0% found this document useful (0 votes)

38 views

Unit - 1 ICPC29 - Merged

Uploaded by

Srivathsan Karthikeyan

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

38 views

Unit - 1 ICPC29 - Merged

Uploaded by

Srivathsan Karthikeyan

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 461

8/27/2021

ICPC29 LOGIC AND DISTRIBUTED

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Unit - 1

Course Objectives

1. To introduce the importance of process automation techniques.

2. To impart knowledge in PLC based programming.
3. To introduce distributed control system and different
communication protocols.

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 2

1
8/27/2021

COURSE CONTENT

Review of PC based control design for process automation: Functional Block diagram
of Computer control of process - Mathematical representation – Sampling
Consideration- Data Acquisition system and SCADA, Hybrid, Direct Digital Control
System, Distributed Control system architecture and Comparison with respect to
different performance attributes.

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition, overview of PLC systems,

Block diagram of PLC. General PLC programming procedures: ON/OFF instruction,
Timer instruction sets, Counter Instruction sets -Design, development and simulation
of PLC programming using above instruction sets for simple applications.

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison instruction- Skip,

Master Control Reset (MCR) and Zone Control Last state (ZCL) instruction – PID and
other important instruction set. PLC Installation, troubleshooting and maintenance.
Design of alarm and interlocks, networking of PLC – Case studies using above
instruction sets.

3
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

COURSE CONTENT

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU) architecture - Comparison of

different LCU architectures – LCU Process Interfacing Issues: - Block diagram,
Overview of different LCU security design approaches, secure control output design,
Manual and redundant backup designs.

LCU communication Facilities - Communication system requirements – Architectural

Issues – Operator Interfaces – Engineering Interfaces. Development of Field Control
Unit (FCU) diagram for simple control applications. Introduction to HART and Field
bus protocol. Interfacing Smart field devices (wired and wireless) with DCS controller.
Introduction to Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) for Process Control, Automation
in the cloud with case studies.

4
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

2
8/27/2021

Course Outcomes

On the completion of this course, the students will be familiar with,

1. familiar with process automation technologies.

2. able to design and develop a PLC ladder programming for simple
process applications.
3. able to apply different security design approaches, engineering and
operator interface issues for designing of Distributed control system.
4. familiar with latest communication technologies like HART and Field bus
protocol

5
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

TEXT BOOKS

1. John W. Webb and Ronald A Reis, Programmable Logic Controllers -

Principles and Applications, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey, 5th Edition, 2003.

2. Lukcas M.P Distributed Control Systems, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,

New York, 1986.

3. Frank D. Petruzella, Programmable Logic Controllers, McGraw Hill, New

York, 5th Edition, 2016.

6
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

3
8/27/2021

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Deshpande P.B and Ash R.H, Elements of Process Control

Applications, ISA Press, New York, 1995.

2. Curtis D. Johnson, Process Control Instrumentation

Technology, Pearson New International, 8th Edition, 2013.

3. Krishna Kant, Computer-based Industrial Control, Prentice

Hall, New Delhi, 2nd Edition, 2011.

7
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Review of PC based control design for process automation:

Functional Block diagram of Computer control of process -
Mathematical representation – Sampling Consideration- Data
Acquisition system and SCADA, Hybrid, Direct Digital Control
System, Distributed Control system architecture and
Comparison with respect to different performance attributes.

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 8

4
8/27/2021

PC based control design for process automation

Introduction:
• Transmitters (1950) gave a standard signal (3-15 psi, 4-20
mA) which could be sent over long distances, and thus, allow
controllers to be grouped together for supervision.

Krishna Kant, 2011

Historical development 9

PC based control design for process automation

Centralized computer system:
• Required to bring process signals to centralized computer
system and return the control signals to the field.

Krishna Kant, 2011

Centralized computer system 10

5
8/27/2021

PC based control design for process automation

Distributed digital computer system
• Computer languages such as, Real-Time Fortran, Pascal,
ADA and C have become most popular with distributed
computer control systems. This is coupled with rapid strides
in the developments in fibre-optics technology for wide-band
communications between different computers in the system.

11
Krishna Kant, 2011 Distributed digital computer system

PC based control design for process automation

Reasons for Automation :

• To increase labor productivity

• To reduce labor cost
• To reduce or remove routine manual and clerical tasks
• To improve worker safety
• To improve product quality
• To reduce manufacturing lead time
• To accomplish what cannot be done manually
• To avoid the high cost of not automating

6
8/27/2021

PC based control design for process automation

 Computers
 Controllers
 Actuators
 Sensors
 Software

PC based control design for process automation

7
8/27/2021

PC based control design for process automation

Introduction:

• PC-Based Automation combines the features of PLC-Control

and open PC-Architecture on one industrial device

PC based control design for process automation

8
8/27/2021

PC based control design for process automation

Evolution of PC based:
• Plants with high requirements on processing speed,

• Example : measurement and quality control systems, benefit

from the computing power and openness of PC technology.

• Plants often operate continuously and in a harsh industrial

environment, the PCs must also be designed to run under
these conditions.

PC based control design for process automation

Advantages of using PC based control :

• Ease of implementation because of easily available

programmer base
• Ease of configuration, maintenance as PC know-how is
easily available.
• Networking of different controllers is possible.
• Feature to communicate the automation/production data to
other PC
• Ability to store production data of a longer period of time.
• Generate different graphs and reports for visualization
• Graphically rich user-interface environment.
• Multitask capability.
18

9
8/27/2021

PC based control design for process automation

PC based automation basics :
• Fewer functional components needed for use in an
application-Eg: an IPC can consolidate such elements as
the PLC itself, plus its HMI

• Integration of non-PLC functionality with traditional PLC

control logic- Eg: oil and gas industry would be to integrate
a monitoring and control application in a driller’s cabin with a
producer’s enterprise resource planning (ERP) system back
at headquarters

• Large data storage capacities on-board or connected -

storage area networks) for various black-box applications that
generate large amounts of data or in order to collect high-
speed data from process applications 19

PC based control design for process automation

PC based automation applications:

• open-loop and closed-loop control in mechanical

engineering,
• visualization in the food & beverage industry,
• measuring and testing in the automotive industry,
• data processing and communication in the semiconductor
and electronics industry,
• intellectual property protection in emerging markets

10
8/27/2021

PC based control design for process automation

Requirements :

PC based control design for process automation

PLC with PC based automation:
• Which is better for industrial control, PLC or PC?
logical answer is both.
• With PACs, the flexibility, multifunctionality, and speed of PCs
running control software are combined with the reputation for
robustness, reliability, and installed base of PLCs.

11
8/27/2021

PC based control design for process automation

PLC with PC based automation:
PC-Based Controls
• PC-based controls are programmed on a Windows computer
and used to communicate with and monitor an entire material
handling system or specific material handling equipment.

PLC-Based Controls
• A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a small computer,
often located inside a larger electrical control panel,
programmed to run an entire system or specific equipment.
• Unlike a typical computer, a PLC can only be used to handle
programming language for machine automation.

PC based control design for process automation

PLC with PC based automation:

12
8/27/2021

PC based control design for process automation

PLC with PC based automation:

PC based control design for process automation

PC based controllers:

13
8/27/2021

PC based control design for process automation

PC based controllers:

SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Review of PC based control design for process automation:

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 28

14
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Introduction:
• Advances in instrumentation and control contributed to the
development of larger and more complex processes, bringing
numerous technological and economical benefits to the
operator.

Use of Computer in measurement and control 29

Computer control of process

Computer based control:
• Objective of computer based measurement and control is to
acquire the information from field devices (input), and
compute a logical decision to manipulate the material and
energy flow of given process in a desired way to get optimal
output.
• Digital computer control applications in the process industries
may be of passive or active type.

• Passive application involves only acquisition of process data

(data acquisition / data logging).

• Active application involves acquisition and manipulation of

data and uses it for (real time) process control.
30

15
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Centralized Control:
• Centralized control is used when several machines or
processes are controlled by one central controller.
• Control layout uses a single, large control system to control
many diverse manufacturing processes and operations.
• Each individual step in the manufacturing process is handled
by a central control system controller.
• One disadvantage of centralized control is that, if the main
controller fails, the whole process stops.

31
Computer control

Computer control of process

Distributive Control:
• Each machine is handled by a dedicated control system.

• Each dedicated control (PLC) is totally independent and

could be removed from the overall control scheme if it were
not for the manufacturing functions it performs.

• It involves two or more computers communicating with each

other to accomplish the complete control task.

32
Distributive control

16
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Distributive Control:
• Type of control typically employs local area networks (LANs),
in which several computers control different stages or
processes locally and are constantly exchanging information
and reporting the status on the process.

• Communications among computers is done through single

coaxial cables or fiber optics at very high speed.

• Distributive control drastically reduces field wiring and

heightens performance because it places the controller and
I/O close to the machine process being controlled.

Computer control of process

Components of computer based measurement and control

• Measurement and Data Acquisition

• Data conversion and scaling and checking
• Data accumulation and formatting
• Visual display
• Comparing with limits and alarm raising
• Events, sequence and trends; monitoring and logging
• Data logging and Computation
• Control actions

17
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Analog and Digital I/O Module :
• Analog input signals are received from sensors and signal
conditioner and represent the value of measurand like flow,
position, displacement, temperature, etc.

• Signal conditioner takes as input the output of sensor and suitably

conditions them to be acceptable to real-time systems. The signal
may be amplified, filtered or/and isolated in signal conditioner
depending on the sensor type and its electrical characteristics.

• Digital input signals refer to the ON-OFF states of various valves,

limit switches, etc. one digital input signal represents status of the
limit switch or valve and is represented by on bit of information for
real-time systems. It is compatible to real-time systems and can be
inputted directly.

Computer control of process

Analog input module :
• Continuously scans the analog inputs signals in the pre-defined
order and frequency, converts them into the digital and then sends
these values to processor and memory module for processing.

• It also provide signal conditioning for some standard transducers

like thermocouples, LVDTs, strain gauges etc. in such cases,
analog input modules may be different for different types of
transducers.

36
Analog input module

18
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Analog input module: Operates under the command from processor
in the following manner:

• The processor initiates multiplexer by sending the address of input

channel.
• The multiplexer connects the particular channel to the ADC.
• The processor sends the start convert signal to ADC. The ADC
converts the analog signal to digital, puts it at the output and
issues end of conversion signal.
• The processor on receipt of the end of conversion signal reads the
ADC output and stores in memory.
• The operation is repeated by processor by sending the address of
next channel to multiplexer.

Computer control of process

Digital input module:
• Digital inputs can be accepted directly by the processor. Thus no
analog to digital converter is required in digital input module.

• Each digital input channel consists of n bits which are transferred

in parallel.

38
Digital input module

19
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Analog output module:
• To provide appropriate control signals to different control valves.
the structure of analog output module which is derived by reversing
the analog input module.
• The de-multiplexer switches the digital output received from the
master processor to the output channel whose address is
specified.
• The digital to analog converter of particular channel will convert the
input digital value to equivalent analog signal which is connected to
control valve, motor etc.

39
Analog output module

Computer control of process

Timer/counter module:
• Consists of a number of times/counters which may be cascaded or
used independently.

• Each timer/counter may be programmed in different modes in

which case the timer/counter output will be different.

• The modes may be interrupt on zero count, rate generator,

monoshot etc.

40
Timer/counter module

20
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Timer/counter module:
• Processor loads the count in the form of data byte/words.

• The clock may be derived from processor clock or may be

provided externally.

• The gate signal is used to enable/disable the counter operation.

• The processor may read the current counter value at any instant
by stopping the counter using gate signal or read it on the Fly, i.e.,
without stopping the counter.

• The output may be used to interrupt the processor or in any other

way as programmed.

Computer control of process

Display counter module:
consists of following independent sub-modules.

• Manual entry sub-module

• CRT controller sub-module
• LED/LCD control sub-module
• Alarm annunciate sub-module
• Printer controller sub-module

21
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

CRT controller module:
• Interfaces main processor to Visual Display Unit, which is used to
show the status of process by displaying transducers values,
present set points entered through manual entry sub-module,
historical trend of various parameters, mimic diagram of process,
alarm status etc.

• LED/LCD control sub- module interfaces array of LED/LCD to main

processor. It accepts data bytes/word from main processor and
displays it on LED/LCD.

Computer control of process

Computer controlled system:
• Controlled variable (output of the process) is measured as
before in continuous electrical signal (analog) form, and
converted into a discrete-time signal using device called
analog-to-digital converter (ADC).

• The value of discrete signal thus produced is then compared

with the discrete form of the set-point (desired value) inside
the digital computer to produce an error signal (e).

22
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Computer controlled system 45

Computer control of process

Computer controlled system:
• An appropriate computer program representing the controller,
called control algorithm, is executed which yields a discrete
controller output.

• The discrete signal is then converted into a continuous

electrical signal using a device called digital-to-analog
converter (DAC), and the signal is then fed to the final control
element.

• This control strategy is repeated at some predetermined

frequency so as to achieve the closed- loop computer control
of the process.

23
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

47
Computer based controlled system

Computer control of process

Hot air blower system:
• Centrifugal fan blows air over a heating element and into a
tube.

• The hot-air temperature at the output is measured and by

thermocouple, which, through signal conditioner, generates a
proportional voltage signal to temperature.

• The output temperature in this process may be increased or

decreased by varying the heater current. The air-inlet valve
opening and closing for flow of air into the blower is adjusted
by means of a reversible motor.

