.1 (b) 1.0 diameter and inverse of number of rows of
(c) 10.0 (d) 100.0 balls.
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(c) Directly proportional to number of balls in a
40. A journal bearing with hydrodynamic
row and square of diameter of ball. lubrication is running steadily with a certain
(d) Inversely proportional to square of diameteramount of minimum film thickness. When the
of ball and directly proportional to number of load and speed are doubled, how does the
balls in a row. minimum film thickness vary?
[ESE - 2008]
37. Match List-I (Description) with List-II (a) Remains unchanged
(Shape) and select the correct answer using the (b) Gets doubled
code given below the lists: (c) Gets reduced to one-fourth of original value
List-I (d) Gets reduced to half of original value
A. Spline
B. Roll pin 41. Assertion (A): In steady state rotating
C. Gib-headed key condition the journal inside a hydrodynamic
D. Woodruff key journal bearing remains floating on the oil film.
List-II Reason (R): The hydrodynamic pressure
(i) Involute developed in steady rotating conditions in
(ii) Semicircular journal bearings balances the load on the
(iii) Tapered on one side journal.
(iv) Circular [ESE - 2008]
[ESE - 2009] (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
Codes: explanation of A
(a) A-i, B-iii, C-iv, D-ii (b) Both A and R are true and R is not a correct
(b) A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, D-i explanation of A
(c) A-i, B-iv, C-iii, D-ii (c) A is true but R is false
(d) A-ii, B-iv, C-iii, D-i (d) A is false but R is true.
38. The balls of the ball bearings are 42. Consider the following statements about
manufactured from steel rods. The operations antifriction bearings:
involved are 1. Their location influences the lateral critical
1. Ground speed of a rotor.
2. Hot forged on hammers 2. Roller bearings are antifriction bearings.
3. Heat treated Which of these statements is/are correct?
4. Polished [ESE - 2008]
What is the correct sequence of the operations (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
from start? (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
[ESE - 2008]
(a) 3–2–4–1 (b) 3–2–1–4 43. In three ball bearing identified as
(c) 2–3–1–4 (d) 2–3–4–1 SKF 2015, 3115 and 4215.
[ESE - 2008]
39. Which one of the following is correct? (a) Bore is common but width is increasing
A hydrodynamic slider bearing develops load (b) Outer diameter is common but bore is
bearing capacity mainly because of increasing
[ESE - 2008] (c) Width is common but outer diameter is
(a) Slider velocity decreasing
(b) Wedge shaped oil film (d) Bore is common but outer diameter is
(c) Oil compressibility decreasing.
(d) Oil viscosity
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44. Match List-I (Key/spline) with List-II 2. Proportional to the viscosity of lubricant
(Application) and select the correct answer 3. Proportional to the speed of rotation
using the code given below the lists: 4. Independent of the pressure
List-I Which of these statements are correct?
A. Gib head key [ESE - 2007]
B. Woodruff key (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 3only
C. Parallel key (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 only
D. Splines
List-II 48. A hollow shaft of outer dia 40 mm and inner
(i) Self aligning diameter of 20 mm is to be replaced by a solid
(ii) Facititates removal shaft to transmit the same torque at the same
(iii) Mostly used maximum stress. What should be the diameter
(iv) Axial movement of the solid shaft?
[ESE - 2008] [ESE - 2007]
Codes: (a) 30 mm (b) 35 mm
(a) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv (c) 10 × (60)1/3 mm (d)10 × (20)1/3 mm
(b) A-i, B-ii, C-iv, D-iii
(c) A-ii, B-i, C-iii, D-iv 49. Consider the following statements:
(d) A-ii, B-i, C-iv, D-iii Radius of friction circle for a journal bearing
depends upon:
45. Average values of effective coefficient of 1. Coefficient of friction
friction for bearings are described below: 2. Radius of the journal
1. Spherical ball bearing : f1 3. Angular speed of rotation of the shaft.
2. Cylindrical roller bearing : f2 Which of these statements are correct?
3. Taper roller bearing : f3 [ESE - 2006]
4. Stable (thick film) sliding contact bearing : f4 (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) Only 1 and 2
Which one of the following sequence is correct? (c) Only 2 and 3 (d) Only 1 and 3
[ESE - 2007]
(a) f1 < f2 < f3 < f4 (b) f1 < f2 < f4 < f3 50. Satisfactory hydrodynamic film in a journal
(c) f2 < f1 < f3 < f4 (d) f1 < f4 < f2 < f3 bearing is formed when
[ESE - 2006]
46. Increase in values of which of the following (a) Journal speed is low, unit pressure on the
results in an increase of the coefficient of bearing is high and viscosity of lubricant used is
friction in a hydrodynamic bearing? low.
1. Viscosity of the oil (b) Journal speed is low, unit pressure on the
2. Clearance between shaft and bearing bearing is low and viscosity of lubricant used is
3. Shaft speed low.
Select the correct answer using the code given (c) Journal speed is high, unit pressure on the
below: bearing is low and viscosity of lubricant used is
[ESE - 2007] high.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (d) Appropriate combination of journal speed,
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 unit pressure on bearing and lubricant viscosity
exists resulting in low coefficient of friction.
