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Laser Assisted Precision Land Leveling and Organic Inputs with Cropping
Systems Effects on Soil Organic Carbon Lability, Ecosystem Carbon Storage and
Soil Carbon Restoration: A Rev...

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The Journal of Rural and Agricultural Research Vol. 21 No. 1, 89-99 (2021)
Received January 2021; Acceptance June 2021

Laser Assisted Precision Land Leveling and Organic Inputs with Cropping
Systems Effects on Soil Organic Carbon Lability, Ecosystem Carbon Storage
and Soil Carbon Restoration: A Review

R.K. NARESH, P K SINGH1, PRASHANT AHLAWAT2, ARVIND MIAHRA3, VIPIN

KUMARSHARMA4 AND RAKESH TIWARI 5
Department of Agronomy, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Univ. of Agri. & Tech., Meerut, U.P., India

Abstract
Soil organic carbon plays an important role in the stability and fertility of soil and is
influenced by different management practice. Soil is one of the most important terrestrial carbon
(C) stores. Soil C sequestration relies of the adoption of improved management practices that
increase the amount of carbon stored as soil organic matter, primarily in cropland and grazing
lands. These C sequestering practices act by increasing the rate of input of plant-derived
residues to soils and/or by reducing the rates of turnover of organic C stocks already in the soil.
In addition to carbon dioxide removal potential, increases in soil organic matter/soil C content
are highly beneficial from the standpoint of soil health and soil fertility. In agro-ecosystems, the
amount of soil C in topsoil is variable under different environments and managements. Thus, to
increase C input and enhance the soil organic C (SOC) content in cropping systems it is n ecessary
to explore the managements practices that may achieve this, such as green manure, catch crops
and animal manure in cropping systems. Poor soil fertility and soil degradation induced by
persistent conventional farming with repeated tillage and removal or in situ burning of crop
residue are major limitations to food security and environmental sustainability. However, degraded
agricultural lands with depleted soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks are capable of soil carbon
restoration through improved management practices. A significant increase in SOC levels under
zero tillage (ZT) over conventional tillage (CT) was found; returning more crop residues to the
soil is associated with an increase in SOC concentration that is further increased by crop
diversification. Agroforestry and sugarcane systems were characterized by very labile C
compared with uncultivated soils and the soils under rice–wheat and maize–wheat systems.
Conversely, uncultivated soils and the soils under maize–wheat and rice–wheat held greater
proportion of organic C in recalcitrant fractions. Laser assisted precision land leveling fields
crop compared to unlevelled and traditional levelling increased total soil carbon (TC), total
inorganic carbon (TIC), total soil organic carbon (SOC) 11.93 and 10.73 g kg -1 content was
recorded at surface depth (0-15 cm). However, WSC, and MBC 27.8% and 35.1% in surface soil
and 29.2% and 42.9% in sub surface soil content were recorded in laser levelled and unlevelled
fields. Adoption of laser land levelling technology with organic inputs in cropping systems helps
in reducing the farm input costs, increase SOC and enhance crop productivity.