• The motor operates at constant speed and is turned on or off

by a logic signal applied to motor on / off control. 48

24
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Hot air blower system 49

Computer control of process

Hot air blower system:
• Information regarding the measured value of air temperature
and fan inlet valve position is obtained in the form of analog
signal.

• An analog to- digital converter is used to convert the analog

signal into digital signal before it is fed to the computer.

• The status of fully open or fully closed position of the fan inlet
valve is obtained in the form of digital signals.

• For the output generated by the computer, digital -to- analog

converter is used to send control signal in analog form to the
motor control.
50

25
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Block diagram - Hot air blower system 51

Computer control of process

Hot air blower system – controlled using computer 52

based system

26
8/27/2021

Computer control of process

Advantages of computers in measurement and control:

• Ensure the repeatability in the product quality that is essential

in manufacturing plants.
• It permits flexibility to modify the sequencing and control
procedures.
• It helps in reduction in dead time of batch operation.
• Increases the productivity of the plant significantly by
ensuring greater plant availability.
• It maintains a data base containing the product recipe and
easy to change to a new recipe quickly and reliably.

SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Review of PC based control design for process automation:

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 54

27
8/27/2021

Sampling consideration
Introduction:
• Digital computer used – controller, process of signal
conversion is essential
• Analog / Digital (A/D) – Output of analog device.
• Digital / Analog (D/A) – coded signal from controller
• Sample and Hold (S/H) device

Sampled data control system

Sampling consideration

56
Sampled data control system

28
8/27/2021

Sampling consideration
Introduction:
• Generally signals are analog in nature (eg: speech,weather
signals).
• To process the analog signal by digital means, it is essential
to convert them to discrete-time signal, and then convert
them to a sequence of numbers.
• The process of converting an analog to digital signal is
– Analog-to-Digital Conversion
• The ADC involves three steps which are:
– Sampling
– Quantization
– coding

Sampling consideration
Types of signals:
• Analog signals: continuous in time and amplitude
– Example: voltage, current, temperature,..

• Digital signals: discrete both in time and amplitude

– Example: attendance of this class, digitizes analog signals,…

• Discrete-time signal: discrete in time, continuous in amplitude

– Example: hourly change of temperature in Austin

29
8/27/2021

Sampling consideration
Sample and hold device:
• Sampler – converts an analog signal into train of amplitude
demodulated pulses.

• Hold device – maintains the value of the pulse for a

prescribed time duration.

59
Sample and hold device

Sampling consideration
Sample and hold device:
• S-H circuit – capacitor, electronic switch, op-amp.

• Switch goes to logic 1 state (closed condition), capacitor

charges to Vin and Vout = Vin

• Switch goes to logic 0 state (open condition), capacitor retain

its charges and output holds the at Vin

• Fundamental parameter – Acquisition time, Aperture time,

Drop rate.

30
8/27/2021

Sampling consideration
Hold process :
• inverse of sampling process i.e conversion of sequence to a
continuous time function.
• Extracting the samples
• Holding the result fixed for one period.

61
Sample and hold operation

Sampling consideration
Sampling :
• During sampling process, a continuous-time signal (analog)
is converted into discrete -time signals by taking samples of
continuous-time signal at discrete time intervals.
• x(nTs) = x(t)
T - Sampling Interval
x (t) - Analog input signal
Fs =1/T , sampling rate or samples per second

31
8/27/2021

Sampling consideration
Sampling theorem:
• Sampling theorem gives the criteria for minimum number of
samples that should be taken.
• Sampling criteria:- Sampling frequency must be twice of the
highest frequency.
Fs>2Fm
– Fs=sampling frequency
– Fm=higher frequency content

• Nyquist rate is defined as the minimum sampling rate for the

perfect reconstruction of the continuous time signals from
samples.
• Nyquist rate=2*highest frequency component (=2*W)
• Sampling rate must be greater than or equal to nyquist rate.
63

Sampling consideration
Ideal Sampling :

32
8/27/2021

Sampling consideration
Ideal Sampling:
• In Time domain: Sampling results in conversion of continuous time
signal into discrete time signal.

• In Frequency domain: Sampling results in multiple translation of signal

spectrum (linear combination of shifted signal spectrum at integer
multiples of sampling frequency.

Sampling consideration
Ideal Sampling : Reconstruction

33
8/27/2021

Sampling consideration
Aliasing :
• In case of under sampling
( s<2 m ), shifted versions of
signal spectrum shall overlap
resulting in spectral distortions.

• In such case, signal can not be

recovered from its samples.
This effect is known as
ALIASING.

• To avoid aliasing effect due to

spurious frequencies, a pre
alias filter is applied before
sampling

Sampling consideration
Types of sampling:
• Periodic sampling
• Multiple-order sampling
• Multiple rate sampling
• Random sampling
• Shannon’ sampling theorem

34
8/27/2021

Sampling consideration
Types of sampling:
• Periodic sampling – samples are obtained uniformly at
interval of T seconds.

• Multiple-order sampling – Particular sampling pattern is

separated periodically.

• Multiple rate sampling – two simultaneous sampling

operations with different time periods are carried out on the
signal to produce the sampled output.

• Random sampling – sampling instants are random.

Sampling frequency is selected based on shannon’s
theorem.
69

Sampling consideration
Shannon’s sampling theorem :
• A band limited continuous time signal with highest frequency
(fm) hertz can be recovered from its samples. Sampling rate
is greater than or equal to 2 fm samples per second.

Fs >2 Fm, Fs=1/T

• Used for choosing the sampling frequency

• Conversion process of sampled signals by digital signal

consists of two process.
– Quantization
– Coding

35
8/27/2021

Sampling consideration
Shannon’s sampling theorem :

• Quantization – converting a discrete-time continuous valued

signal into discrete-time discrete valued signal.

• Coding – representing each discrete value by n-bit binary

sequence or code.

• Quantization error – difference between the unquantized

sample and quantized output.

Mathematical modeling of sampling process

Introduction:
• Sampling operation in sampled data and digital control
system is used to model either the sample and hold operation
or the fact that the signal is digitally coded.

• If the sampler is used to represent S/H (Sample and Hold)

and A/D (Analog to Digital) operations, it may involve delays,
finite sampling duration and quantization errors.

• On the other hand used to represent digitally coded data the

model will be much simpler.

36
8/27/2021

Mathematical modeling of sampling process

Finite pulse with sampler:

• Sampler is the one which converts a continuous time signal

into a pulse modulated or discrete signal.

• The most common type of modulation in the sampling and

hold operation is the pulse amplitude modulation

Mathematical modeling of sampling process

Finite pulse with sampler (a) Symbolic representation

(b) Block diagram (c) Operation
74

37
8/27/2021

Mathematical modeling of sampling process

Finite pulse with sampler:
• Pulse duration is p second,
• sampling period is T second
• p(t) – unit pulse train with period T
• Uniform arte sampler – satisfies the principle of
superposition.

• Us(t) – unit step function, leading edges of the pulse, t=0,

Mathematical modeling of sampling process

Frequency domain characteristics:

38
8/27/2021

Mathematical modeling of sampling process

Ideal sampler:
• Carrier signal is replaced by a train of unit impulses.

• Sampling duration p approaches 0, i.e., its operation are

instantaneous.

Mathematical modeling of sampling process

Zero order hold:
• Higher the order of the derivatives to be estimated is, larger
will be the number of delayed pulses required. Since time
delay degrades the stability of a closed loop control system,
using higher order derivatives of f(t) for more accurate
reconstruction often causes serious stability.

• Accuracy of zero order hold (ZOH) depends on the sampling

frequency. When output of ZOH approaches the continuous
time signal. Zero order hold is again a linear device which
satisfies the principle of superposition

78
Impulse response of ZOH

39
8/27/2021

Mathematical modeling of sampling process

Zero order hold:

Mathematical modeling of sampling process

Zero order hold:

40
8/27/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Review of PC based control design for process automation:

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 81

Data acquisition system (DAS)

Introduction:
• Data acquisition systems (DAS) interface between the real
world of physical parameters, which are analog, and the
artificial world of digital computation and control.

• With current emphasis on digital systems, the interfacing

function has become an important one; Digital systems are
used widely because complex circuits are low cost, accurate,
and relatively simple to implement.

• Industries that presently employ such automatic systems

include steel making, food processing, paper production, oil
refining, chemical manufacturing, textile production, cement
manufacturing, and others.
82

41
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

Block diagram of Data Acquisition System

Data acquisition system (DAS)

Introduction:
• Industries that presently employ such automatic systems include
steel making, food processing, paper production, oil refining,
chemical manufacturing, textile production, cement manufacturing,
and others.

• The devices that perform the interfacing function between analog

and digital worlds are analog-to- digital (A/D) and digital-to-analog
(D/A) converters, which together are known as data converters.

• Some of the specific applications in which data converters are

used include data telemetry systems, pulse code modulated
communications, automatic test systems, computer display
systems, video signal processing systems, data logging systems,
and sampled data control systems.

42
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:
• Personal computer
• Transducers
• Signal conditioning
• DAQ Hardware
• DAQ Software

Typical PC based DAQ System

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:
• Personal computer - Computer used for your data acquisition
system can drastically affect the maximum speeds at which you
are able to continuously acquire data. For remote data acquisition
applications that use RS-232 or RS-485 serial communication,
your data throughput will usually be limited by the serial
communication rates.

• Transducers - sense physical phenomena and provide electrical

signals that the DAQ system can measure. Eg: thermocouples,
RTDs, thermistors, and IC sensors convert temperature into an
analog signal that an ADC can measure.

43
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

Why use signal conditioning ?

• Field configurable signal conditioners – reduce cost –

control inputs (4-20 mA) DC.
• Controls do not accept all sensor: T/C, RTD, POT, etc
• It may not be possible to add additional I/O cards.
• It is preferred to perform math functions in a signal
conditioner rather than controller.
– Add, Subtract, Multiply, Divide
– Square Root
– Comparator
• Converting a process signal to frequency allows
totalization, counting.

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:
• Signal conditioning - Electrical signals generated by the
transducers must be optimized for the input range of the DAQ
board.

• Signal conditioning accessories can amplify low-level signals, and

then isolate and filter them for more accurate measurements. In
addition, some transducers require voltage or current excitation to
generate a voltage output.

• Signal conditioning has the following applications:

– Amplification,
– Isolation,
– Filtering,
– Excitation and
– Linearization. 88

44
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:
• Amplification - Convert a low or weak signal to one that is robust
and capable of driving larger loads and/or transmitting over a long
distance.

• Low-level thermocouple signals, for example, should be amplified

to increase the resolution and reduce noise.

• Signal should be amplified so that the maximum voltage range of

the conditioned signal equals the maximum input range of the
analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Very high resolution reduces the
need for high amplification and provides wide dynamic range.

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

Why Isolation?

• Eliminate ground loops and unwanted interference.

• Reduce potential for damage to sensitive equipment due to

transients or spikes.

45
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:
• Isolation - to isolate the transducer signals from the computer for safety
purposes.

• To make sure that the readings from the plug-in DAQ board are not
affected by differences in ground potentials or common-mode voltages.

• The system being monitored may contain high-voltage transients that

could damage the computer.

• It will eliminate the ground loop and ensure that the signals are accurately
acquired.

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:
• Filtering - purpose of a filter is to remove unwanted signals from the
signal that you are trying to measure.

• Noise filter - DC-class signals such as temperature to attenuate higher

frequency signals that can reduce the accuracy of your measurement.

• Antialiasing filter (low pass filter) - removes all frequencies of the signal
that are higher than the input bandwidth of the board.

• If the signals were not removed, they would erroneously appear as

signals within the input bandwidth of the board.

46
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• Excitation - generates excitation for transducers like Strain

gauges, thermistors, and RTDs, for example, require external
voltage or current excitation signals.

• RTD measurements are usually made with a current source that

converts the variation in resistance to a measurable voltage.

• Strain gauges, which are very low-resistance devices, typically are

used in a Wheatstone bridge configuration with a voltage excitation
source.

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• Linearization - Characteristic of a sensor is non-linear. Special

circuits were designed to linearize signals. Use computer software
for linearization.

47
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• Replication - Split, duplicate, replicate a sensor or process input to

2 or more outputs.

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• Attenuation - Reduce a high input signal to one that is compatible

with a control or monitoring device.

48
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• Communications - Monitor and/or control sensors or process

signals via Ethernet, Modbus, Profibus, CANopen, Etc.

Data acquisition system (DAS)

Functions of Signal conditioning

• Amplification
• Filtering
• Differentiation
• Integration
• Linearization
• Combining a measured signal with a reference signal
• Converting a resistance to a voltage signal
• Converting a current signal to a voltage
• Converting a voltage signal to a current signal
• Converting a frequency signal to a voltage signal

49
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

Advantages of Signal conditioning

Signal conditioning may typically include

• Converting resistance changes to voltage changes,

• subtracting offset voltages,
• increasing signal voltages,
• removing unwanted frequency components.
• power amplification

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• DAQ hardware - includes the following functions.

• Analog input
• Sampling rate
• Multiplexing
• Resolution

100

50
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• Analog input - give you information on both the capabilities and the
accuracy of the DAQ product such as number of channels, sampling rate,
resolution, and input range.

• Number of analog channel inputs will be specified for both single-ended

and differential inputs on boards that have both types of inputs.

• Single- ended inputs are all referenced to a common ground point. These
inputs are typically used when the input signals are high level (greater
than 1 V),

101

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• Sampling rate - determines how often conversions can take place. A

faster sampling rate acquires more points in a given time and can
therefore often form a better representation of the original signal.

• Example - audio signals converted to electrical signals by a microphone

commonly have frequency components up to 20 kHz..