47. Consider the following statements:
For a journal rotating in a bearing under film 51. Match List-I (Type of Anti-friction Bearing)
lubrication conditions, the frictional resistance List-II (Specific Use) and select the correct
is answer using the code given below the lists:
1. Proportional to the area of contact List-I
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A. Self-aligning ball bearing List-II
B. Taper roller bearing (i) For pure axial load
C. Deep groove ball bearing (ii) For hinged condition
D. Thrust ball bearing (iii) For pure radial load
List-II (iv) For axial and radial load
(i) For pure axial load [ESE - 2005]
(ii) For hinged condition Codes:
(iii) For pure radial load (a) A-ii, B-i, C-iii, D-iv
(iv) For axial and radial load (b) A-iii, B-iv, C-ii, D-i
[ESE - 2006] (c) A-ii, B-iv, C-iii, D-i
Codes: (d) A-iii, B-i, C-ii, D-iv
(a) A-ii, B-i, C-iii, D-iv
(b) A-iii, B-iv, C-ii, D-i 55. Assertion (A): Tapered roller bearings must
(c) A-ii, B-iv, C-iii, D-i be used in heavy duty worm gear speed
(d) A-iii, B-i, C-ii, D-iv reducers.
Reason (R): Tapered roller bearings are suitable
52. Assertion (A): In anti-friction bearings, the for large radial as well as axial loads.
frictional resistance is very low as the shaft held [ESE - 2005]
by it remains in floating condition by the (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
hydrodynamic pressure developed by the explanation of A
lubricant. (b) Both A and R are true and R is not a correct
Reason (R): In hydrodynamic journal bearing explanation of A
hydrodynamics pressure developed because of (c) A is true but R is false
flow of lubricant in a converging diverging (d) A is false but R is true.
channel.
[ESE - 2006] 56. In sliding contact bearing, a positive
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct pressure can be built up and a load supported by
explanation of A a fluid only by the use of a
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not a correct [ESE - 2005]
explanation of A (a) Diverging film
(c) A is true but R is false (b) Converging-diverging film
(d) A is false but R is true. (c) Converging film
(d) Flat film
53. Which sunk key made the form of a
segment of a circular discs of uniform thickness, 57. If the load on a ball bearing is halved, its life
known as? [ESE - 2005]
[ESE - 2006] (a) Remains unchanged
(a) Feather key (b) Kennedy key (b) Increases two times
(c) Woodruff key (d) Saddle key (c) Increases four times
(d) Increases eight times
54. Match List-I (Type of Anti-friction Bearing)
with List-II (Specific Use) and select the correct 58. What is the main advantage of hydro-
answer using the code given below the lists: dynamic bearing over roller bearing?
List-I [ESE - 2005]
A. Self-aligning ball bearing (a) Easy to assemble
B. Taper roller bearing (b) Relatively low price
C. Deep groove ball bearing (c) Superior load carrying capacity at higher
D. Thrust ball bearing speeds
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(d) Less frictional resistance 62. Which one of the following statement is
correct Shaft used in heavy duty speed reducers
59. Match Lust-I (Type of gear failure) with are generally subjected to
List-II (Reasons) and select the correct answer [ESE - 2004]
using the codes given below the lists: (a) Bending stress only
List-I (b) Shearing stress only
A. Scoring (c) Combined bending and shearing stresses
B. Pitting (d)Bending, shearing and axial thrust
C. Scuffing simultaneously.
D. Plastic flow
List-II 63. Which one of the following statements is
(i) Oil film breakage correct? While designing a parallel sunk key it
(ii) Yielding of surface under heavy loads is assumed that the distribution of force along
(iii) Cyclic loads causing high surfaces stress the length of the key?
(iv) Insufficient lubrication [ESE - 2004]
[ESE - 2005] (a) Varies linearly
Codes: (b) Is uniform throughout
(a) A-ii, B-i, C-iiii, D-iv (c) Varies exponentially, being more at the
(b) A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, D-i torque input end.
(c) A-iv, B-iii, C-i, D-ii (d) Varies exponentially, being less at torque
(d) A-iv, B-i, C-iii, D-ii output end.
60. A square key of side d/4 is to be fitted on a 64. The rolling element bearings are
shaft of diameter d and in the hub of a pulley. If [ESE - 2003]
the material of the key and shaft is same and the (a) Hydrostatic bearings
two are to be equally string in shear, what is the (b) Squeeze film bearings
length of the key? (c) Antifriction bearings
[ESE - 2005] (d) Grease lubrication bearings
πd 2πd
(a) (b) 65. A square key of side d/4 is to be fitted on a
2 3
shaft of diameter d and in the hub of a pulley. If
3πd 4πd
(c) (d) material of the key and shaft is same and the
4 5 two are to be equally string in shear, what is the
length of the key?
61. It is seen from the curve that there is a [ESE - 2003]
minimum value of the coefficient of friction (m) πd 2πd
for a particular value of the Bearing (a) (b)
2 3
Characteristic Number denoted by a. What is
this value of the Bearing Characteristic Number 3πd 4πd
(c) (d)
called? 4 5
[ESE - 2004]
(a) McKee Number 66. Assertion (A): Tapered roller bearing
(b) Reynolds Number sensitive to the tightening between inner and
(c) Bearing Modulus outer races.
(d) Sommerfeld Number Reason (R): Tapered roller bearings are always
provided with adjusting nut for tightening.