Keywords: Precision land leveling, Soil carbon restoration, Soil carbon pools, C sequestration
Introduction
1
Directorate of Extension, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Soil organic carbon (SOC) is one part in the
Univ. of Agri. & Technology, Meerut, U.P., India much larger global carbon cycle that involves the
2
Department of Plant Pathology, Chaudhary cycling of carbon through the soil, vegetation, ocean
and the atmosphere. The SOC pool stores an estimated
Charan Singh University, Meerut, U.P., India
1 500 PgC in the first meter of soil, which is more
3, 4 & 5
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amroha, Gautambudh carbon than is contained in the atmosphere (roughly
Nagar, Meerut, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel 800 PgC) and terrestrial vegetation (500 PgC)
University of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut combined (FAO and ITPS, 2015). This phenomenal
90 THE JOURNAL OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
SOC reservoir is not static, but is constantly cycling Gifford, 2002). In general, agricultural activities directly
between the different global carbon pools in various produce about 10–12% of the atmospheric greenhouse
molecular forms (Kane, 2015). While CO2 (carbon gases (GHGs) (Smith et al., 2007). Thus, the twin crisis
dioxide) and CH4 (methane) are the main carbon-based of food insecurity and climate change can be addressed
atmospheric gases, autotrophic organisms (mainly through the restoration of the soil carbon achieved through
plants), as well as photo- and chemo-autotrophic the implementation of recommended management
microbes synthesize atmospheric CO2 into organic practices on agricultural soils) Lal, 2004). Understanding
material. Dead organic material is incorporated into the dynamics of SOC in relation to land use and
the soil-by-soil fauna, leading to carbon inputs into the management strategies is of foremost importance to
soil through organic material transformation by identify pathways of C sequestration in soils. It is
heterotrophic microorganisms. This organic material necessary to build up soil carbon contents by increasing
transformation process results in a complex carbon inputs or decreasing decomposition of organic
biogeochemical mixture of plant litter compounds and matter in the soil for sustainable agricultural productivity
microbial decomposition products in various stages of and a stable environment.
decomposition (Paul, 2014) that can be associated with Precision land levelling is a method that uses
soil minerals and occluded within aggregates, enabling laser-equipped drag buckets to smooth the land surface
SOC persistence in soil for decades, centuries or even (± 2 cm) from its average height, and this technique is
millennia (Schmidt et al., 2011). Carbon loss can also well known for achieving higher levels of accuracy in
be caused by root exudates such as oxalic acid, which land levelling and offers great potential for aggregate-
liberate organic compounds from protective mineral associated SOC. Labile carbon is the SOC pool which
associations (Keiluweit et al., 2015). Finally, carbon is is directly available for microbial activity and, hence,
also partly exported from soils to rivers and oceans as is considered to be the primary energy source for
dissolved organic carbon (DOC) or as part of erosion microorganisms (Haynes, 2005). Addition of organic
material. In principle, the amount of SOC stored in a matter as fertilizer (Gattinger et al., 2012) and precision
given soil is dependent on the equilibrium between the leveled field reduced tillage will likely increase labile
amount of C entering the soil and the amount of C organic carbon (Cooper et al., 2016). In addition, these
leaving the soil as carbon-based respiration gases practices have the potential to enhance carbon and
resulting from microbial mineralization and, to a lesser nitrogen cycling as well as soil aggregation, which are
extent, leaching from the soil as DOC. Locally, C can one of the primary mechanisms through which organic
also be lost or gained through soil erosion or deposition, carbon is sequestered in soil (Panettieri et al., 2015).
leading to the redistribution of soil C at local, landscape Therefore, labile carbon has potential as an indicator
and regional scales. Levels of SOC storage are of soil functions, in particular: nutrient cycling, soil
therefore mainly controlled by managing the amount aggregate formation and carbon sequestration.
and type of organic residues that enter the soil and According to a study conducted in northern
minimizing the soil C losses (FAO and ITPS, 2015). India, cultivated soils resulted in a loss of 21–36% total
The sustainability of crop production systems organic carbon as compared to uncultivated soils
based on soil quality gets affected by the nature of the (Benbi et al., 2015) which is a little lesser than the
farming system being implemented like prolonged values (30–60%) reported in various agro-climatic
cultivation of agricultural lands including tillage and regions of India (Lal, 2004). When natural forests are