• Nyquist sampling theorem - sample at more than twice the rate of the
maximum frequency component. Sampling rate greater than 40 kS/s is
needed to properly acquire this signal.

102
Effect of sampling rate

51
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• Multiplexing – is a technique for measuring several signals with a

single ADC.

• ADC samples one channel, switches to the next channel, samples it,
switches to the next channel, and so on.

• Because the same ADC is sampling many channels instead of one, the
effective rate of each individual channel is inversely proportional to the
number of channels sampled.

103

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• Resolution – number of bits that the ADC uses to represent the

analog signal.

• Higher the resolution, the higher the number of divisions the range is
broken into, and therefore, the smaller the detectable voltage changes.

• A 3-bit converter (which is actually seldom used but a convenient

example) divides the analog range into 23, or 8 divisions. Each division is
represented by a binary code between 000 and 111

Digitized sine wave with 3-bit Resolution 104

52
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• DAQ software - transforms the PC and DAQ hardware into a

complete DAQ, analysis, and display system.

• Two types of software is used:

• Driver software
• Application software

105

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:
• Driver software - is the layer of software that directly programs the
registers of the DAQ hardware, managing its operation and its integration
with the computer resources, such as processor interrupts, DMA, and
memory.

• Driver functions for controlling DAQ hardware can be grouped into analog
I/O, digital I/O, and timing I/O.

• Acquire data at specified sampling rates.

• Acquire data in the background while processing in the foreground.
• Use programmed I/O, interrupts, and DMA to transfer data.
• Stream data to and from disk.
• Perform several functions simultaneously.
• Integrate more than one DAQ board.
• Integrate seamlessly with signal conditioning equipment.
106

53
8/27/2021

Data acquisition system (DAS)

PC-based DAQ system:

• Application software - an additional way to program DAQ

hardware. use driver software to control the DAQ hardware.

• It add analysis and presentation capabilities to the driver software.

• Application software also integrates instrument control such as

GPIB (General Purpose Interface Bus), RS-232, PXI (Peripheral
component interact Extensions for Instrumentation), and VXI
(Virtual Extension for Instrumentation) with data acquisition.

107

SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Review of PC based control design for process automation:

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 108

54
8/27/2021

SCADA
Introduction:
• Industrial control system (ICS) is a general term that has several
types of control systems, including

• Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems

• Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
• Other smaller control system configurations such as
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC).

• Provides management information, including scheduled

maintenances procedures, logistic information, trending and
diagnostic data for sensor or machine.

Features of SCADA 109

SCADA
Why SCADA?

• Saves Time and Money

• Less traveling for workers
• Reduces man-power needs
• Increases production efficiency of a company
• Cost effective for power systems
• Saves energy
• Reliable
• Supervisory control over a particular system.

110

55
8/27/2021

SCADA

Technology Evolution

Supervisory control and data acquisition system (SCADA)

111

SCADA

Control operation - Plant 112

56
8/27/2021

SCADA
What is SCADA ?
• SCADA - Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition.

• Used for monitoring, analysing and controlling an industrial

process.

• Capable of real time monitoring and management of physical asset

dispersed over very large geographical area.

• used to monitor and control a plant or equipment in industries such as

telecommunications, water and waste control, energy, oil and gas refining
and transportation.

• It encompass the transfer of data between a SCADA central host

computer and a number of Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) and/or
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), and the central host and the
113
operator terminals.

SCADA

Typical SCADA system SCADA system general

layout

114

57
8/27/2021

SCADA
SCADA System consists of
• One or more field data interface devices, usually RTUs, or PLCs, which
interface to field sensing devices and local control switchboxes and valve
actuators .

• A communications system used to transfer data between field data

interface devices and control units and the computers in the SCADA
central host. The system can be radio, telephone, cable, satellite, etc.,

• A central host computer server or servers (sometimes called a SCADA

Center, master station, or Master Terminal Unit (MTU).

• HMI or MMI systems used to provide the SCADA central host and
operator terminal application, support the communications system, and
monitor and control remotely located field data interface devices.

115

SCADA

Supervisory control and data acquisition system (SCADA)

116

58
8/27/2021

SCADA
SCADA System perform functions

• Data acquisition
• Networked data communication
• Data presentation
• Control

Components of SCADA System

• Telemetry system
• Data acquisition server
• Human-machine interface (HMI)
• Supervisory (computer) system

117

SCADA
Components of SCADA System

• Telemetry system - used to connect PLCs and RTUs with control centers
data ware houses, and the enterprise.
• Examples of wired telemetry media - telephone lines and WAN circuits.
• Examples of wireless telemetry media - cellular and microwave and other
communication medium.

• Data acquisition server - is a software service which uses industrial

protocols to connect software services via telemetry with field device such
as RTUs and PLCs.
• It allows clients to access data from these field devices using standard
protocols.

• Supervisory (computer) system - acquiring data on the process and

sending commands(control) to the SCADA system.

118

59
8/27/2021

SCADA
Components of SCADA System
• Human machine interface (HMI) – which presents processed data to a
human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors and
interacts with the process.

• Also known as Operator Station/Work Station /Control Client.

• Present the process graphic displays with operator interaction process

values, monitor & analyze, control process, optimize performance.

119

SCADA
Components of SCADA System
• Human machine interface (HMI) – is a client that requests data from a
data acquisition on server.

• A "historian", is a software service within the HMI which accumulates

time-stamped data, events, and alarms in a database which can be
queried or used to populate graphic trends in the HMI.

120

60
8/27/2021

SCADA
SCADA Architecture

• First generation: Monolithic

• Second generation: Distributed
• Third generation: Networked

Monolithic

Networked 121
Distributed

SCADA
Monolithic SCADA System

• Minicomputers are used earlier for computing the SCADA systems.

• First generation - monolithic SCADA systems were developed wherein the

common network services were not available.

• These are independent systems without having any connectivity to other

systems.

• Wide Area Networks (WANs) that were implemented to communicate

with remote terminal units (RTUs) were designed with a single purpose
for communicating with RTUs in the field.

• Connectivity to the SCADA master station itself was very limited by the
system vendor.
122

61
8/27/2021

SCADA

123
First Generation SCADA Architecture - Monolithic

SCADA
Distributed SCADA System

• Improvement in system miniaturization and Local Area Networking

(LAN) technology to distribute the processing across multiple systems.

• Multiple stations, each with a specific function, were connected to a LAN

and shared information with each other in real-time.

• It serve as communications processors, primarily communicating with

field devices such as RTUs and operator interfaces, providing the human-
machine interface (HMI) for system operators.

• It functions across multiple systems provided more processing power for

the system than in a single processor.

124

62
8/27/2021

SCADA

Second Generation SCADA Architecture - Distributed 125

SCADA
Networked SCADA System

• Third generation SCADA systems comes from the use of WAN protocols
such as the Internet Protocol (IP) for communication between the master
station and communications equipment.

• Master station is responsible for communications with the field devices to

be separated from the master station “proper” across a WAN.

• Vendors are now producing RTUs that can communicate with the master
station using an Ethernet connection.

• Distribution of SCADA functionality over a WAN is that of disaster

survivability.

126

63
8/27/2021

SCADA

127
Third Generation SCADA Architecture - Networked

SCADA - Architecture
Master station area
• Scada Server, Network &
Operating System Software,
• Engineering Software
• Application development platform
• Performs calculations, logs and
archives historical data
• provides I/O server functionality and
switching

Field station area

• Field Devices
• Communication Infrastructure
• RTUs
• Programmable Logic Controllers SCADA system
(PLC) architecture
• Human Machine Interface (HMI) 128

64
8/27/2021

SCADA - Architecture
Master station area – Scada server

• Systems include at least one, if not two,

data server computers. The server
computer is at the physical Centre of the
Star topology.

• Server computer performs all of the

communications with the PLCs and RTUs
on the SCADA network.

• It maintains and collects data pertaining to

its process areas. This data is then
retrieved by the server computer to update
the current process and the historical
databases.
SCADA servers
129

SCADA - Architecture
Field station area – Field devices

• Field Devices in a SCADA system include wireless sensors, multi-

variables transmitters, and flow computers.

• These devices transmit data to the RTUs, regarding parameters that are
monitored, such as flow, level or temperature.

• RTUs in turn transmit the data to the SCADA server for monitoring and
controlling purpose.

Field devices
130

65
8/27/2021

SCADA - Architecture
Communication Infrastructure
• It enables communication between the various components in a scada
system.

• It includes cables and wireless networks, Data radios, Modems and

satellites to connect all fundamental components via a Local Area Network
(LAN) or remote connectivity, using Ethernet or other high-speed
communication system.

• There are three basic topologies used for SCADA system :

– Bus topology
– Star topology
– Token ring topology

Communication
devices
131

SCADA - Architecture
Communication interface – Bus topology

• All traffic or communications in the system is accomplished via this single

bus-type network.

• For increased traffic, the network can become overloaded, and the result is
a slowing down of the transfer of data from one node to another.

132
Bus Topology

66
8/27/2021

SCADA - Architecture
Communication interface – Star topology

• This master node would typically consist of one or two master SCADA
workstation functioning as masters of the system. All data collection from
the various RTU/PLC nodes is done through individual connections in a
star configuration.
• It does require that the information be passed first from the source node,
then through the host node, and then out to the destination node.

133
Star Topology

SCADA - Architecture
Communication interface – Token ring topology
• Works like a ring in which all nodes are interconnected by two network connections.
All nodes in the topology are of equal value, and data is passed via this ring from
one node to the next.
• It is predictive in that the speed is constant and the time to transfer data is always
at a fixed rate.
• As the number of nodes in the network increases, the overall data transfer rate
drops since there are more nodes through which data must pass to travel from the
source node to the destination node.

134
Token Ring Topology

67
8/27/2021

SCADA - Architecture
Remote terminal unit - RTU
• To connect to field devices like sensors, flow meter.
• Microprocessor based controlled device, extreme temp environment,
rugged, remote location.
• Converts field level signal in to data and transfer data to supervisory
system.
• Added advantages is in environment tolerances, backup power options,
and autonomy.
• Visual Basic, C+, Ladder logic, IEC and DNP3 protocol compatible.

135
RTU

SCADA - Architecture
PLC
• A solid state device that controls output devices based on input status and
a user developed program.
• Microprocessor based controlled device , receives information from input
devices, processes the data, and triggers outputs based on pre-
programmed parameters.
• Unlike an RTU, a PLC is configurable, economical and flexible
• Human body is the biggest example of PLC.

136
PLC

68
8/27/2021

SCADA
Advantages of SCADA :

• Obtain information leading to better process traceability - Frequency

inverter configuration, Motor Speed, Pressure Settings, Fan Status
Cycles.

• Storage of performance data in order to correct quality problems- Having

a historical record of readings will allow for the timely correction of faults
that adversely affect production quality – Fluctuation in instruments
Production issues, Shut downs, Operator efficiency.

• Creating a smart maintenance regime and decreasing downtime.

• Making operatives jobs easier by having graphical statistics presented in

real time.

137

SCADA
Applications of SCADA System

• Electric power generation, transmission and distribution

• Water treatment plant
• Oil and Gas Trans & Distributions
• Food processing industry
• Traffic signals.

138

69
8/27/2021

SCADA
Applications of SCADA System

• Load management

139

SCADA
Applications of SCADA System

• Water distribution

140

70
8/27/2021

SCADA
Applications of SCADA System

• Water treatment plant

141

SCADA
Applications of SCADA System

• Metro elevated station

142

71
8/27/2021

SCADA
Applications of SCADA System
• Refining and petrochemical

143

SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Review of PC based control design for process automation:

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 144

72
8/27/2021

Hybrid System
Introduction:

• Hybrid system - denotes in general a system composed of two unlike

components.

• A hybrid control system is a control system with both analog and digital
parts.

• Such a system generates a mixture of continuous and discrete signals,

which take values in a continuum (such as the real numbers R) and a finite
set (such as {a; b; c}) respectively.

145

Hybrid System
What is Hybrid system?

• Form a richer class of systems than ordinary control systems.

• The continuous flow is in general influenced not only by the continuous

control, but also by the discrete mode.

• Discrete dynamics are affected by both discrete control actions and,

indirectly, by the continuous flow.

• In addition to control inputs, there might be both continuous and discrete

disturbances acting on the system.

• Hybrid control system can be a rather complicated object.

146

73
8/27/2021

Hybrid System
Hybrid system:

• Use of a combination of discrete control hardware and computer hardware

in a central location to implement the required control functions.

• First level or local control of the plant unit operations is implemented by

using discrete analog and sequential logic controllers.

• Panel board instrumentation connected to these controllers is used for

operator interfacing and is located in the central control room area.

• A supervisory computer and associated data acquisition system are used

to implement the plant management functions, including operating point
optimization, alarming, data logging and historical data storage and
retrieval.

• Computer also used to drive its own operator interface, usually consisting
147
of one or more video display units (VDUs).

Hybrid System

148
Lukcas, 1986 Hybrid System Architecture

74
8/27/2021

Hybrid System
Hybrid system:

• It exploit the merits of both analog (compactness, potential speed and

absence of quantisation effect) and digital (robustness, ease of weight
storage and programmability) methods.

• Pulse mode signalling technique has been used in hybrid systems.

• Example – Neuro Fuzzy system

• Both the techniques can handle extreme non-linear behaviour of the

system and allow interpolative reasoning.

• The main idea in integrating the neuro and fuzzy control techniques is to
use the strength of each, resulting in neuro-fuzzy Control Systems.