[ESE - 2002]
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(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct (d) A is false but R is true.
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not a correct 70. A ball-bearing is characterized by basic
explanation of A static capacity = 11000 N and dynamic capacity
(c) A is true but R is false = 18000 N. This bearing is subjected to
(d) A is false but R is true. equivalent static load = 5500 N. The bearing
loading ratio and life in million revolutions
67. Math List-I (Bearings) with List-II (Load respectively are
Type) and select the correct answer using the [ESE - 2001]
codes given below the lists: (a) 3.27 and 52.0 (b) 3.27 and 35.0
List-I (c) 2.00 and 10.1 (d) 1.60 and 4.1
A. Hydrodynamic Journal bearing
B. Rectangular Hydrostatic bearing 71. A sliding contact bearing is operating under
C. Taper Roller bearing stable condition. The pressure developed in oil
D. Angular contact ball bearing film is p when the journal rotates at N r.p.m The
List-II dynamic viscosity of lubricant is and effective
(i) High radial and thrust load combined coefficient of friction between bearing and
(ii) Radial load only journal of diameter D is f. Which one of the
(iii) Thrust load only following statements is correct for the bearing?
(iv) Medium to low radial and thrust combined. [ESE - 2001]
[ESE - 2002] (a) F is directly proportional to and p
Codes: (b) F is directly proportional to and N
(a) A-ii, B-iiii, C-i, D-iv (c) F is inversely proportional to p and D
(b) A-iv, B-i, C-iii, D-ii (d) F is directly proportional to and inversely
(c) A-ii, B-i, C-iii, D-iv proportional to N.
(d) A-iv, B-iii, C-i, D-ii
72. A full journal bearing having clearance to
68. A shaft can safely transmit 90 kW while 1
rotating at a given speed. If this shaft is replaced radius ratio of . Using a lubricant with =
by a shaft of diameter double of the previous 100
–3
one and rotated at half the speed on the 28 × 10 . Pas supports the shafts journal
previous, the power that can be transmitted by running at N = 2400 r.p.m. If bearing pressure is
the new shaft is 1.4 MPa, the Sommerfeld number is
[ESE - 2002] [ESE - 2001]
–3 –5
(a) 90 kW (b) 180 kW (a) 8 × 10 (b) 8 × 10
(c) 360 kW (d) 720 kW (c) 0.48 (d) 0.48 × 10–2
69. Assertion (A): A Woodruff key is an easily 73. An oil ring bearing of transmission shaft of
adjustable key. 50 mm, diameter in which journal rotates at
Reason (R): The Woodruff key accommodates 1450 rpm, radial clearance and bearing pressure
itself to any taper in the hub or boss of the are 20 micron and 4N/mm2. If Sommerfeld
mating piece. number is 0.0637, the viscosity of lubricant is
[ESE - 2002] [ESE - 2000]
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct (a) 5.75 cp (b) 6.75 cp
explanation of A (c) 15.75 cp (d) 16.75 cp
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not a correct
explanation of A 74. Consider the following pairs of types of
(c) A is true but R is false bearing and applications
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1. Partial journal bearing : Rail wagin axies [ESE - 2000]
2. Full journal bearing: Diesel engine crankshaft (a) Barth key (b) Kennedy key
3. Radial bearing: Combined radial and axial (c) Lewis key (d) Woodruff key
loads.
Which of these pairs is/are correctly matched? 78. Which one of the following types of
[ESE - 2000] bearings is employed in shafts of gear boxes of
(a) 1 alone (b) 1 and 2 automobiles?
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 [ESE - 1999]
(a) Hydrodynamic journal bearings
75. Which one of the following sets of (b) Multi lobed journal bearing
parameters should be monitored for determining (c) Antifriction bearings
safe operation of journal bearing? (d) Hybrid journal bearing
[ESE - 2000]
(a) Oil pressure, bearing metal temperature and 79. In a single row deep groove ball bearing,
bearing vibration cages are needed to
(b) Bearing vibration, oil pressure and speed of [ESE - 1999]
shaft (a) Separate the two races
(c) Bearing metal temperature and oil pressure (b) Separate the balls from inner race
(d) Oil pressure and bearing vibration (c) Separate the outer race from the ball
(d) Ensure that the balls do not cluster at one
76. Match List-I (Keys) with List-II point and maintain proper relative angular
(Characteristics) and select the correct answer portion.
using the codes given below the lists:
List-I 80. The shearing area of a key of length „‟
A. Saddle key
breadth „b‟ depth „h‟ is equal to
B. Woodruff key
[ESE - 1998]
C. Tangent key
(a) b × h (b) L × h
D. Kennedy key
List-II h
(c) L × b (d) L×
(i) String in shear and crushing 2
(ii) Withstands tension in one direction
(iii) Transmission of power frictional resistance 81. Match List-I with List-II and select the
(iv) Semicircular in shape correct answer using the codes given below the
[ESE - 2000] lists:
Codes: List-I
(a) A-iii, B-iv, C-i, D-ii A. End thrust
(b) A-iv, B-iii, C-ii, D-i B. No case
(c) A-iv, B-iii, C-i, D-ii C. More accurate centering
(d) A-iii, B-iv, C-ii, D-i D. Can be overloaded
List-II
77. The key shown in the above figure is a (i) Plain bearing
(ii) Ball bearing
(iii) Needle bearing
(iv) Tapered roller bearing
key [ESE - 1998]
Codes:
(a) A-iii, B-iv, C-ii, D-i
(b) A-iv, B-iii, C-i, D-ii
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(c) A-iii, B-iv, C-i, D-ii [ESE - 1998]
(d) A-iv, B-iii, C-ii, D-i Codes:
(a) A-i, B-iv, C-ii, D-iii
82. Assertion (A): Hydrostatic lubrication is (b) A-iv, B-i, C-ii, D-iii
more advantageous when compared to (c) A-iv, B-i, C-iii, D-ii
hydrodynamics lubrication during starting and (d) A-i, B-iv, C-iii, D-ii
stopping the journal in its bending.