inversion combined with the removal of crop residues converted to croplands, the soil structure gets disrupted
accelerate the decomposition of soil organic matter and enhancing the mineralization of organic matter by
causes 20–67% soil C loss (Yang et al., 2019) and leads microbes subsequently leading to SOC loss (Golchin
to soil degradation and diminished properties of the soil and Asgari, 2008). A wide range of SOC concentration
(Lal, 2014). Consequently, the depletion of carbon from from 0.85 to 3.56% (Bhattacharyya et al., 2008) with
soil elevates the atmospheric concentration of carbon reported SOC stock of 20–40 Mg ha-1 in the top 0–30
dioxide (CO2) from 316 to 400 ppm and global cm soil depth (Choudhury et al., 2013) has been
temperature by 0.12°C per decade (IPCC, 2013). A loss reported in North Eastern Himalayan Region (NEHR).
of soil organic carbon (SOC) of 42 and 59% due to In order to understand how SOC is lost or stabilized in
changes in land-use pattern from forest to crop and from soil, SOC stocks in soil can be classified into different
pasture to crop respectively has been found (Guo and functional pools depending on their varying residence.
 LASER ASSISTED PRECISION LAND LEVELING ------------- CARBON RESTORATION: A REVIEW 91
Another SOC pool is the non-labile pool (passive reservoir through carbon sequestration will
pool) which is more stable and recalcitrant fraction of nevertheless minimize global warming. Amongst
SOC forming organic-mineral complexes with soil different cropping systems forest plays an important
mineral and gets decomposed slowly by microbial role with great impact on the global biogeochemical
activity (Wiesenberg et al., 2010). Thus, the labile SOC cycles with an estimated 40% of total SOC stock
pools serve a better indicator of soil quality to assess stored in forest ecosystems (Dey, 2005). We
variations caused by land use changes (Vieira et al., hypothesized that when organic cultivation gets
2007) while the non-labile SOC pools add to the total converted into other form of cropping systems and
organic carbon stocks (Chan et al., 2001). In an land uses such as agro-forestry and plantation, there
ecosystem functioning, land use change affects SOC will be an increase in SOC which in turn may have an
pools to determine whether soil act as sinks or sources impact on the active and passive SOC pools. However,
of C in the global C cycle (Degryze et al., 2004). time studies and information on the distribution of SOC in
viz. labile and non-labile pool. Labile pool (active pool) different pools (active and passive) in different cropping
is the most sensitive pool available relatively in small systems in North West India is still limited. Therefore,
proportion as it is easily affected by fluctuation in the objective of this review was to quantify various
environmental conditions. They rapidly decompose and SOC contents (very labile, labile, less labile and non-
get oxidized easily with any changes in land use practice labile) and their relative proportions in total organic
(Haynes, 2005). carbon (TOC) across different land cropping systems
use in India.
Land use changes/ cropping systems influence Management Practices to Increase Soil C Storage
the balance between the rate of input (e.g., plant litter) Organic matter additions such as compost and
and output (e.g., SOC mineralization) of soil organic manures can increase soil C contents, both by virtue
matter (SOM) as a result of alterations in plant of the added C in the amendment itself and through
community and land management practice (Poeplau improving soil physical attributes and nutrient
and Don, 2013). Land use changes contribute 6–39% availability, such that plant productivity and residue C
of increase in CO2 emissions with profound impacts inputs increase as well. Ryals et al. (2015) found
on SOC estimated at 1.5 PgC yr-1 (Brovin et al., 2004). substantial increases in soil C storage following modest
The decrease in soil organic matter with increase in compost additions in part attributed to improved water
agricultural activities has been reported in numerous retention, increased productivity and hence greater
studies conducted worldwide (Golchi et al., 2004). Rate residue inputs to soil. Without counting C in the
of carbon accumulation or loss in soil is greatly compost addition, they estimated an increase in C
influenced by changes in soil and vegetation storage of 0.5 tC/ha (1.8 tCO2eq/ha) and 3.3 tC/ha
management practices (Post et al., 2001). SOC pool (12.1 CO2eq/ha) respectively, 3 years after compost
can be restored through conversion of marginal lands addition. Ogle et al. (2012) estimated increases under
into restorative land uses, practice of conservation NT of approximately 0.25 tC/ha/y and 0.29 tC/ha/y
tillage with cover crops and crop residue mulch, on sandy and non-sandy soils, respectively.
efficient nutrient cycling with compost and manure, Soil Organic Carbon Lability
and other sustainable soil and water management Sahoo et al. (2019) reported that the average
practices (Lal, 2004). Efforts to increase SOC distribution of total carbon (TC), soil inorganic carbon