149

Hybrid System
Neuro Fuzzy system:

• Fuzzy knowledge representation can help the neural network with

explanation facility. The neural network on the other hand can continue to
learn and facilitate fuzzy controller in improving its performance.

• The integration of neuro and fuzzy controller will thus enable the automatic
design and fine-tuning of membership function used in fuzzy control
through learning of neural networks.

• Architecture has main elements, namely, Action-state Evaluation Network

(AEN) and Action Selection Network (ASN).

• Both these elements are modelled by multi-layer neural networks. The

Action Selection Network includes a fuzzy controller and acts as main
controller.

150

75
8/27/2021

Hybrid System

Architecture of neuro-fuzzy control system 151

Hybrid System
Neuro Fuzzy system:

• AEN evaluates the performance of system and learns by updating the

prediction of failure.

• It then advises the ASN on fine-tuning the fuzzy controller.

• Both AEN and ASN neural networks employ reinforcement learning with
hidden layer, using modified error backpropagation scheme.

• Combination of neuro controller and fuzzy controller has been successfully

used to control the flatness of cold rolling process in Sendzimir Rolling Mill,
Japan.

152

76
8/27/2021

Hybrid System
Example of Hybrid system:

• Problem of maintaining the temperature T of a room at some desired level

(about 19 degrees Celsius, say). If the radiator is off, the temperature
dynamics is given by

• Temperature dynamics is given by

153
Hybrid control system

Hybrid System
Example of Hybrid system:

• When the thermostat turns on the radiator, the hybrid system jumps from
the off to the on state through the discrete transition turn on.

• It jumps back again when the thermostat turns off the radiator.

• The temperature T, which is a continuous-time variable, is governed by one

of the two differential equations depending on the current discrete state.

154

77
8/27/2021

Hybrid System
Example of Hybrid system:

• Temperature is equal to T = 15 and the radiator is in the mode q = on. The

thermostat control mechanism switches the radiator off and on as T
enables discrete jumps at T = 18 and 20, respectively.

155
Evolution of Hybrid control system

Hybrid System
Control Design:

• There is a wide range of control design problems for hybrid systems.

• Supervisory control and

• Optimal control of hybrid systems.

156

78
8/27/2021

Hybrid System
Supervisory Control:

• It represents a certain class of hybrid control systems. A supervisor S

decides which of the controllers C1,..,Cm that should be active at each time
instant.

• The switching signal σ: [0;∞]->{1,..,m} is determined by the supervisor

based on the control signal u and the measurement y.

157
Supervisory control

Hybrid System
Supervisory Control:

• The purpose of the supervisor can be to stabilize the plant despite large
uncertainties or disturbances.

• A supervisory control scheme can also be interpreted as so called gain

scheduling, which is a common approach to handle large variations in
operating conditions.

• Controllers are designed for a few operating conditions and then during
operation, the supervisor chooses the controller closest to the current
condition as defined by the state of the system.

158

79
8/27/2021

Hybrid System
Optimal Control:
• Example of a control problem utilizing both continuous and discrete control
is provided by a car with a gear box having four gears.
• The longitudinal position of the car along the road is denoted by x1 and its
velocity by x2 (lateral dynamics are ignored).
• The model has the control u = (gear, v), where gear ε [1,...,4] denotes the
gear position and v ε [vmin,vmax] the throttle position. Gear shift is necessary
because little power can be generated by the engine at very low or very
high engine speed.

159
Hybrid system modeling a car with four gears

Hybrid System
Applications of Hybrid system:

• Hybrid system applications studied with some depth in the literature include

• Air traffic management

• Chemical process control
• Communication networks
• Embedded control
• Engine control
• Robotics

160

80
8/27/2021

Hybrid System
Applications of Hybrid system:

• Air traffic management – A finite set of manoeuvres, such as speed

change, short cut, and detour, is used by the air traffic controller to obtain a
conflict-free flight environment in which the aircrafts meet their dynamic
and other constraints.

• Chemical process control – To produce a substance, an instruction

sequence is designed, in which each instruction could involve one or more
continuous control elements.

• Communication networks – Large data flows are conveniently modeled

as continuous variables (in order to reduce the model complexity), while
traffic control mechanisms such as routing induce discrete controls.

161

Hybrid System
Applications of Hybrid system:

• Embedded control – Micro-computer embedded in a physical device has

an inherently discrete behavior (e.g., due to finite-precision computations
and quantization of signals), but it interacts with a continuous environment
through actuators and sensors.

• Engine control – Four-stroke gasoline engine is naturally modeled using

four discrete modes corresponding to the position of the pistons, while
combustion and power train dynamics are continuous.

• Robotics – Manipulator is accurately governed by continuous dynamics,

but impacts and load shifting cause discrete and asynchronous changes.

162

81
8/27/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Review of PC based control design for process automation:

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 163

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Introduction:

• Computer was not directly connected to the process but was used for
supervision of analog controllers.

• Analog controllers were interfaced to the process directly as well as

through specialized control for dedicated functions.

• Analog controllers and specialized controllers were called level 2 and level
1 control respectively.

• The emergence of economical and fast microprocessor has made analog

controllers completely out-dated, as the same functions can be performed
by digital computers in more efficient and cost effective way.

164

82
8/27/2021

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

165
Krishna Kant, 2011 Supervisory Computer Control

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

DDC Structure:

• It directly interfaces to the process for data acquisition and control purpose.

• It has necessary hardware for directly interfacing (opto-isolator, signal

conditioner, ADC) and reading the data from process.

• It should also have memory and arithmetic capability to execute required P,

P + I or P + I + D control strategy. At the same time, the interface to control
valve should also be part of DDC.

• Multiplexer acts like a switch under microprocessor control. It switches and

presents at its output the analog signal from a sensor/transmitter.

• Analog to digital converter converts the analog signal to digital value.

166

83
8/27/2021

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Krishna Kant, 2011

Direct Digital Control 167

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

DDC Structure:

• Microprocessor performs the following tasks:

• It reads the various process variables from different transmitters through

multiplexer and ADC.

• It determines the error for each control loop and executes control strategy
for each loop.

• It outputs correction value to control valve through DAC.

168

84
8/27/2021

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

DDC Software:

• DDC software is program for control loops.

• There are two algorithms for programming a three-mode PID control loop:

– Position algorithm
– Velocity algorithm

169

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Position Algorithm:

• Three-mode controller can be represented by,

• Where,
Yn - valve position at time n
Yo - median valve position

KP - proportional constant = l00 / PB (where, PB - proportional band in per cent),

KI - integral constant = 1/TI (where TI - integral time constant)
KD - derivative constant =TD (where TD - derivative constant)
en - error at instant tn = (S - Vn)
Vn - value of controlled variable at instant tn
S - set-point
170

85
8/27/2021

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Position Algorithm:

• PID control can be realized with a microprocessor based system, if only the
above equation is implemented in the software.

• Apparently, it is very difficult to write the software for implementing the

above equation for a microprocessor based system.

• Integral term: Integral term at any given instant tn is equal to the algebraic
sum of all the control forces generated by the integral control action from
the beginning to that instant.

• Thus integral term can be represented as

171

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Position Algorithm:

• Differential term: at any instant tn is proportional to the rate of

change of the error.

• Differential term, can be represented as

• Where,
– en is the current error
– and en-1 is the previous error calculated at instant tn-1.

• Thus, with this modification the three mode controller will become

172

86
8/27/2021

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Position Algorithm:

• Integral and the differential control forces are dependent upon the interval
between the two consecutive errors.

• This interval is the inverse of the rate at which the value of the controlled
variable is measured i.e. the sampling rate.

• Provision for defining the sampling rate should be made available in the
software.

• ‘Sampling interval counter’, the set-point, the proportional constant KP, the
integral constant KI and the derivative constant KD are defined by the user.

173

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Krishna Kant, 2011

Flow chart of PID control 174

87
8/27/2021

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Position Algorithm:

• Recalculates the full valve of the valve setting at each sampling interval.

Advantages

• It has distinct property that it maintains its own reference in yo.

Disadvantages

• Lack of bumples transfer from manual to auto switching.

• Reset wind-up due to integral saturation in test mode.

175

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Velocity Algorithm:

• Integral and the differential control forces are dependent upon the interval
between the two consecutive errors.

• Computer calculates the required change in valve position. The output is

digital pulse train which can be directly used in case valve is stepper motor
driven.

• In case of other valves, stepper motor combined with slide wire

arrangement. The same function can be performed by an integrating
amplifier.

176

88
8/27/2021

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Krishna Kant, 2011

Slide wire arrangement 177

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Velocity Algorithm:

• Position algorithm derived earlier is

• Where Yn is valve position at tn.

• At tn-1 i.e at previous instant, the valve position was

• Change is valve position ΔYn at tn

178

89
8/27/2021

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Effect of set-point band in velocity algorithm

179
Krishna Kant, 2011

Direct Digital Control (DDC) System

Krishna Kant, 2011

Flow chart for velocity algorithm 180

90
8/27/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Review of PC based control design for process automation:

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 181

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Key Milestones in Control System Evolution :

• 1934 – Direct-connected pneumatic controls dominate market.

• 1958 – First computer monitoring in electric utility.
• 1959 – First supervisory computer in refinery.
• 1960 – First solid-state electronic controllers on market.
• 1963 – First Direct Digital Control (DDC) system installed.
• 1970 – First programmable logic controllers (PLC) on market.
• 1975 – First distributed digital control system on market.

182

91
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Krishna Kant, 2011

Evolution of Industrial Control Technology 183

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Types of Control System:
• Open loop system
• Closed loop system
• Analog control system
• Digital control system Open loop system

Closed loop system 184

92
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Analog control system

185

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Analog control system

186

93
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Digital control system 187

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Digital control system 188

94
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Types of Digital Control System:

• Centralized control system

• Distributed control system

Computer control system 189

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Centralised control system:

• All system functions are implemented in high-performance computer

hardware in a central location.

• Operator interfacing for plant management functions is provided using

computer driven VDUs.

• Operator interfacing for first-level continuous and sequential closed-loop

control also may be implemented using VDUs.

• Computers can be interfaced to standard panel board instrumentation so

that the operator in charge of first-level control can use a more familiar set
of control and display hardware.

190

95
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Central Computer System 191

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Centralised Computer System 192

Krishna Kant, 2011

96
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Central Computer System 193

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Examples of Centralized Control System 194

97
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Drawbacks of DCS:

• Centralized Control System is a simple control system but has a few

disadvantages.

• If the CPU fails the entire plant gets affected.

• Redundancy concept is not available.

195

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Introduction:

• Centralized computer control architecture - central processing unit (CPU)

represents a single point process if it is lost.

• Software required to implement all of the functions is extremely complex,

• It requires a priesthood of computer experts to develop the system.

• Hybrid system architecture - It is composed of many different subsystems.

Starting them up and making them work as an integrated whole is no less
difficult task.

• Its functionality limited compared to the central computer based system.

196

98
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Architecture:

• Limitation of centralized computer system and hybrid system introduced

distributed control system.

• The devices in this (DCS) architecture are grouped into three categories
that interface directly to the process to be controlled or monitored.

• It perform high-level human interfacing and computing functions, and those

that provide the means of communication between the other devices

197

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Generalized Distributed Control System 198

99
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Generalized Distributed Control System 199

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Devices:

• Local Control Unit (LCU)

• Low Level Human Interface (LLHI)
• Data Input / Output Unit (DI/OU)
• High Level Human Interfaces (HLHI)
• High Level Computing Device (HLCD)
• Computer Interface Device (CID)
• Shared Communication Facilities

200

100
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Basic components of DCS 201

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Architecture:

• Local Control Unit (LCU) : smallest collection of hardware in the system

that can do closed loop control. LCU interfaces directly to process.

• Low Level Human Interface (LLHI) : It allows the operator or instrument

engineer to interact with LCU (eg: to change set points, control modes,
control configurations, or tuning parameters) using a direct connection.

• It also interface directly to the process. Operator-oriented hardware at this

level is called Low Level Operator Interface (LLOI); instrument engineer–
oriented hardware is called a Low Level Engineering Interface (LLEI).

• Data Input / Output Unit (DI/OU) : interfaces to the process alone for the
purpose of acquiring or outputting data. It performs no control functions.

202

101
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Generalized Distributed Control System 203

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Architecture:

• High Level Human Interfaces (HLHI): A collection of hardware that

performs functions similar to the LLHI but with increased capability and
user friendliness.

• It interfaces to other devices only over the shared communication facilities.

Operated-oriented hardware at this level is called a High Level Operator
Interface (HLOI); instrument engineer-oriented hardware is called a High
Level Engineering Interface (HLEI).

• High Level Computing Device (HLCD): A collection of microprocessor

based hardware that performs plant management functions traditionally
performed by a plant computer.

• It interfaces to other devices only over the shared communication facilities.

204

102
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Distributed digital control system 205

Krishna Kant, 2011

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Devices:

• Computer Interface Device (CID): A collection of hardware that allows an

external general purpose computer to interact with devices in DCS using
shared communication facilities.

• Shared Communication Facilities: One or more levels of

communication hardware and associated software that allow the sharing
of data among all devices in DCS.

• It do not include dedicated communication channels between hardware

elements within the device.

206

103
8/27/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Advantages of DCS:

• Control function is distributed among multiple CPUs (Field Control

Stations). Hence failure of one FCS does not affect the entire plant.
• Redundancy is available at various levels.
• Instruments and interlocks are created by software.
• Generation and modifications of the interlocks are very flexible and simple.
• Information regarding the process is presented to the user in various
formats.
• Cost effective in the long run.