Reason (R): In hydrodynamic lubrication, the 86. Match List-I (Type of Keys) with List-II
fluid film pressure is generated by the rotation (Characteristics) and select the correct answer
of the journal. using the codes given below the lists:
[ESE - 1998] List-I
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct A. Woodruff Key
explanation of A B. Kennedy Key
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not a correct C. Feather Key
explanation of A D. Flat Key
(c) A is true but R is false List-II
(d) A is false but R is true. (i) Loose fitting, light duty
(ii) Heavy duty
83. In the assembly design of shaft, pulley and (iii) Self aligning
key, the weakest member is (iv) Normal industrial use
[ESE - 1998] [ESE - 1997]
(a) Pulley (b) Key Codes:
(c) Shaft (d) None (a) A-ii, B-iii, C-i, D-iv
(b) A-iii, B-ii, C-i, D-iv
84. Consider the following statements: (c) A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, D-i
A splined shaft is used for (d) A-iii, B-ii, C-iv, D-i
1. Transmitting power
2. Holding a flywheel rigidity in position 87. Which one of the following statements is
3. Moving axially the gear wheels mounted on it NOT true of rolling contact bearing?
4. Mounting V-belt pulleys on it. [ESE - 1997]
Which of these statements are correct? (a) The bearing characteristic number is given
[ESE - 1998] by ZN/p where Z is the absolute viscosity of the
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 lubricant, N is the shaft speed and p is the
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 3 bearing pressure.
(b) Inner race of a radial ball bearing has an
85. Match List-I (Machine element) with List-II interference fit with the shaft and rotates along
(Cause of failure) and select the correct answer with it.
using the codes gives below the lists: (c) Outer race of the bearing has an interference
List-I fir with bearing housing and does not rotate.
A. Axle (d) In some cases, the inner race is stationary
B. Cotter and outer race rotates.
C. Connecting rod
D. Journal bearing 88. In a journal bearings, the radius of the
List-II friction circle increases with the increase in
(i) Shear stress [ESE - 1997]
(ii) Tensile/compressive stress (a) Load
(iii) Wear (b) Radius of the journal
(iv) Bending stress (c) Speed of the journal
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(d) Viscosity of the lubricant 93. Tapered roller bearings can take.
[ESE - 1996]
89. Match List-I with List-II and select the (a) Radial load only
correct answer using the codes given below he (b) Axial load only
lists: (c) Both radial and axial load and the ratio of
List-I these being less than unity
A. Ball bearing (d) Both radial and axial load and the ratio of
B. Tapered roller bearing these being greater than unity
C. Spherical roller bearings
D. Needle roller bearings 94. A transmission shaft subjected to bending
List-II loads must be designed on the basis of
(i) Heavy loads with oscillatory motion [ESE - 1996]
(ii) Light loads (a) Maximum normal stress theory
(iii) Carrying both radial and thrust loads (b) Maximum shear stress theory
(iv) Self-aligning property (c) Maximum normal stress and maximum shear
[ESE - 1997] stress theories
Codes: (d) Fatigue strength
(a) A-iv, B-i, C-iii, D-ii
(b) A-ii, B-i, C-iv, D-iii 95. Match List-I (Machine element) with List-II
(c) A-ii, B-iii, C-i, D-iv (Cause of failure) and select the correct answer
(d) A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, D-i using the codes given below the lists:
List-I
90. When a shaft transmits power through gears, A. Axle
the shaft experiences B. Cotter
[ESE - 1997] C. Connecting rod
(a) Torsional stress alone D. Journal bearing
(b) Bending stresses alone List-II
(c)Constant bending and varying torsional (i) Shear stress
stress. (ii) Tensile/compressive stress
(d) Varying bending and constant torsional (iii) Wear
stresses. (iv) Bending stress
[ESE - 1996]
91. The bearing characteristics number in a Codes:
hydrodynamic bearing depends upon (a) A-i, B-iv, C-ii, D-iii
[ESE - 1996] (b) A-iv, B-i, C-ii, D-iii
(a) Length, width and load (c) A-iv, B-i, C-iii, D-ii
(b) Length, width and speed (d) A-i, B-iv, C-iii, D-ii
(c) Viscosity, speed and load
(d) Viscosity, speed and bearing pressure 96. Match List-I with List-II and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the
92. The bearing characteristic number in a lists:
hydrodynamic bearing depends on List-I
[ESE - 1996] A. High temperature
(a) It is closer to real situation B. High load
(b) It leads to a safer design C. No lubrication
(c) It leads to cost effective design D. Bushings
(d) No other assumption is possible List-II
(i) Teflon bearing
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(ii) Carbon bearing 100. Match List-I with List-II and select the
(iii) Hydrodynamic bearing correct answer using the codes given below the
(iv) Sleeve bearing lists:
[ESE - 1995] List-I
Codes: A. Crank shaft
(a) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv B. Wire shaft
(b)A-iv,B-i, C-ii, D-iii C. Axle
(c) A-ii, B-i, C-iii, D-iv D. Plain shaft
(d)A-ii, B-iii,C-i, D-iv List-II
(i) Supports the revolving parts and transmits
97. Removal of metal particles from the torque.
raceway of a rolling contact bearing is a kind of (ii) Transmits motion between shafts where it is
failure of bearing known as not possible to effect a rigid coupling between
[ESE - 1995] them.
(a) Pitting (b) Wearing (iii) Converts linear motion into rotary motion.
(c) Spalling (d) Scuffing (iv) Supports only the revolving parts.
[ESE - 1995]
98. In an oil-lubricated journal bearing, Codes:
coefficient of friction between the journal and (a) A-iii, B-ii, C-i, D-iv
the bearing (b)A-iv,B-ii, C-iii, D-i
[ESE - 1995] (c) A-iii, B-ii, C-iv, D-i
(a) Remains constant at all speeds (d)A-i,B-iv, C-ii, D-iii
(b) Is minimum at zero speed and increases
monotonically with increases in speed 101. Which one of the following loadings is
(c) Is maximum at zero speed and decreases considered for design of axles?
monotonically with increase in speed. [ESE - 1995]
(d) Becomes minimum at an optimum speed (a) Bending moment only
and then increases with further increase in (b) Twisting moment only
speed. (c) Combined bending moment and torsion
(d) Combined action of bending moment,
99. Assertion (A): In equilibrium position, the twisting moment and axial thrust.
journal inside a journal bearing remains floating
on the oil film. 102. Consider the following design
Reason (R): In a journal bearing, the load on considerations
the bearing is perpendicular to the axis of the 1. Tensile failure 2. Creep failure
journal. 3. Bearing failure 4. Shearing failure
[ESE - 1995] 5. Bending failure
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct The design of the pin of a rocker arm of an I.C.
explanation of A engine is based on
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not a correct [ESE - 1995]
explanation of A (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) A is true but R is false (c) 2, 3 and 5 (d) 3, 4 and 5
(d) A is false but R is true.
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SOLUTIONS
Sol. 1. (b) Both double row thrust ball and taper roller
Heat generated bearings are used.
= Wr
0.15 2 900 Sol. 8. (c)
= 0.0072 40
2 60 A long bearing is where > d
= 2.035 kW Where is length
d is diameter
Sol. 2. (c)
A shaft bearing has advantages such as
Bearing characteristic number
(i) Shaft deflection
= 3 (bearing modulus) = 4884 (ii) Compact design
(iii) Run cool
Sol. 3. (a) But end leakage is problem. Contrary, long
bearing have greater load carrying capacity and
Sol. 4. (*) end leakage o oil is not a problem.
Zn D
S
P C Sol. 9. (b)
Z = 0.06 9.81 Pa-sec Material of both shaft is same i.e. perm is same
500 T d3
n
60 TA d3A 23
8
D = 50 mm TB d3B 13
C = 0.1 mm
TA = 8TB
3672
P
0.05 0.1 Sol. 10. (c)
0.06 9.81
2
50 (c)perm = 2 ()perm ...(i)
S 0.05 0.1 500
3672 60 0.1 Given that key is equally strong in shearing and
= 1.66 crushing
h
Sol. 5. (d)
b
Sol. 6. (a)
P
We know,
For a ball bearing From (i)
3 2P P
C 2
3
62500
L10 h b
Pe 500
h=b
= 1953125 The sunk key is a square key.
= 1.953125 million of revolution
Sol. 11. (b)
Sol. 7. (b)
Ball thrust bearing have less coefficient of Sol. 12. (d)
friction than cylindrical thrust bearings.
Sol. 13. (a)
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Width, w = 8 mm, F is bearing load
Height, t = 6 mm L is length
Diameter of shaft, D is diameter
d = 32 mm Z is viscosity
16T N is speed of rotation
shaft 3
d
Sol. 18. (d)
d
Torque = key × × w × Attitude or eccentricity ratio,
2 e Eccentricity
d = =
T = shaft × × w × [ key = key = shaft] c1 Radial Clearance
2
16T d
or T 3 w Sol. 19. (a)
d 2 Statement (1) and (2) is correct.
d3 The shaft is alternatively subjected to tensile
or and compressive stress.