Fig. 1: Fate of soil organic carbon

92 THE JOURNAL OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

(a) (b)

Fig. 2a: Distribution of active and passive soil carbon at three soil depths in different land use systems
Fig. 2b: Soil organic carbon stock (Mg C ha-1) at different soil depth in different land use types

(SIC) and total organic carbon (TOC) in different land soil depth classes were the maximum with 18.01 Mg
use types (0–45 cm) is presented in Fig. 2a. Average C ha-1 and 12.59 Mg C ha-1 respectively in agroforestry
fine soil stock (FSS) for 15 cm soil depth was highest land use type. SOC stock up to 45 cm depth soil profile
in agroforestry systems (10.09 Mg ha-1) followed by was highest in forest (52.74 Mg C ha-1) and the least
wet rice cultivation systems (9.88 Mg ha-1) and the in jhum fallow (22.92 Mg C ha -1 ). SOC stock
least in current jhum systems (6.08 Mg ha-1), however, distribution in the different land use types was of the
no significant differences were observed between the following order: Forest > Agroforestry > Wet Rice
studied land use systems. TC was highest in the forest Cultivation > Plantation > Current Jhum > Grassland
(3.05%) followed by current jhum (2.19%) and the > Jhum Fallow (Fig.2b). SOC content increases with
least in grassland (1.45%). SIC concentrations of these improved soil properties with the adoption of practices
soils were small and averaged 0.14 to 0.31% under such as crop rotation, incorporation of plant residue
different land use types. Average TOC content (%) in and addition of composts, animal or green manure
the different land use types decreased in the following (Collins et al., 2000). Management practices such as
order: Forest > Current Jhum > Agroforestry > Wet tillage, choice of crops and cropping systems and
Rice Cultivation > Jhum Fallow > Plantation> application of fertilizers can modify the rate of SOM
Grassland. However, maximum SOC stock was stored decomposition by affecting the soil properties like soil
in the wet rice cultivation (26.36 Mg C ha-1) at 0–15 moisture, soil temperature, aeration and composition
cm soil depth. SOC storage at 15–30 and 30–45 cm (Saljnikov et al., 2013).

(3a) (3b)
Fig. 3a: Effects of long-term fertilization and manuring on soil organic carbon (SOC) stock (0–60 cm soil
depth) in the rice–wheat system
Fig 3b: Comparison of treatment effects on the sensitivity index of soil organic carbon fractions. FYM,
farmyard manure; SPM, sulfitation pressmud; GR, green gram residue; CR, cereal residue; TOC, total
organic carbon; WBC, Walkley–Black C; PmOC, permanganate oxidizable C; MBC, microbial biomass
C; CVL, very labile C fraction; CL, labile C fraction; CLL, less-labile C fraction; CNL, non-labile C fraction.
 LASER ASSISTED PRECISION LAND LEVELING ------------- CARBON RESTORATION: A REVIEW 93
Das et al. (2016) observed that The SOC stock exceeded the capability of native microbes to
of the 0–60 cm profile ranged from 67.9 to 83.1Mgha– decompose, degrade and/or assimilate SOM to meet
1
under different nutrient management options (Fig. their cell nourishment or respiration needs (Jat et al.,
3a). Unfertilized control had the lowest SOC stock, 2019; Parihar et al., 2019). This continuous supply of
which was statistically at par with sole fertilizer fresh organic matter encouraged formation of C-rich
treatments or two IPNS treatments (NPK +GR and macro-aggregates and also entrapment as intra-
NPK + CR). The SOC stock under NPK+ SPM aggregate SOC.
treatment was significantly greater compared with Shen et al. (2021) revealed that the content of
control, and increased further in the NPK +FYM and SOC was higher in micro-aggregates than in macro-
NPK +GR +FYM treatments. These results are in aggregates under all tillage treatments. Furthermore,
accordance with earlier studies showing that an there was a trend that SOC content substantially
increase in SOC stock is directly linked to the amount increased with the decrease in aggregate particle sizes
and quality of organic residues, as well as manure in RT, SS, and NT treatments. However, in DP
application and fertilization (Wang et al., 2012). treatment there was no statistical difference in the
Moreover, comparison of the sensitivity of SOC organic carbon contents among four sizes of macro-
fractions with changes in nutrient management aggregates. Compared to RT treatment, NT treatment
revealed that TOC and CNL were least sensitive, with showed significantly higher organic carbon content in
SI values in the range 10.7–36.5% and 4.8–24.9% >5 mm, 2–1 mm and <0.25 mm aggregates. Organic
respectively (Fig. 3b). Somewhat greater sensitivity carbon content in DP treatment was higher than RT in
was observed in the case of WBC, PmOC and CL. >5 mm aggregates, while it was lower in 1–0.25 mm
The fractions most sensitive to nutrient management and <0.25 mm aggregates. Besides, SS treatment also
were MBC and CVL, which exhibited similar trends in had lower organic carbon content than RT treatment
SI across treatments. in 1–0.25 mm and <0.25 mm aggregates (Fig.4a).
Soil carbon changes in relation to carbon input Tillage affected SOC by impacting the mass of
Naresh et al. (2020) reported that an addition aggregates and the content of aggregate associated
of stubble, root and rhizodeposition in general and organic carbon. According to Six et al. (2000) organic
alternative arable cropping systems in case of R-C- carbons in macro-aggregates is younger and more
O PLL and O-W-Mb PLL treatments over 10 years mineralizable, while organic carbon in micro-aggregates
resulted in a substantial amount of organic C input to is mostly highly humified inert components. An
the soil (Table 1). Despite addition of 2.98 & 3.21 Mg important factor of carbon accumulation is that fresh
ha”1 year”1 C for 10 years in S-WPLL and R-WPLL 5.7 residues gradually decompose and finally enter micro-
and 6.7 Mg ha”1 of initial total SOC were lost from the aggregates from macro-aggregates. Tillage promotes
surface soil layer under the above treatments, the turnover of macro-aggregates and the organic
respectively (Table 1). The mechanical disturbances carbon mineralization in macro-aggregates, therefore,
in these plots might have promoted breaking of C-rich reduces the stabilization of plants-originated SOC in
macro-aggregates, and accumulation of C-poor micro- micro-aggregates (Modak et al., 2020).
aggregates (Six et al., 2000) thus resulting in oxidation Moreover, DOC and POXC content increased
of intra-aggregate SOC owing to the absence of with the decrease in aggregate particle sizes in all
physical protection (Jat et al., 2019; Parihar et al., treatments. Compared with RT treatment, DP and NT
2019). In these CT plots, the moderate residue load treatments showed significantly higher DOC content
could have been completely decomposed and used by in large size macro-aggregates (Fig.4b). However,
the native microbes for the respiration process. On significant lower DOC values were found in micro-
the other hand, precision land was levelling and aggregates in DP treatment. It was 1–0.25 mm macro-
alternative arable cropping system restricted SOC loss aggregates that showed the highest POC content in
from soil, owing to improved soil structure and greater RT, DP, and SS treatments, while it was 5–2 mm in
protection of SOC. The treatment R-C-OPLL resulted NT treatment. DP, SS, and NT treatments showed
in sequestration of 2.9 Mg SOC ha”1 over the period lower POC content in small size macro-aggregates
of 10 years (Table 1), whereas all other treatments and micro-aggregates. Only NT treatment showed
had a loss of SOC during this period. In this treatment, significantly higher POC in large macro-aggregates.
addition of crop residue C over the years often Compared with RT treatment, SS and NT treatments
 94 THE JOURNAL OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