207

SYLLABUS

Unit-1

Review of PC based control design for process automation:

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 208

104
8/27/2021

Comparison of Architectures
FEATURES HYBRID CENTRAL COMPUTER DISTRIBUTED

1. Scalability and Good - due to Poor – very limited range Good - due to modularity.
expandability modularity. of
system size.
2. Control capability Limited – analog and Full - digital control Full - digital control
sequential control capability. capability.
hardware.
3.Operator Limited by panel Digital hardware provides Digital hardware provides
interfacing capability board instrumentation. significant improvement for improvement for full range of
large systems. system sizes.

4. Integration of Poor - due to variety All functions performed by Functions integrated in a

system functions of products. central computer. family of products.

5. Significance of Low - due to High. Low - due to modularity.

single point failure modularity.
6. Installation costs High – discrete Medium- saves control Low – savings in both
wiring, large volume of and wiring costs and equipment
equipment. equipment room space, but space.
use discrete wiring.
7. Maintainability Poor –many module Medium- requires highly Excellent - automatic
types; few diagnostics. trained computer diagnostics and module
maintenance personnel. replacement.
209

Typical plant layout

210

105
8/27/2021

Field Instruments –Transmitters, Flowmeters

211

Field Controls –Pumps, Motors, Valves

212

106
8/27/2021

Control Room Instrumentation – Panel Instruments

213

Control Room Automation

214

107
9/24/2021

ICPC29 LOGIC AND DISTRIBUTED

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Unit - 2

Course Objectives

1. To introduce the importance of process automation techniques.

2. To impart knowledge in PLC based programming.
3. To introduce distributed control system and different
communication protocols.

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 2

1
9/24/2021

COURSE CONTENT
Review of PC based control design for process automation: Functional Block diagram
of Computer control of process - Mathematical representation – Sampling
Consideration- Data Acquisition system and SCADA, Hybrid, Direct Digital Control
System, Distributed Control system architecture and Comparison with respect to
different performance attributes.

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition, overview of PLC systems,

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison instruction- Skip,

3
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

COURSE CONTENT

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU) architecture - Comparison of

LCU communication Facilities - Communication system requirements – Architectural

4
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

2
9/24/2021

Course Outcomes

On the completion of this course, the students will be familiar with,

1. familiar with process automation technologies.

5
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

TEXT BOOKS

1. John W. Webb and Ronald A Reis, Programmable Logic Controllers -

Principles and Applications, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey, 5th Edition, 2003.

2. Lukcas M.P Distributed Control Systems, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,

New York, 1986.

3. Frank D. Petruzella, Programmable Logic Controllers, McGraw Hill, New

York, 5th Edition, 2016.

6
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

3
9/24/2021

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Deshpande P.B and Ash R.H, Elements of Process Control

Applications, ISA Press, New York, 1995.

2. Curtis D. Johnson, Process Control Instrumentation

Technology, Pearson New International, 8th Edition, 2013.

3. Krishna Kant, Computer-based Industrial Control, Prentice

Hall, New Delhi, 2nd Edition, 2011.

7
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

SYLLABUS

Unit-2

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition,

overview of PLC systems, Block diagram of PLC. General PLC
programming procedures: ON/OFF instruction, Timer
instruction sets, Counter Instruction sets -Design, development
and simulation of PLC programming using above instruction
sets for simple applications.

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 8

4
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

PLC

• Development of low cost computer has brought the most

recent revolution, the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).

• The advent of the PLC began in the 1970s, and has become
the most common choice for manufacturing controls.

• PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and

will probably remain predominant for some time to come.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Introduction:

• Programmable logic controller (PLC) is a specialized computer

used to control machines and process.

• PLC is a user friendly computer that carries out control functions of

many types and levels of complexity.

• It uses a programmable memory to store instructions and execute

specific functions that include On/Off control, timing, counting,
sequencing, arithmetic, and data handling.

PLC 10
Petruzella, 2005

5
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

What is PLC?

• PLC is a digital computer designed for multiple inputs and

output arrangements, extended temperature ranges,
immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and
impact.

• A PLC is an example of a real time system.

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

• PLC is a digital electronic device that uses a programmable

memory to store instructions and to implement functions
such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in
order to control machines and processes and has been
specifically designed to make programming easy.

• term ‘logic’ is used because the programming is primarily

concerned with implementing logic and switching operations.

6
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Evolution of PLC:

• First PLC – First PLC systems evolved from conventional

computers in 1960.

• Applications:
– First PLC was installed primarily in automotive plants.

• Drawbacks:
– Programs were complicated and required a highly trained programmer
to make the changes.
– Reprogramming procedures are more difficult.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Evolution of PLC:

• Second PLC – introduction of microprocessor based PLCs were

introduced in 1978.

• Applications:
– PLC was installed in Robotics and Automation devices.

• Advantages:
– PLC programs written in high level languages became more
understandable to more people.
– PLCs became more affordable.

7
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Evolution of PLC:

• Third PLC – PLC came into exponentially increasing use. Some

large electronics and computer, companies and some diverse
corporate electronics divisions found that the PLC had become
their greatest volume product.
• Early stage machine tool industry used CNCs nowadays it is
replaced by PLC in 1980.

• Applications:
– Medical equipment, security control system, etc.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

PLC size:
• Five classes of PLCs
• The criteria used in categorizing PLCs include functionality,
number of inputs and outputs, cost, and physical size. The
I/O count is the most important factor.

• nano,
• micro,
• small,
• medium and
• large.

Size of PLC 16

8
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

PLC size:
• Nano PLC: small enough to fit in your shirt pocket and
handles up to 16 I/O points.
• Micro PLC: connect up to 32 I/O points. Used on
applications such as elevators, car washes, or mixing
machines.

• Small & medium PLC: Allen-Bradley SLC-500 family can

handle up to 960 I/O points in a single rack. It offers specialty
I/O modules that enhance a control system.

• Large PLC: Allen-Bradley's most powerful controller is the

large size PLC-5 family which is able to handle several
thousand I/O points.
17

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

• PLCs are similar to computers but have certain features

which are specific to their use as controllers.

• They are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations,

temperature, humidity and noise;
• Interfacing for inputs and outputs is inside the controller;
• Easily programmed.

9
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

PLC vs PC:
PLC PC
PLC is not usually affected by the Computers are normally affected by
electrical noise inherent in most the electrical noise.
industrial locations. PLC is designed
to operate in the wide range of
ambient temperature and humidity.
PLC comes with its program language It requires disk Operating System
built into its permanent memory. (DOS). PCs have large user memory
such as Hard Disk Drive, CD Drive
and etc.
PLCs are not designed with flexibility Any language capability can be made
for any languages, changes. available via the software, which can
be loaded into the memory via disks.
Most PLCs execute a single program Computers are complex computing
in an orderly and sequential fashion machines capable of executing
from first to last instruction. several programs or tasks.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

PLC vs PC 20
Petruzella, 2005

10
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Advantages of PLC:

• Increased reliability
• More flexibility
• Communications capability
• Faster response time
• Easier to troubleshoot
• Maintainability
• Visual observation
• Security
• Documentation
• Ease of Changes by Reprogramming

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Advantages of PLC:

• Cost effective for controlling complex systems.

• Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and
easily.
• Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
• Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce
downtime.
• Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before
failure

11
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Disadvantages of PLC:

• Newer technology
• Fixed circuit operation
• Fail-safe operation
• Limited design and cost option.
• PLCs manufacturers offer only closed architectures.
• PLC devices are proprietary it means that part or software of one
manufacturer can’t be used in combination with parts of another
manufacturer.

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Applications of PLC

• PLC Wherever automation is desired the PLCs are best

suited to meet the task.
• Few examples of industries where PLCs are used :
• Robots manufacturing and control
• Car park control
• Train control station system
• Food processing
• Materials handling
• Machine tools
• Conveyer system etc..

12
9/24/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-2

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition,

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 25

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:

• Power supply
• Central processing unit (CPU)
• Input / Output module
• Programming devices

• Architecture – PLC hardware or software combination of both.

• Open Architecture – connected easily to devices and programs

made by other manufacturers.

• Closed Architecture – it more difficult to connect devices and

programs made by other manufacturers.

13
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Components of a PLC 28
Petruzella, 2005

14
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:

• Power supply - supplies DC power to other modules that plug into

the rack.

• For large PLC system - power to the field devices is provided by

the external AC or DC supplies.

• For small and micro PLC systems, the power supply is also used to
power field devices.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:
• CPU - is the brain of the system. It consists of three sub parts.
• Microprocessor: Consists of a microprocessor for implementing
the logic, and controlling the communications among the modules.
• Memory: Data & information is stored and retrieved. Holds the
system software and user program.
• Power supply: It converts AC voltage to various optional DC
supplies. It filters and regulates the DC voltages to ensure proper
computer operation.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) 30

Petruzella, 2005

15
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:

• Programming devices - to enter the desire program into the

memory of the process.

• Program is entered using relay ladder logic which is the most

popular programming language used by PLCs.

• Personal Computer (PC)

• Handheld unit

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:
• Personal Computer (PC) : Used as the programming device.
software allows users to create, edit, document, store, and
troubleshoot ladder logic programs and to generate printed reports.
It is to display more logic on the screen than handheld types are,
thus simplifying the interpretation of the program.

• Communicates with the PLC processor via a serial or parallel data

communications link. If the programming unit is not in use, it may
be unplugged and removed.

32
PC with software

16
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:
• Handheld unit: Used to program small PLCs, Once plugged into
the PLC-used to enter and monitor programs.
• Compact handheld units are frequently used on the factory floor for
trouble shooting equipment, modifying programs, and transferring
programs to multiple machines.

33
Handheld units with display

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Architecture of a PLC 34
Bolton, 2009

17
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Two ways of I/O is incorporated to PLC:

• Fixed I/O is typical of small PLCs. Comes in one package, with no

separate removable units. Processor and I/O are packaged
together. Lower in cost – but lacks flexibility.

Fixed type 35
Petruzella, 2005

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Two ways of I/O is incorporated to PLC:

• Modular I/O is divided by compartments into which separate

modules can be plugged.

• It greatly increases your options and the unit’s flexibility. You can
choose from all the modules available and mix them in any way
you desire.
• When a module slides into the rack, it makes an electrical
connection with a series of contacts - called the backplane. The
back plane is located at the rear of the rack.

Modular type 36
Petruzella, 2005

18
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:

• Input / Output Section - Provides an interface between hard-

wired components in the field and the CPU.

• Interface is to condition the various signals received from or sent to

external field devices.

• PLCs employ an optical isolator which uses light to electrically

isolate the internal components from the input and output
terminals.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:

• I/O Rack - used to connect the CPU to the out side world. It
contains input modules that carry information from control sensor
devices to the CPU and output modules that carry instructions from
the CPU to output devices in the field.
• Input and output modules contain more than one input or output.

I/O Rack with input and output modules

19
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

39
Petruzella, 2005 Input / Output section

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:

• Input section: Forms the interface by which input field devices are
connected to the controller. Input devices such as pushbuttons,
limit switches, sensors, selector switches, and thumbwheel
switches are hardwired to terminals on the input modules.

• Output section: Forms the interface by which output field

devices are connected to the controller. Output devices such as
small motors, motor starters, solenoid valves, and indicator lights
are hardwired to the terminals on the output modules.

20
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:
• Input / Output modules are divided into two types.

• Discrete Input / Output module

• Analog Input / Output module

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Discrete Input / Output Module:
• Discrete – common type.

• It connects field input devices of the ON/OFF nature such as

selector switches, pushbuttons, and limit switches. Output control
is limited to devices such as lights, small motors, solenoids, and
motor starters that require simple ON/OFF switching.

• Each discrete I/O module is powered by some field-supplied

voltage source. Voltages can be of different magnitude or type, I/O
modules are available at various ac and dc voltage ratings.

• AC discrete input module

• AC discrete output module

21
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

43
Petruzella, 2005 PLC Input / Output system connection

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

AC Discrete Input Module:

• Composed of two basic sections: the power section and the logic
section.
• Power and logic sections are normally coupled together with a
circuit that electrically separates the two.

Block diagram of AC discrete input module

44
Petruzella, 2005

22
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

AC Discrete Input Module:
• When the pushbutton is closed, 220V ac is applied to the bridge
rectifier through resistors R1 and R2.

• It produces a low level direct current (dc) voltage, which is applied

across the LED of the optical isolator.

• Zener diode (ZD) voltage rating sets the minimum level of voltage
that can be detected.

• Light from the LED strikes the photo transistor, it switches into
conduction and the status of the pushbutton is communicated in
logic or low level dc voltage to the processor.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

AC Discrete Input Module:

46
Petruzella, 2005 Circuit diagram of AC discrete input module

23
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

AC Discrete Input Module:

• Optical isolator not only separates the higher ac input voltage from
the logic circuits but also prevents damage to the processor due to
line voltage transients. It helps reduce the effects of electrical
noise, common in the industrial environment, which can cause
erratic operation of the processor.

• Coupling and isolation can also be accomplished by use of a pulse

transformer.

• Input modules typically have Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) for

monitoring the inputs. There is one LED for every input. If the input
is ON, the LED is ON. The LEDs on the modules are very useful
for trouble shooting.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

AC Discrete output Module:

• Composed of two basic sections: the power section and the logic
section coupled by an isolation circuit.

• Output interface can be thought of as a simple electronic switch to

which power is applied to control the output device.