16 w d
The shaft is subjected to combined loading.
d 2 3.14 32 32 2
or = 50.24 mm
16w 16 8 Sol. 20. (d)
Examples of joint formed by interference fits
Sol. 14. (c) are:
The wedge shape of oil film gives rise to thick Rail road axile
film lubrication. Spindle tool
So, Statement (II) is wrong. Wheel rims
Bearings mounted on housing
Sol. 15. (a)
Pitting is a surface fatigue failure occurs when Sol. 21. (b)
the load the bearing part exceeds the surface Key is made the weakest element to prevent
endurance strength of the material. It is design failure of pulley and shaft. Key is used as
characterized by pits, which continue to grow temporary fastening element.
resulting in complete destruction of the raceway
surface. Pits are formed by removal of metal Sol. 22. (d)
particles from the raceway. When two bearing are mounted on the same
shafts, the outer race of one of them should be
Sol. 16. (c) prevented to shift axially to take care of axial
1 deflection of the shaft caused either by thrust
L 3 load or by the temperature variation. This axial
P
3
L1P1 = L2P2 3 movement of the outer race is permitted by the
3 provision of should on the shaft.
P1 P1
L2 L1 27 L1 P2
P2 3 Sol. 23. (a)
Assuming uniform pressure theory
F
Sol. 17. (d) P
ZN R 2
Bearing characteristics number = Friction force, df = × axial force
p
= × P × (2 rdr)
Force F
p(bearing pressure) = Friction torque
Pr ojected Area LD dT = × P × (2rdr) × r
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f 2 Antifriction Bearings are normally used in
2 r dr shafts which runs upto speed of 6000 rpm and
R 2
Friction power = TW = 500 W of diameters upto 500 mm. Rolling contact
bearings are also known as antifriction bearings
because the starting friction is very low in these
Sol. 24. (b)
Brinel hardness test – Area of indentation is bearings.
measured.
Vickers hardness test – Area of indentation. Sol. 31. (b)
Rockwell hardness test – Depth of indentation.
Sol. 32. (c)
P = 1000 kW
Sol. 25. (a)
w = 100 rad/s
P=T×w
Sol. 26. (b)
Hydrodynamic bearing: Oil is supplied 1000 = T × 100
without pressurizing it. The film is crated due to T = 10 kN-m
rotation of journal inside the bearing.
Hydrostatic bearing: Oil is pressurized and Sol. 33. (b)
then supplied into the bearing to create Hydrodynamics bearings are suitable for higher
lubricating film. load and high speed application.
Sol. 27. (b) Sol. 34. (a)
2 The bearing should not be operated at bearing
ZN r modulus, because a slight decrease in speed or
Sommerfeld number , s
P c slight increase in pressure will break the oil film
Coefficient of friction , and make the journal to operate with metal to
metal contact. This will result in high friction,
ZN r
0.326 0.002 wear and heating. In order to prevent such
p c conditions the bearing should be designed for a
1 value of ZN/P at least five times the minimum
If c becomes value of bearing modulus (K).
2
Than value of S becomes 4 times and value of
m becomes 2 times. Sol. 35. (b)
ZN
Bearing characteristics number =
Sol. 28. (a) P
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or Where,
gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be Z is Absolute viscosity of the lubricant
fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed N is Speed of journal in RPM
to its surroundings, with the wheels rotating P is Bearing pressure
around the axle. In the former case, bearings or
bushings are provided at the mounting points Sol. 36. (c)
where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a Stribeck‟s equation gives the static load
bearing or bushing sits inside the hole in the capacity of bearing
wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate Kd 2 z
around the axle. C0
5
Where z is number of balls
Sol. 29. (c)
Sol. 30. (b) Sol. 37. (c)
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Sol. 38. (c) to different series with 75 mm bore diameter but
Heat treatment is done after forging to relieve width is increasing.
from stresses and to attain desirable properly, SKF 2015, 3115 and 4215 shows
therefore correct sequences is Width is increasing
Hot forged on hammer Heat treated Ascending outer diameter of bearing
Ground Polished. same bore diameter 75 min. (i.e. 15 × 5)
Sol. 39. (b) Sol. 44. (c)
A hydrodynamic slider bearing develops load Gib head key: Facilitates removal
bearing capacity mainly because of wedge Woodruff key: Self aligning
shaped oil film. Parallel key: Mostly used
Spline: Axial movement possible
Sol. 40. (a)
When the load and speed is doubled, then Sol. 45. (a)
minimum film thickness remains unchanged.
N r
2 Sol. 46. (b)
Since S Petroff‟s equation
p c
2 r ZN s
Since remains the same even after doubling the 2
speed as well as load and film thickness c P
depends on the sommerfeld number.
Sol. 47. (d)
Sol. 41. (a) Petroff‟s equation
The film pressure created by the moving surface 2 r ZN s
itself pulling the lubricant into a wedge shaped 2 c P
zone at a velocity sufficiently high to create the
necessary pressure required to separate the
surface against the load on the bearings. Sol. 48. (c)
For hollow shaft
Hydrodynamic lubrication is also called as full
film lubrication and Reason both are correct and 16d1T
(d14 d 42 )
max
A is the correct explanation of R.
For solid shaft
Sol. 42. (c) 16T
Both the statements about antifriction bearings max
D3
are correct.