(4a) (4b)
Fig 4a: Effects of tillage on SOC content in aggregates. Different filling types refer to different treatments. RT:
rotary tillage, DP: deep ploughing, SS: subsoiling, NT: no tillage
Fig 4b: Effects of tillage on DOC, POC, MBC, and POXC content in aggregates (a) DOC content in aggregates;
(b) POC content in aggregates; (c) MBC content in aggregates; (d) POXC content in aggregates.
contained lower MBC content in all particle sizes higher MBC content after long-term conservation
aggregates. In DP treatment, there were higher values tillage because of its minimum disturbance to microbial
of MBC content in 5–2mmand 2–1mmaggregates, habitats. POXC, which comprises carbon derived from
while lower values of that in 1–0.25 mm and <0.25 dissolved organic matter and microbial biomass, is
mm aggregates than RT. Regarding POXC content, influenced by carbon input from retained residues and
DP treatment showed significantly higher POXC the distribution of crop roots (Xue et al., 2018).
content in all aggregate sizes. While the values in SS Benbi et al. (2015) also found that soils under
treatment were significantly lower. NT treatment different land uses generally did not differ in C: N ratios
showed higher POXC in macro-aggregates but lower except that these were lower under agroforestry
values in micro-aggregates than RT. Xiao et al. (2019) compared to maize–wheat and the rice–wheat cropping
reported that tillage disturbance increases microbial systems. Total organic C pool was higher (P b 0.05) in
metabolic activity and increased MBC content. This uncultivated soils than the cultivated soils, but differences
may be caused by the releasing of POC in macro- among cropping systems were non-significant (Fig. 5a).
aggregates. It could explain why the greatest MBC Soil carbon stocks are a consequence of the balance
content was found under RT treatment. We conjecture between C inputs such as litter fall deposits, crop
that MBC content in RT treatment may decrease with residues, root exudates, root biomass, and manure and
the depletion of newly released POC. According to through C losses such as respiration. In undisturbed
Zhong et al. (2019) however, NT treatment might show ecosystems, there is a near-equilibrium between C