Block diagram of AC discrete output module

48
Petruzella, 2005

24
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

AC Discrete output Module:

• When the processor calls for an output, a voltage is applied across

the LED of the isolator.
• LED then emits light, which switches the phototransistor into
conduction which in turn switches the triode DC semiconductor
switch (Triac) into conduction, which in turns on the lamp.
• Triac conducts in either direction, the output to the lamp is
alternating current.
• Triac, rather than having ON and OFF status, actually has LOW
and High resistance levels, respectively.
• In its OFF state (High resistance), a small leakage current of a few
milliamperes still flows through the triac.
• Output interface is usually provided with LEDs that indicate the
status of each output.
49

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

AC Discrete Output Module:

50
Petruzella, 2005 Circuit diagram of AC discrete output module

25
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

AC Discrete Output Module:

51
Petruzella, 2005 Discrete input and output devices

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Parts of PLC:
• Input / Output modules are divided into two types.

• Discrete Input / Output module

• Analog Input / Output module

26
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Analog input / output Module:

• Analog input interface modules contain the circuitry necessary to

accept analog voltage or current signals from analog field devices.

• Inputs are converted from an analog to a digital value by an

analog-to-digital (A/D) converter circuit.

• Conversion value, which is proportional to the analog signal is

expressed as a 12-bit binary or as a 3-digit binary-coded decimal
(BCD) for use by the processor.

• Analog input sensing devices include temperature, light, speed,

pressure, and position transducers. Analog inputs and outputs vary
from 0 to 20 mA, 4 to 20 mA, or 0 to 10 V.
53

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Analog input output module:

54
Petruzella, 2005 Analog input and output to a PLC.

27
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Analog input module:

• Varying dc voltage in the millivolt range proportional to the

temperature being monitored is produced by the thermocouple.
• Voltage is amplified and digitized by the analog input module and
then sent to the processor on command from a program
instruction.
• Shielded cable is used to reduce unwanted electrical noise signals
that can be induced in the conductors from other wiring.
• Noise can cause temporary operating errors that can lead to
hazardous or unexpected machine operation.
• Two basic types of analog input modules available:
• Current sensing
• Voltage sensing.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Analog input Module:

56
Petruzella, 2005 Analog input module with Thermocouple

28
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Analog input Module:
• Field device’s variable (e.g., pressure, temperature etc.) into a very
low-level electric signal (current or voltage) that can be amplified
by a transmitter and then input into the analog module.
• Types - wire two-, three-, and four-wire sensors to an analog input
module.

57
Petruzella, 2005 Analog input module circuit

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Analog input Module:
• A separate power that matches the transmitter specifications is
used. All analog common (ANL COM) points are electrically
connected together inside the module but not to earth ground.
When wiring single-ended analog input devices to the analog input
• card, the number of total wires necessary can be limited by using
the ANALOG COMMON terminal.

Wiring two-, three-, and

single-ended analog input 58
four-wire sensors
Petruzella, 2005

29
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Voltage input module:

• Two types: unipolar and bipolar.

• Unipolar modules can accept only one polarity for input.

• For example, if the application requires the card to measure 0 to +
10 V, a unidirectional card would be used.

• Bipolar card will accept input of positive and negative polarity.

• For example if the application produces a voltage between-10 V
and +10 V. Bidirectional input card would be used because the
measured voltage could be negative or positive.

• Current input modules are normally designed to measure current

in the 4-mA to 20-mA range.
59

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Voltage input Module:

Sensor and analog module supplied power

60
Petruzella, 2005

30
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Analog output module:

• It receives from the processor digital data which are converted into
a proportional voltage or current to control an analog field device.

• Digital data is passed through a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter

circuit to produce the necessary analog form.
• Analog output devices Include small motors, valves and analog
meters.

• PLC controls the amount of fluid placed in a holding tank by

adjusting the percentage of the valve opening.
• The valve is initially open 100% as the fluid level in the tank
approaches the preset point. The processor modifies the output,
which adjusts the valve to maintain a set point.
61

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Analog input output Module:

62
Petruzella, 2005 Analog I/O system

31
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

63
Petruzella, 2005 Measuring temperature

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Input devices:

32
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Output devices:

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Output devices:

33
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Special I/O modules:

• High speed counter module

• Thumb wheel module
• TTL module
• Encoder-Counter module
• Basic or ASCII module
• Stepper motor module
• BCD-output module
• PID module
• Motion and position control module
• Communication module

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Special I/O modules:
• High speed counter module - to provide an interface for
applications requiring counter speeds that surpass the
capability of the PLC ladder program.

• To count pulses from sensors, encoders, and switches that

operate at very high speeds. Typical count rate available is 0
to 100 kHz, which means the module would be able to count
100,000 pulses per second.

68
Petruzella, 2005 High-speed counter module

34
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Special I/O modules:
• Thumbwheel module - allows the use of thumbwheel
switches for feeding information to the PLC to be used in the
control program.

• Encoder module - allows the user to read the signal from an

encoder on a real-time basis and stores this information so it
can be read later by the processor.

Encoder module 69
Petruzella, 2005 Thumbwheel

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Special I/O modules:
• Stepper motor module - provides pulse trains to a stepper-
motor translator, which enables control of a stepper motor.
The commands for the module are determined by the control
program in the PLC.

• BCD module - enables a PLC to operate devices that

require BCD-coded signals such as seven- segment
displays.

BCD module 70
Petruzella, 2005 Stepper motor

35
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Special I/O modules:
• PID module - used in process control applications that
incorporate PID algorithms. allows process control to take
place outside the CPU. This arrangement prevents the CPU
from being burdened with complex calculations.

• To provide the control action required to maintain a process

variable such as temperature, flow, level, or speed within set
limits of a specified set point.

71
Petruzella, 2005 PID module

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Special I/O modules:
• Motion and Position control module - used in applications
involving accurate high-speed machining and packaging
operations. Intelligent position and motion control modules
permit PLCs to control stepper and servo motors.
• It require a drive, which contains the power electronics that
translate the signals from the PLC module into signals
required by the motor.

72
Petruzella, 2005 PLC servo module

36
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Special I/O modules:
• Communication module - used to establish point-to-point
connections with other intelligent devices for the exchange of
data. These are established with computers, operator
stations, process control systems, and other PLCs.

• It allow the user to connect the PLC to high-speed local

networks that may be different from the network
communication provided with the PLC.

73
Petruzella, 2005 Communication module

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Special I/O modules:

• TTL module - allows the transmitting and receiving of TTL

(Transistor-Transistor-Logic) signals. It allows devices that
produce TTL-level signals to communicate with the PLC’s
processor.

• Basic or ASCII module - runs user-written BASIC and C

programs. These programs are independent of the PLC
processor and provide an easy, fast interface between
remote foreign devices and the PLC processor. Typical
applications include interfaces to bar code readers, robots,
printers, and displays.

37
9/24/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-2

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition,

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 75

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Programming Language of PLC

Most common languages encountered in PLC programming are:

• Ladder Logic
• Functional Block Diagram
• Sequential Function Chart
• Boolean mnemonics

Comparison of relay diagram, ladder

logic and Boolean programming 76

38
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Standard IEC 61131 languages associated with PLC programming

Comparison of ladder diagram and instruction list programming

77
Petruzella, 2005

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Programming Language of PLC

• PLC programming language refers to the method by which

the user communicates information to the PLC.

• Ladder diagram language is the most commonly used PLC

language.

• Ladder Diagram (LD): Graphical depiction of a process with

rungs of logic, similar to the relay ladder logic schemes that
were replaced by the PLCs.

39
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Programming Language of PLC

• Function Block Diagram (FBD) - a graphical depiction of process

flow using simple and complex interconnecting blocks.

• Sequential Function Chart (SFC) - a graphical depiction of

interconnecting steps, actions, and transitions.

• Instruction List (IL) - a low-level, text-based language that uses

mnemonic instructions.

• Structured Text (ST) - a high-level, text-based language such as

BASIC, C, or PASCAL specifically developed for industrial control
applications.

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

PLC Operating Cycle:

• Cycle - Controller examines the status of input devices,

executes the user program, and changes outputs accordingly

• Completion of one cycle of this sequence is called a scan.

Scan time - time required for one full cycle, provides a
measure of the speed of response of the PLC.

• I/O scan – records status data of input devices. Energizes

output devices that have their associated status bits set to
ON. Program scan – instructions are executed sequentially. 80

40
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

PLC Operating Cycle:

• Scan Process - Scan time indicates how fast the controller

can react to changes in inputs. Scan times vary with
computer model and program content, and length.

• If a controller has to react to an input signal that changes

states twice during the scan time, it is possible that the PLC
will never be able to detect this change.

81
Scan Process

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

PLC Operating Cycle:
Scan time is a function of the following:
• The speed of the processor module
• The length of the ladder program
• The type of instructions executed
• The actual ladder true/false conditions

• Scan is normally a continuous and sequential process of

reading the status of inputs, evaluating the control logic, and
updating the outputs.

41
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Basics of PLC program scan cycle

83
Petruzella, 2005

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

PLC Operating Cycle:

• Scan Pattern - two basic scan patterns that different PLC

manufacturers use to accomplish the scan function.
• i) Horizontal scan and ii) Vertical scan.

Horizontal Scanning order Vertical Scanning order

42
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

PLC Operating Cycle:

• Horizontal Scan - Allen-Bradley PLCs use the horizontal

scan by rung method. In this system, the processor
examines input and output instructions from the first
command, top left in the program, horizontally rung by rung.

• Vertical Scan - Modicon PLCs use the vertical scan by

column method. In this system, the processor examines input
and output instructions from the first command, vertically,
column by column and page by page. Pages are executed in
sequence.

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

PLC Operating Cycle:
• Scan is normally a continuous and sequential process of
reading the status of inputs, evaluating the control logic, and
updating the outputs.

• For each rung executed, the PLC processor will:

• Examine the status of the input image table bits.

• Solve the ladder logic in order to determine logical continuity.
• Update the appropriate output image table bits, if necessary.
• Copy the output image table status to all of the output
terminals.
• Copy the status of all of the input terminals to the input image
table.
86

43
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Overview of the data flow during

the scan process
87
Petruzella, 2005

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

PLC Operating Cycle:
• Controller evaluates ladder logic rung instructions based on
the rung condition preceding the instruction (rung-condition-
in).
• If the rung-condition-in to an input instruction is true, the
controller evaluates the instruction and sets the rung-
condition-out to match the results of the evaluation.
• If the instruction evaluates to true, the rung condition-out is
true.
• If the instruction evaluates to false, the rung condition-out is
false.
• If the rung-condition-in to an output instruction is true, the
rung-condition-out is set to true.
• If the rung-condition-in to an output instruction is false, the
rung-condition-out is set to false
88

44
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Evaluating ladder logic rung

conditions

89
Petruzella, 2005

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Operation of Scan Process:
• If the input device connected to address I:3/6 is closed, the input
module circuitry senses voltage at the input terminal and a 1 (ON)
condition is entered into the input image table bit I:3/6.
• During the program scan, the processor examines bit I:3/6 for a 1
(ON) condition. If input I:3/6 is 1, the rung is said to be TRUE or
have logic continuity.
• Processor then sets the output image table bit O:4/7 to 1. It turns
on output O:4/7 during the next I/O scan, and the output device
(light) wired to this terminal becomes energized.
• Process is repeated as long as the processor is in the RUN mode.
• If the input device opens, electrical continuity is lost, and a 0 would
be placed in the input image table. As a result, the rung is said to
be FALSE due to loss of logic continuity.
• Processor would then set the output image table bit O:4/7 to 0,
causing the output device to turn off.
90

45
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Scan process applied to a single rung

program
91
Petruzella, 2005

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Operation Sequence of PLC

1) Self test: Testing of its own hardware and software for faults.

2) Input scan: If there are no problems, PLC will copy all the
inputs and copy their values into memory.

3) Logic solve/scan: Using inputs, the ladder logic program is

solved once and outputs are updated.

4) Output scan: While solving logic the output values are

updated only in memory when ladder scan is done, the
outputs will be updated using temporary values in memory.

46
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Operation of PLC

• Mixer motor is to be used to automatically stir the liquid in a

vat when the temperature and pressure reach preset values.

• Process is monitored with temperature and pressure sensor

switches that close their respective contacts when conditions
reach their preset values.

• Motor starter coil (M) is energized when both the pressure

and temperature switches are closed or when the manual
pushbutton is pressed.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Mixer process control problem Process control relay ladder

diagram

94
Petruzella, 2005

47
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Operation of PLC

• Input field devices (pressure switch, temperature switch, and

pushbutton) are used. These devices would be hardwired to
an appropriate input module according to the manufacturer’s
addressing location scheme.

• Output field device (motor starter coil) would also be used.

This device would be hardwired to an appropriate output
module according to the manufacturer’s addressing location
scheme.

• PLC ladder logic program would be constructed and entered

into the memory of the CPU.
95

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Wiring connections for a 120 VAC Wiring connections for a 120 VAC
modular configured input module modular configured output module

96
Petruzella, 2005

48
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Operation of PLC

• Individual symbols represent instructions, whereas the

numbers represent the instruction location addresses.

• Each input and output device is given an address, which lets

the PLC know where it is physically connected.

• During the program scan the controller monitors the inputs,

executes the control program, and changes the output
accordingly.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Process control PLC ladder logic program with typical addressing

scheme
98
Petruzella, 2005

49
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Binary Concept

• The PLC, like all digital equipment, operates on the binary

principle.

• The term binary principle refers to the idea that many things
can be thought of as existing in only one of two states. These
states are 1 and 0.

• The 1 and 0 can represent ON or OFF, open or closed, true

or false, high or low, or any other two conditions.