1. Their location influences the lateral critical For same torque and same maximum shear
speed of rotor. stress
2. Roller bearings are antifriction bearings. d 4 d 42 (40)4 (20)4
D3 1
d1 (40)
Sol. 43. (a)
According to ISO plan for dimension series = (20) [(2) 1]
4 4
bearings are provided with two digit numbers, 40
3
The first number indicate the width series 8, 0, D = 1000 × 4 × 15
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in order of increasing width. D = 10 × (60) mm
1/3
The second number indicate diameter series 7,
8, 9, 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 in order of ascending outer Sol. 49. (b)
diameter of bearing. Thus bearing number SKF Radius of friction circle = × r
2015, 3115 and 4215 shows bearings belonging r is radius of journal
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is coefficient of friction P
3
L1(P)3 = L2
Sol. 50. (c) 2
3
L P
L1P3 = 2
Sol. 51. (c) 8
L2 = 8L1 Increases by 8 times.
Sol. 52. (d)
Assertion is incorrect as the given definition is Sol. 58. (c)
for the sliding contact bearing. Ball bearings are The main advantage of journal bearing is that
called antifriction bearing which is misnomer they carry very high load at higher speed due to
because ball bearing has very small coefficient hydrodynamic pressure developed by the film.
of friction of the range 0.001 to 0.0045 which is
very less as compared to sliding contact bearingSol. 59. (c)
in running friction but still negligible in Scoring is Lubrication Failure inadequate
comparison of starting friction contact bearing.lubrication with high tooth load and poor
surface finish results in breakdown of oil film
Sol. 53. (c) and causes metal to metal contact which is
A woodruff key is a sunk key in the form of an called scuffing or galling.
almost semi-circular disk of uniform thickness. Pitting is like tooth breakage, is fatigue failure.
It is a surface fatigue failure due to repetitive
contact stress.
The keyway in the shaft is milled in curved Sol. 60. (a)
shape whereas key in the hub is usually straight. For shaft For key
The key align itself in keyway so also called 2T
T d3 shaft .....(i) F
self aligning key. Used for transmission of 16 d
small torsional moment.
d
Sol. 54. (c) T F
Thrust ball bearing: Pure axial load. 2
Taper roller bearing: For axial and radial load. T .b.L. d . ...(ii)
key
Self aligning ball bearing: These bearing 2
permits inclination of inner race or shaft axis
with relation to the axis of outer race with 2– 3°.
Sol. 55. (a)
Because tapered roller carries radial and axial
thrust. In worm gear arrangement radial and d
b=
thrust load arises. 4
Equate both equation (i) and (ii)
3 d d
Sol. 56. (c) .d shaft key L
16 4 2
Sol. 57. (d) For equally strong in shear, shaft = key.
3
C
L [C is constant] Sol. 61. (c)
P McKee Number
L1P13 = L2P23
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Tapered bearings are sensitive to tightening
because it induces a thrust within the bearing
because of the taper. They are always used in
pair and in opposite direction so that the thrust
created due to taper gets nullified.
Zn Sol. 67. (a)
p Hydrodynamic Journal bearing : Radial load
only. Taper roller bearing : High radial and
Sol. 62. (d) thrust load combined.
Because heavy duty speed reducers like worm Rectangular hydrostatic bearing : Thrust load
gears have axial thrust as one of the component. only. Angular contact bearing :Medium to low
The tangential force will cause shearing due to radial and thrust combined.
torque, and Radial force bending.
Sol. 68. (c)
Sol. 63. (b) 2NT
P , and T .d3 .
Because Force F = b × L × 60 16
So assumption of uniform force throughout the P T d3
sheared area. PN
P Nd3
Sol. 64. (c)
P2 N 2 d32 1 3
Rolling elements are antifriction ball bearing as 3 2 4
its starting friction is very less in comparison to P1 d1 2
sliding contact bearing. P2 = 90 × 4 = 360 KW.
Sol. 65. (a) Sol. 69. (b)
For shaft For key Woodruff key accommodated easily due to its
2T semicircular shape.
T d 3 shaft F
16 d
Sol. 70. (b)
d d C 18000
T F T key .b.L. Loading ratio = 3.27
2 2 P 5500
Life (million revolutions)
3 3
C 18000
35
P 5500
Sol. 71. (b)
d
b= Petroff equation correlates. ns is revolution per
4
Equate both second.
3 d d n r
.d shaft key L f 22 s
16 4 2 p C
For equally strong in shear, shaft = key. f 1ns
πd 1
L= f
2 p
Sol. 66. (b)
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Sol. 72. (a) surface ensure that key will fit tightly. Primarily
r n
2 key is under compression rather than in shear.
S . s
c p Sol. 78. (c)
(100) 2 28 103 2400 Rolling contact bearings are also called and
8 103
1.4 106 60 friction bearing or simply ball bearing. It is
employed in shaft of gear boxes of
Sol. 73. (b) automobilies.
r n
2
S . s Sol. 79. (d)
c p In a single row deep grove ball bearing, cages
2 are needed to ensure that the balls do not cluster
25 1450 1
0.0637 3 at one point and maintain proper relative
20 10 60 4 106 angular portion.
= 6.75 × 10–3 Pa.s
= 6.75 × 10–2 Poise = 6.75 cp Sol. 80. (c)
Shearing area = × b
Sol. 74. (d)
Hydrodynamic bearing: Where is length of key, and b is width of key.
Engines, large centrifugal pump, hydraulic
turbines. Sol. 81. (d)
Hydrostatic bearing: End thrust : Tapered roller bearing
Vertical turbo generally ball mills large No cage : Needle bearing
telescopes gyroscope, machine tool etc. More accurate centering : Ball bearing
Partial journal bearing: Can be overloaded : Plain bearing.