(5a) (5b)
Fig. 5a: Total organic C pool in soils under different land uses
Fig. 5b: Distribution of soil organic C fractions of different lability (as % of total organic C) in uncultivated soils
and soils under agroforestry (AF), maize–wheat (maize), rice–wheat (rice) and sugarcane agro-ecosystems
 LASER ASSISTED PRECISION LAND LEVELING ------------- CARBON RESTORATION: A REVIEW 95

(6a) (6b) (c)

Fig. 6a: Carbon (C) assimilated in the nutrient management systems and C input (ex situ + in situ) into the soil. O =
no fertilizer, F = 100% inorganic fertilizers, LE = opportunity legume crop (Vigna radiata), GM = green manur-
ing, FYM = farmyard manure, WS = wheat stubble, RS = rice stubble
Fig. 6b: Relationship between carbon (C) input into the soil and soil C fractions under different nutrient management.
O = no fertilizer, F = 100% inorganic fertilizers, LE = opportunity legume crop (Vigna radiata), GM = green
manuring, FYM = farmyard manure, WS = wheat stubble, RS = rice stubble
Fig. 6c: Carbon (C) sequestration potential (CSP) and soil C stock under different nutrient management

inputs and C losses through respiration by soil organisms input of C into soil was in GM (8.0 Mg ha”1) followed
(Raich and Schlesinger, 1992). Cultivation of undisturbed by WS (4.5 Mg ha”1), RS (4.5 Mg ha”1), LE (4.4 Mg
soils depletes the SOC pool. Furthermore, cultivation ha”1), FYM (3.0 Mg ha”1), F (2.5 Mg ha”1) and O (0.9
adversely affects the distribution and stability of soil Mg ha”1). The C input into the soil as the percentage
aggregates. Soil aggregation is an essential mechanism of C assimilated in the system was maximum in GM
However, soils under sugarcane had the least (36%) and least in O and F (15%). However, oxidizable
amount of the less labile C (Fract 3), which was C was the maximum in FYM followed by GM and
significantly lower than the uncultivated soils but not crop residue (WS, RS) treatments in the surface 0.15
different than the other cropping systems. Soils under m soil. At the lower depths (0.15–0.30 m), there was
agroforestry, maize–wheat, and rice–wheat did not no significant difference in the oxidizable C for any
differ in less labile C pool (P b 0.05). Uncultivated management. At both depths O and F accumulated
soils exhibited higher (P b0.05) pool of recalcitrant C least oxidizable C. VLc (very labile C) and LLc (less
(Fract 4) compared to other land uses. The very labile labile C) fractions constituted a major part of soil
C (Fract 1) constituted a higher proportion (approx. organic C, for all managements. All integrated nutrient
39%) of TOC in soils under agroforestry and sugarcane management (INM) accumulated a similar amount of
than the other land uses (21–24%); (Fig. 5b). On the VLc fraction for all measured depths. GM
contrary, the agroforestry and sugarcane systems had accumulated the maximum Lc fraction at the surface
significantly lower proportions (23–26%) of recalcitrant 0–0.15 m. The LLc fraction was maximum in FYM
C than uncultivated (40%), maize–wheat (37%), and which was followed by all other integrated nutrient
rice–wheat (42%) cropping systems. The various land managements. Management O had least LLc fraction
uses did not differ with respect to the proportion of in surface 0.15 m. There was no difference in NLc
TOC existing as labile (Fract 2; 17–18%) and less fraction for any of the treatments, for any measured
labile C (Fract 3; 18–22%) in soils. depth. There was 46 to 65% decrease in oxidizable C,
Bhardwaj et al. (2019) reported that budgeting from the surface (0–0.15 m) to lower layer (0.15–
total plant assimilated C and C-input into soil, revealed 0.30 m). Change in soil C content was directly related
that the maximum C was assimilated in GM (22.3 Mg to the C input to the soil (Fig. 6b). In general, the most
ha”1) followed by LE (18.6 Mg ha”1), F (16.2 Mg ha”1), increases were in the VLc and the LLc fractions of
FYM (14.0 Mg ha”1), WS (13.5 Mg ha”1), RS (13.3 soil C in all management. With an increase in C input,
Mg ha”1), and O (6.3 Mg ha”1) (Fig. 6a). Carbon input the most significant increase was noticed in the Lc
into the soil also varied in the same order. The maximum
96 THE JOURNAL OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
(labile C) and the LLc (less labile C) fractions. like products, which are major components of the