• A logic gate is a circuit with several inputs but only one output
that is activated by particular combinations of input
conditions. 99

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

AND, OR, NOT Functions:

• The operations performed by digital equipment are based on

three fundamental logic functions: AND, OR, and NOT.

• Each function has a rule that will determine the outcome and
a symbol that represents the operation.

• For the purpose of this discussion, the outcome or output is

called Y and the signal inputs are called A, B, C, and so on.

Logical AND Logical OR 100

50
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Boolean Instruction and Function

101
Petruzella, 2005

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

AND Function:
• An AND gate is a device with two or more inputs and one
output. The AND gate output is 1 only if all inputs are 1.

Logical AND 102

51
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

OR Function:
• An OR gate can have any number of inputs but only one
output. The OR gate output is 1 if one or more inputs are 1.

Logical OR 103

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

NOT Function:
• NOT function can have only one input. The NOT output is 1 if
the input is 0. The output is 0 if the input is 1.

Logical NOT

NOT function is most often used in

104
conjunction with an AND gate

52
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

NAND Function:

• The NOT symbol placed at the output of an AND gate would

invert the normal output result. An AND gate with an inverted
output is called a NAND gate.

• NAND function is often used in integrated circuit logic arrays

and can be used in programmable controllers to solve
complex logic.

NAND gate 105

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

NOR Function:

• The normal output is inverted, and the function is referred to

as a NOR gate. NOT symbol is placed at the output of the
OR gate.

NOR gate

106

53
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Exclusive-OR (XOR) Function:

• The output of this circuit is HIGH only when one input or the
other is HIGH, but not both.
• Used for the comparison of two binary numbers.

XOR gate

Logic gates

107

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Boolean Algebra:
• Mathematical study of the binary number system and logic is
called Boolean algebra.
• Purpose of this algebra is to provide a simple way of writing
complicated combinations of logic statements.
• Many applications where Boolean algebra could be applied to
solving PLC programming problems.

108
Boolean algebra as related to AND, OR, and NOT functions

54
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Boolean Algebra:

Logic operators used in combination to form Boolean equations

109
Logic gate circuit developed from the Boolean expression

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Boolean Algebra:

Two limit switches connected in series and used to control a solenoid valve

Two limit switches connected in parallel and used to control a solenoid valve
110

55
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Boolean Algebra:

Two limit switches connected in parallel with each other and in series with a
pressure switch

Two limit switches connected in parallel with each other and in series with
two sets of flow switches (that are connected in parallel with each other), and
111
used to control a pilot light

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Boolean Algebra:

Two limit switches connected in series with each other and in parallel with a
third limit switch, and used to control a warning horn

Two limit switches connected in series with each other and in parallel with
two other limit switches (that are connected in series with each other), and
112
used to control a pilot light.

56
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Boolean Algebra:

One limit switch connected in series with a normally closed pushbutton and
used to control a solenoid valve

Exclusive-OR circuit. The output lamp of this circuit is ON only when 113
pushbutton A or B is pressed, but not both

SYLLABUS

Unit-2

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition,

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 114

57
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

On/Off instruction:

• Designed to control the level of water in a storage tank by

turning a discharge pump on and off.

Mode of operation:
• Off position
• Manual mode
• Automatic mode

Status Indicating Lights:

• Water pump running light (green)
• Low water level status light (red)
• High water level status light (yellow) Water level 115

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

On/Off instruction:

• Off position - Pump will stop if it is running and will not start
if it is stopped.

• Manual mode – Pump will start if the water in the tank is at

any level except low.

• Automatic mode – If the level of water in the tank reaches a

high point, the water pump will start so that water can be
removed from Low sensor switch Pump motor the tank, thus
lowering the level. When the water level reaches a low point,
the pump will stop.

116

58
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Ladder diagram of off/man position

117
Petruzella, 2005

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Ladder diagram of manual mode

118
Petruzella, 2005

59
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Ladder diagram of auto mode

119
Petruzella, 2005

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Start/stop instruction:

• Ladder logic program for the motor start/stop circuit.

• The instructions used are the relay equivalent of normally
open (NO) and normally closed (NC) contacts and coils.

• Normally open (NO) contacts are defined as those contacts

that are open when no current flows through the coil but that
close as soon as the coil conducts a current or is energized.

• Normally closed (NC) contacts are closed when the coil is de-
energized and open when the coil is energized. Each contact
is usually drawn as it would appear with the coil de-
energized.
120

60
9/24/2021

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Electromechanical control relay Relay operation

121
Relay normally open and normally closed contacts Control relay

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Motor stop/start relay ladder schematic

122
Petruzella, 2005 Motor stop/start ladder logic program

61
9/24/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-2

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition,

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 123

PLC – Timer instruction set

Timer instruction:

• Mechanical timing relays are used to delay the opening or

closing of contacts for circuit control.

• Operation of a mechanical timing relay is similar to that of a

control relay, except that certain of its contacts are designed
to operate at a preset time interval, after the coil is energized
or de-energized.

• It provide time delay through two arrangements. The first

arrangement on- delay, provides time delay when the relay is
energized.

124

62
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Timer instruction:

125

PLC – Timer instruction set

Timer instruction:

• S1 open, TD de-energized, TD1 open, L1 is off.

• S1 closes, TD energizes, timing period starts, TD1 still open, L1 is
still off.
• After 10 s, TD1 closes, L1 is switched on.
• S1 is opened, TD de-energizes, TD1 opens instantly, L1 is
switched off.

126

63
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Timer instruction:
• S1 open, TD de-energized, TD1 closed, L1 is on.
• S1 closes, TD energizes, timing period starts, TD1 is still closed,
L1 is still on.
• After 10 s, TD1 opens, L1 is switched off.
• S1 is opened, TD de-energizes, TD1 closes instantly, L1 is
switched on.

127

PLC – Timer instruction set

Timer instruction:

• S1 open, TD de-energized, TD1 open, L1 is off.

• S1 closes, TD energizes, TD1 closes instantly, L1 is switched on.
• S1 is opened, TD de-energizes, timing period starts, TD1 is still
closed, L1 is still on.
• After 10 s, TD1 opens, L1 is switched off.

128

64
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Timer instruction:

• S1 open, TD de-energized, TD1 closed, L1 is on.

• S1 closes, TD energizes, TD1 opens instantly, L1 is switched off.
• S1 is opened, TD de-energizes, timing period starts, TD1 is still
open, L1 is still off.
• After 10 s, TD1 closes, L1 is switched on.

129

PLC – Timer instruction set

Programmed Timer instruction:
• PLC timers are output instructions that provide the same
functions as mechanical timing relays.

• Used to activate or deactivate a device after a preset interval

of time.

• The advantage of PLC timers is that their settings can be

altered easily, or the number of them used in a circuit can be
increased or decreased, through the use of programming
changes rather than wiring changes.

• Timer addresses are usually specified by the programmable

controller manufacturer and are located in a specific area of
the data organization table. 130

65
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Types of Timer:
• On-delay timer (TON)
• Off-delay timer (TOF)
• Retentive timer on (RTO)

131

PLC – Timer instruction set

Types of Timer:
Command Name Description

TON On-Delay Timer Counts time base intervals

when the instruction is “true”

TOF Off-Delay Timer Counts time base intervals

when the instruction is “false”

RTO Retentive Timer ON Counts time base intervals

when the instruction is “true” and retains
the accumulated value when the
instruction goes "false" or when power
cycle occurs.

RES Reset When this instruction is "true"

it resets the count of the RTO
counter.

132

66
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Timer:
• Timers can be programmed with several different time bases:
1s, 0.1s, and 0.01s are typical time bases. If a programmer
entered 0.1 for the time base and 50 for the number of
delay increments, the timer would have a 5s delay (50 x 0.1s
= 5s).

Coil-Formatted Timer Instruction Block-Formatted Timer Instruction

133

PLC – Timer instruction set

Types of Timer:
• On-delay timer (TON)
• Off-delay timer (TOF)
• Retentive timer on (RTO)

134

67
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

On-delay timer:
• It operates such that when the rung containing the timer is
true, the timer time-out period commences. At the end of
the timer time-out period, an output is made active.

• Length of the time delay can be adjusted by changing the

preset value.

135
ON-Delay Timer Sequence

PLC – Timer instruction set

On-delay timer:

• Enable bit is true (has a status of 1) whenever the timer

instruction is true. When the timer instruction is false, the
enable bit is false (has a status of 0).

• Timer-timing bit is true whenever the accumulated value of

the timer is changing, which means the timer is timing. When
the timer is not timing, the accumulated value is not
changing, so the timer-timing bit is false.

• Done bit changes state whenever the accumulated value

reaches the preset value. Its state depends on the type of
timer being used.
136

68
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Timer instruction:

ON-Delay Timer

Timing diagram
137

SYLLABUS

Unit-2

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition,

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 138

69
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of ON-Delay Timer Instruction
• Coil M is to be energized 5s after the start push button is pressed. Contact ITD-1
is the instantaneous contact, and contact 1TD-2 is the timed contact.

Relay Logic Schematic

Diagram

On-Delay Timer with

Instantaneous Output

139

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of ON-Delay Timer Instruction - Start-Up Warning
Signal

• It uses an NCTO contact. This circuit is used as a warning signal

when moving equipment, such as a conveyor motor, is about to be
started.

• Coil CR1 is energized when the start pushbutton PB1 is

momentarily actuated.
• As a result, contact CR1-1 closes to seal in CR1, contact CRl-2
closes to energize timer coil.
• 1TD, and contact CRl-3 closes to sound the horn.
• After a 10s time-delay period, timer contact 1TD-1 opens to
automatically switch the horn off.

140

70
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of ON-Delay Timer Instruction - Start-Up Warning
Signal

Relay Logic Schematic

Diagram

Start-Up Warning
Signal

141

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of ON-Delay Timer Instruction - Automatic
Sequential Control System

• A series of motors can be started automatically with only one start/stop

control station.
• Lube-oil pump motor starter coil M1 is energized when the start pushbutton
PB2 is momentarily actuated.
• M1-1 control contact closes to seal in M1, and the lube-oil pump motor
starts.
• When the lube-oil pump builds up sufficient oil pressure, the lube-oil
pressure switch PS1 closes.
• This in turn energizes coil M2 to start the main drive motor and energizes
coil 1TD to begin the time-delay period.
• After the preset time-delay period of 15s, 1TD-1contact closes to energize
coil M3 and start the feed motor.

142

71
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of ON-Delay Timer Instruction - Automatic
Sequential Control System

Relay Logic Schematic Automatic Sequential Control

Diagram System
143

PLC – Timer instruction set

Types of Timer:
• On-delay timer (TON)
• Off-delay timer (TOF)
• Retentive timer on (RTO)

144

72
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Off-delay timer:
• Off-delay timer (TOF) operation will keep the output
energized for a time period after the rung containing the timer
has gone false.
• When the switch connected to input I:1.0/0 is first closed,
timed output O:2.0/1 is set to 1 immediately and the lamp is
switched on.
• If this switch is now opened, logic continuity is lost and the
timer begins counting.
• After 15s, when the accumulated time equals the preset time,
the output is reset to 0 and the lamp switches off. If logic
continuity is gained before the timer is timed out, the
accumulated time is reset to 0.

145

PLC – Timer instruction set

Off-delay timer:

Off-Delay Timer

Timing diagram

146

73
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of Off-Delay Timer Instruction
• When the switch is closed, immediately turns on motors M1, M2, and M3.
• When the switch is opened, motors Ml, M2, and M3 turn off at 5s intervals.

147
Off-Delay Timer to switch motor off

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of Off-Delay Timer Instruction - Pneumatic Off-Delay Timer

• When power is first applied (limit switch LS1 open), motor starter coil M1
is energized and the green pilot light is on. At the same time, motor starter
coil M2 is de-energized, and the red pilot light is off.
• When limit switch LSl closes, off-delay timer coil TD1 energizes. As a
result, timed contact TD1-1 opens to de-energize motor starter coil M1,
timed contact TD1-2 closes to energize motor starter coil M2.
Instantaneous contact TD1-3 opens to switch the green light off, and
instantaneous contact TD1-4 closes to switch the red light on.
• The circuit remains in this state as long as limit switch LS1 is closed.
• When limit switch LS1 is opened, the off-delay timer coil TD1 de-
energizes. As a result, the time-delay period is started, instantaneous
contact TD1-3 closes to switch the green light on, and instantaneous
contact TD1-4 opens to switch the red light off.
• After a 5s time-delay period, timed contact TD1-1 closes to energize
motor starter M1, and timed contact TD1-2 opens to de-energize motor
starter M2.
148

74
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of Off-Delay Timer Instruction Pneumatic Off-Delay
Timer

Pneumatic Off-Delay Timer

Relay Logic Schematic Diagram
149

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of On delay and Off-Delay Timer – Fluid pumping process

• It involves pumping fluid from tank A to tank B.

• Before starting, PS1 must be closed.
• When the start button is pushed, the pump starts. The button can
then be released and the pump continues to operate.
• When the stop button is pushed, the pump stops.
• PS2 and PS3 must be closed 5s after the pump starts. If either
PS2 or PS3 opens, the pump will shut off and will not be able to
start again for another 14s.

150

75
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of On delay and Off-Delay Timer – Fluid pumping
process

151
Fluid pumping process

PLC – Timer instruction set

Types of Timer:
• On-delay timer (TON)
• Off-delay timer (TOF)
• Retentive timer on (RTO)

152

76
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Retentive timer:
• A retentive timer accumulates time whenever the device receives
power, and it maintains the current time should power be removed
from the device.
• Once the device accumulates time equal to its preset value, the
contacts of the device change state.
• Loss of power to the device after reaching its preset value does not
affect the state of the contacts.
• Timer reset (RES) instruction.
• It will hold its accumulated value when the timer rung goes false
and will continue timing where it left off when the timer rung goes
true again.
• It is accompanied by a timer reset instruction to reset the
accumulated value of the timer to zero.