Rail wagon axle.
Sol. 82. (a)
Sol. 75. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
Higher the value of temperature. Viscosity explanation of (a)‟ A. Since in hydrodynamic
affected and power lost in friction is more and lubrication the fluid pressure is generated by the
pressure developed should be high enough to rotation of journal therefore at starting and
support the load. The vibration should be stopping of journal bearing at starting and
minimized to avoid breakage of film. stopping of journal bearing their will be a metal
to metal contact since there is no sufficient
Sol. 76. (d) pressure therefore in this case hydrostatic
lubrication is more advantageous.
Sol. 83. (b)
Key should be weakest member as it should fail
Saddle (flat) key: They are held by screw no first to give notice that torque has exceeded
key is made on shaft. hence to save the shaft and mechanical elements
Tangent key: (fitted in pair at right angle) Each mounted on it.
key is to withstand torsion in only one direction.
Sol. 84. (d)
Sol. 77. (a) Splines are used when there is requirement of
Barth key: It is modification of rectangular key relative axle motion between shaft and hub. The
which has two beveled surfaces. The beveled gear shifting mechanism in automobile uses this
mechanism.
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Sol. 85. (b) zn
Axle supports rotating member but itself never or = bearing characteristic no.
p
rotates, So torque absent.
where z is viscosity
Therefore designed only for bending stress.
n is speed
Connecting rod takes tensile and compressive
p is bearing pressure
force arising from piston moment.
Wear is the criteria for Journal bearing.
Sol. 92. (c)
The correct option is (c) i.e., it leads to a safar
Sol. 86. (b)
Woodruff Key: It is sunk key, in the form of an design bearing characteristic number = N .
almost semiconductor disk of uniform P
thickness. Once placed in position, the woodruff B A
key tilts and aligns itself on the shaft.
Kennedy Key: It consists of two square keys
and it is used for heavy duty applications. D
m
Feather Key: It is used for light duty. C
Flat Key: Normal industrial use.
K
Sol. 87. (a)
First statements is not valid for rolling contact N
Bearing characteristic number
bearing. P
(i) The transition from thin film lubrication to
Sol. 88. (a) thick film lubrication an be better visualized
Radius of friction circle = W means of a curve called N/P.
is Coefficient of friction (ii) The value of the bearing characteristic
W is Load number corresponding to the minimum
coefficient (point C) is called bearing modulus.
Sol. 89. (d) It is denoted by k in the figure.
Ball bearing : Light loads (iii) The bearing should not he operated near the
Tapered roller bearing : Carrying both radial critical value k at the point C. A slight drop in
and thrust load. the speed (N) or a slight increase in the load (P0
Spherical roller bearing : Self aligning bearing. will reduce the value of (N/P0 resulting in
Needle roller bearing: Heavy load with boundary lubrication.
oscillatory motion. (iv) In order to avoid size, the operating value of
the bearing characteristic number should be at
Sol. 90. (d) least 5 to 6 times that when the coefficient of
P=T× friction is minimum (5k to 6k)
(v) The (N/P) curve is important because it
T d3 defines the stability of hydrodynamic journal
16 bearing and helps to visualize the transition
Torque depends on torsional stress only. from boundary lubrication to thick film
lubrication.
Sol. 91. (d) So bearing characteristic number leads to a safer
Bearing characteristic No. design.
3n D L
F
Sol. 93. (d)
p c D
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Fr
1 because majority of load carried is radial Sol. 99. (b)
Fa
Journal in floating condition with balanced
and some part axial.
force created by hydrodynamic pressure.
The load is perpendicular to the axis.
Sol. 94. (a)
Because the load applied on shaft during power L
ns
transmission is not static in nature but dynamic
load.
d
Sol. 95. (b)
Axle supports rotating member but itself it
never rotates. So torque is absent. Sol. 100.(c)
Therefore designed only for bending stress. Wire shaft is also called Flexible shaft and it
Connecting rod takes tensile and compressive transmit motion between shaft where it is not
force arising from piston moment. possible to effect a rigid coupling between
Wear is the criteria for Journal bearing. them. Axle supports only revolving parts.
Plain shaft supports the revolving parts and
Sol. 96. (d) transmits torque.
Teflon Bearing : No external lubricant like oil.
Carbon Bearing : High temperature application Sol. 101.(a)
Hydrodynamic Bearing : High load Axe supports rotating member therefore
Sleeve Bearing : Bushing bending stresses but not rotates itself.
Sol. 97. (a) Sol. 102.(d)
Pitting is a surface failure that occurs when load Force = Gas force + Inertia force.
on a the bearing exceeds the surface endurance This force resisted by bearing pressure between
strength. This is frequently found in ball the piston pin and the support length.
bearing. Since the force is u.d.l. so bending moment the
pin fail is double shear near bosses ovalization
Sol. 98. (d) is done to (elliptical shape) to take account of
Boundary
lubrication Mixed Hydrodynamic non linear distribution of forces.
lubrication lubrication The pin should be checked for induced shear.
Rocker arm is generally of l-section, but for low
speed engines it can be rectangular section. Due
Coefficient to load on the valve, rocker arm is subjected to
of friction
bending moment.
ZN
Bearing P
characteristic number
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