Management FYM had maximum contributions to the resistant C pool in the soil. Crop production was also
LLc and the VLc fractions while GM had a maximum enhanced by the pulse crop inputs, which lead to higher
contribution to Lc. Non-labile (NLc) C fraction total C inputs from rhizodeposition, root biomass and
changed little with increased total C input to the soil in stubble return (Table 4).
different treatments. Moreover, significantly higher Gross and Harrison, (2019) revealed that shoot-
carbon sequestration potential (CSP) was noted for derived C is incorporated into the bulk SOC through
FYM, GM and WS management, for shallower depths the transport of DOC from the litter layer as well as
(0–0.15 m) (Fig. 6c). through the mixing of particulate organic matter into
Carbon buildup, stabilization and sequestration superficial soil layers via soil fauna. Bioturbation can
Naresh et al. (2020) also found that higher play an important role in SOC cycling in some
percentage of C buildup was observed in R-COPLL ecosystem. However, the abundance and effect of
treatment (43.6%) followed by R-P-OPLL treatment bioturbation agents usually declines sharply with depth
(441.1%), which was reflected in the profile SOC and their contributions to deep SOC may be negligible
concentration of respective treatments. With the compared to DOC transport. Because root- and
exception of the precision land leveling and used of microbial-derived C are input belowground
alternative arable cropping systems, the magnitude of incorporation into the DOC pool and bulk SOC may
be more direct. Nonetheless, most below ground C
SOC sequestration in other treatments was 5.3–9.4
inputs undergo stages of decomposition via repeated
Mg ha-1. Higher SOC sequestration was observed with
microbial processing, protection, and release into the
precision land leveling along with alternative arable
DOC pool (Fig.7).
cropping systems with O-WMbPLL, R-C-OPLL, R-P-
Naresh et al. (2021) revealed that the SOC
OPLL, O-W-MbPLL and M-PMbPLL. Cultivation of rice- sequestration in other treatments reported to be in the
wheat and sorghum wheat mono-cropping caused a tune of 7.6–9.8 Mg ha-1 while higher SOC sequestration
net depletion of SOC pool by 5.83 Mg C ha-1. Though was observed with PLL under T , T , and T . Further,
5 3 6
adoption of precision land leveling decreased the bulk it was revealed that rice-wheat-sugarcane based mono-
density of the soil particularly at surface and cropping caused a net depletion of SOC pool by 7.6 Mg
subsurface layer due to higher SOC and increased C ha-1. Land productivity was also enhanced by the
root biomass it improves the SOC concentration pulse crop intercropping or in crop diversification due to
significantly and ultimately increased SOC stock of higher total C inputs from rhizodeposition, root biomass
the profile. SOC concentrations and stocks increased and stubble return (Table 2).
considerably with precision land leveling and Chen et al. (2019) observed that the priming
alternative arable cropping systems which are possibly intensity increased with the proportion of recalcitrant
attributed to a larger proportion of recalcitrant organic pool and the content f recalcitrant components but
compounds in root biomass. Use of mungbean, and decreased with physico-chemical protection by
onion crop can result in an increase in lignin and lignin- minerals and aggregates (Fig.7). The regulation of
Table 1: An estimate of total inputs to soil under different treatments over 10 years (2009-10 to 2018-19) [Naresh et
al., 2020]
 LASER ASSISTED PRECISION LAND LEVELING ------------- CARBON RESTORATION: A REVIEW 97

Fig.7:Soil organic carbon (SOC) cycling showing root carbon (C) inputs as the primary source of both
SOC and dissolved organic C (DOC) in most ecosystems
Table 2: Soil buildup and S sequestrated under different cropping systems with
levelling options from 2009–15

Fig. 8: Soil organic matter stability, as regulated by plant C input and community composition
SOM chemical recalcitrance on the priming effect Benbi, D.K., and Senapati, N. 2010. Soil aggregation and
could be attributed to its potential impacts on microbial carbon and nitrogen stabilization in relation to residue
C and N requirements. and manure application in rice–wheat systems in north-
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