153

PLC – Timer instruction set

Retentive timer:
• RES instruction has the same address as the timer it is to reset.
Whenever the RES instruction is true, both the timer accumulated
value and the timer done bit (DN) are rest to zero.

Retentive Timer On
Retentive On delay Timer

154

77
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Retentive timer:
• It will start to time when time pushbutton PB1 is closed. If the pushbutton
is opened 3s, the timer accumulated value stays at 3s. When the time
pushbutton is closed again, the timer picks up the time at 3s and
continues timing. When the accumulated value equals the preset value,
the timer done bit T4 :2/DN is set to 1 and the pilot light output PL is
switched on.

155
Timing diagram

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of Retentive, On delay, Off-Delay Timer – Bearing
Lubrication process
• Machine with a large steel shaft supported by bearings. This shaft
is coupled to a large electric motor. The bearings need lubrication,
which is supplied by an oil pump driven by a small electric motor.
• To start the machine, the operator turns SW on.
• Before the motor shaft starts to turn, the bearings are supplied with
oil by the pump for 10s.
• The bearings also receive oil when the machine is running.
• When the operator turns SW off to stop the machine, the oil pump
continues to supply oil for 15s.
• A retentive timer is used to track the total running time of the pump.
When the total running time is 3h, the motor is shut down and a
pilot light is turned on to indicate that the filter and oil need to be
changed.
• Reset button is provided to reset the process after the filter and oil
have been changed. 156

78
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Application of Retentive, On delay, Off-Delay Timer – Bearing
Lubrication process

157

PLC – Timer instruction set

Cascade timer:
• Programming of two or more timers together is called
cascading. Timers can be interconnected, or cascaded, to satisfy
any required control logic.

– Sequential Time Delayed Motor Starting

– Control of Traffic Lights in One Direction

158

79
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Sequential Time Delayed Motor Starting

• Three motors can be started automatically in sequence with a 20s

time delay between each motor start-up.
• Motor starter coil M1 is energized when the start pushbutton PB2
is momentarily actuated. As a result, motor 1 starts, contact M1-l
closes to seal in M1, and timer coil TD1 is energized to begin the
first time-delay period.
• After the preset time period of 20s, TD1-1 contact closes to
energize motor starter coil M2.
• As a result, motor 2 starts and timer coil TD2 is energized to begin
the second time-delay period.
• After the preset time period of 20s, TD2-1 contact closes to
energize motor starter coil M3, and so motor 3 starts.

159

PLC – Timer instruction set

Sequential Time Delayed Motor Starting

Relay Logic Schematic Diagram

Sequential Time-Delayed
Motor Starting

160

80
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Control of Traffic Lights in One Direction

• Simulated control of a set of traffic lights in one direction only. Transition

from red to green to amber is accomplished by a cascading timer circuit.

161

PLC – Timer instruction set

Control of Traffic Lights in One Direction

• When power supply is on, timer T4:0 is a energized and the EN bit is
activated, at the same red is on.
• After 30s delay, the timed contact T4:0 DN bit open to switch the red light
off.
• At the same time, timer T4:0 DN bit is directly connected to second timer
T4:1 input. The timer T4:1 EN bit is activated and the green light is on.
• After 25s delay, the timed contact T4:1 DN bit is open to switch the green
light off.
• Timer T4:1 DN bit is directly connected to the third timer T4:2 input. The
timer T4:2 EN bit is activated and the amber light is on.
• After 5s delay, the timed contact T4:2 DN bit is open to switch the amber
light off. The sequence then repeats itself.

162

81
9/24/2021

PLC – Timer instruction set

Control of Traffic Lights in One Direction

Control of Traffic Lights in One Direction 163

SYLLABUS

Unit-2

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition,

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 164

82
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Programming counter:
• Programmed counters can serve the same function as mechanical
counters.
• Every time the actuating lever is moved over, the counter adds one
number, the actuating lever then returns automatically to its original
position. Resetting to zero is done with a pushbutton located on
the side of the unit.

Mechanical Counter Counter application

165

PLC – Counter instruction set

Programming counter:
• Electronic counters can
– Count up,
– Count down, or
– Combined to count up and down.

• Used in industry are up-counters, numerous applications require

the implementation of down-counters or of combination up/down
counters.
• Counters are similar to timers except that they do not operate on
an internal clock but are dependent on external or program
sources for counting.
• Two methods used to represent a counter within a PLCs ladder
logic program are the coil format and the block format.

166

83
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Coil formatted counter:
• Counter is assigned an address and is identified as a counter, also
included as part of the counter instruction is the counter’s preset value
and the current accumulated count for the counter. The up counter
increments its accumulated value by 1 each time the counter rung makes
a false-to-true transition. When the accumulated count equals the preset
count, the output is energized and the counter output is closed. The
counter contact can be used as many times as you wish throughout the
program as an NO or NC contact.

167
Coil formatted counter

PLC – Counter instruction set

Coil formatted counter:
• A counter reset instruction, which permits the counter to be reset, is also
used in conjunction with the counter instruction. Up-counters are always
reset to zero. Down-counters may be reset to zero or to some preset
value. When programmed, the counter reset coil (CTR) is given the same
reference address as the counter (CTU) that it is to reset. The reset
instruction is activated whenever the CTR rung condition is true.

168
Coil formatted counter

84
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Block formatted counter:
• The instruction block indicates the type of counter (up or down), along
with the counter's preset value and accumulated or current value. The
counter has two input conditions associated with it, namely, the count and
reset. All PLC counters operate or count on the leading edge of the input
signal. The counter will either increment or decrement whenever the count
input transfers from an "off" state to an "on" state. The counter will not
operate on the trailing edge, or on-to-off transition of the input condition.

169
Block formatted counter

PLC – Counter instruction set

Counter:
• The value indicated by the counter is termed the accumulated
value.
• Counter will increment or decrement, depending on the type of
counter, until the accumulated value of the counter is equal to or
greater than the preset value, at which time an output will be
produced.
• A counter reset is always provided to cause the counter
accumulated value to be reset to a predetermined value.

170
Up-Counter Down-Counter

85
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up-Counter:
• Count-up counter is an output instruction whose function is to
increment its accumulated value on false-to-true transitions of its
instruction.
• Used to count false-to-true transitions of an input instruction and
then trigger an event after a required number of counts or
transitions. The up-counter output instruction will increment by 1
each time the counted event occurs.

Counter data file 171

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up-Counter:

• Count-Up (CU) Enable Bit: The count-up enable bit is used with the
count-up counter and is true whenever the count-up counter instruction is
true. If the count-up counter instruction is false, the CU bit is false.

• Count-Down (CD) Enable Bit: The count-down enable bit is used with
the count-down counter and is true whenever the count-down counter
instruction is true. If the count-down counter instruction is false, the CD bit
is false.

• Done (DN) Bit: The done bit is true whenever the accumulated value is
equal to or greater than the presetvalue of the counter, for either the
count-up or the count-down counter.

172

86
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up-Counter:

• Overflow (OV) Bit: The overflow bit is true whenever the counter counts
past its maximum value, which is 32.767. On the next count, the counter
will wrap around to -32,768 and will continue counting from there toward 0
on successive false-to-true transitions of the count-up counter.

• Preset Value: Specifies the value, which the counter must reach before
the controller sets the done bit. When the accumulated value becomes
equal to or greater than the preset value, the done status bit is set. You
can use this bit to control an output device.

• Accumulated Value: This is the number of times of false to true

transitions that have occurred since the counter was last reset.

173

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up-Counter:

• Application is designed to turn the red pilot light on and the green
pilot light off after an accumulated count of 7.
• Operating pushbutton PBl provides the off-to-on transition pulses that are
counted by the counter.
• The preset value of the counter is set for 7. Each false-to-true transition of
rung 1 increases the counter's accumulated value by 1. After 7 pulses, or
counts, when the preset counter value equals the accumulated counter
value, output ON is energized.
• As a result, rung 2 becomes true and energizes output O:2/0 to switch the
red pilot light on. At the same time, rung 3 becomes false and de-
energizes output O:2/ 1 to switch the green pilot light off.
• The counter is reset by closing pushbutton PB2, which makes rung 4 true
and resets the accumulated count to zero. Counting can resume when
rung 4 goes false again.

174

87
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up-Counter:

175
Block formatted counter

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up-Counter:

176
Timing diagram

88
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up-Counter-Parts counting

• Proximity switch is used to sense the packing coming in conveyor line.

• Each false-to-true condition of proximity switch counter incremented by 1.
• Counter C5:2 counts the total number of parts coming off an
assembly line for final packaging.
• Each package must contain 10 parts.
• When 10 parts are detected, counter C5:1 sets bit B3/1 to initiate the box
closing sequence.
• Counter C5:3 counts the total number of packages filled in a day. (The
maximum number of packages per day is 300).
• A pushbutton is used to restart the total part and package count from zero
daily.

177

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up-Counter:

178
Parts Counting

89
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Down-Counter:
• Down-counter output instruction will count down or decrement by 1
each time the counted event occurs.
• Each time the down-count event occurs, the accumulated value is
decremented. Normally the down-counter is used in conjunction
with the up counter to form an up/down counter.

179
Down Counter

PLC – Counter instruction set

Down-Counter:

• Assuming the preset value of the counter is 3 and the accumulated count
is 0, pulsing the count-up input (PB1) three times will switch the output
light from off to on.

• PLC counter keeps track of the number of counts received above the
preset value. As a result, three additional pulses of the count-up input
(PB1) produce an accumulated value of 6 but no change in the output.

• If the count-down input (PB2) is now pulsed four times, the accumulated
count is reduced to 2 (6 - 4).

• Accumulated count drops below the preset count and the output light
switches from on to off. Pulsing the reset input (PB3) at any time will reset
the accumulated count to 0 and turn the output light off.

180

90
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Down-Counter:

181
Timing diagram

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up/Down-Counter:

• Increase the counter's accumulated value when pushbutton PBl is

pressed and will decrease the counter's accumulated value when
pushbutton PB2 is pressed.

• Same address is given to the up-counter instruction, the down-counter

instruction, and the reset instruction.

• All three instructions will be looking at the same address in the counter
file. When input A goes from false to true, one count is added to the
accumulated value. When input B goes from false to true, one count is
subtracted from the accumulated value.

182

91
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up/Down-Counter:

• When the CTU instruction is true, C5:2/CU will be true, causing output A
to be true.

• When the CTD instruction is true, C5:2 /CD will be true, causing output B
to be true.

• When the accumulated value is greater than or equal to the preset value,
C5:2/DN will he true, causing output C to be true.

• Input C going true will cause both counter instructions to reset. When
reset by the RES instruction, the accumulated value will be reset to 0 and
the done bit will be reset.

183

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up/Down-Counter:

184
Up/Down counter

92
9/24/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-2

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition,

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 185

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up/Down-Counter : Application - Parking Garage Counter:

• As a car enters, it triggers the up-counter output instruction and

increments the accumulated count by 1.
• As a car leaves, it triggers the down-counter output instruction and
decrements the accumulated count by 1.
• Since both the up- and down-counters have the same address, the
accumulated value will be the same in both.
• Whenever the accumulated value equals the preset value, the counter
output is energized to light up the Lot Full sign.

186

93
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Up/Down-Counter : Application - Parking Garage Counter:

187
Parking Garage Counter

PLC – Counter instruction set

Cascade-Counter :

• Depending on the application, it may be necessary to count events that

exceed the maximum number allowable per counter instruction. One way
of accomplishing this is by interconnection, or cascading, two counters.

• Counting Beyond the Maximum Count

• Cascading Two Counters for Extremely Large Counts
• 24 Hour Clock

188

94
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Cascade-Counter : Counting Beyond the Maximum Count

• Output of the first counter is programmed into the input of the second
counter. The status bits of both counters are programmed in series to
produce an output. These two counters allow twice as many counts to be
measured.

189
Counting Beyond the Maximum Count

PLC – Counter instruction set

Cascading Two Counters for Extremely Large Counts

• A counter to count up to 250,000, it is possible to achieve this by using

only two counters.
• Counter C5:l has a preset value of 500 and counter C5:2 has a preset
value of 500. Whenever counter C5:1 reaches 500, its done bit resets
counter C5:1 and increments counter C5:2 by 1.
• When the done bit of counter C5:1 has turned on and off 500 times, the
output light becomes energized.
• Output light turns on after 500 x 500, or 250,000, transitions of the count
input.

190

95
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Cascading Two Counters for Extremely Large Counts

191
Cascading two counters

PLC – Counter instruction set

Counter : 24 Hour Clock
• A timer-counter program that produces a time-of-day clock measuring
time in hours and minutes. An RTO timer instruction (T4:0) is programmed
first with a preset value of 60 seconds.
• This timer times for a 60s period, after which its done bit is set. Causes
the up-counter (C5:0) of rung 02 to increment 1 count. On the next
processor scan, the timer is reset and begins timing again.
• The C5:0 counter is preset to 60 counts, and each time the timer
completes its time-delay period, its count is incremented. When this
counter reaches its preset value of 60, its done bit is set.
• This action causes the up-counter (C5:1) rung 03, which is preset for 24
counts, to increment 1 count.
• Whenever the C5:1 counter reaches its preset value of 24, its done bit is
set to reset itself. The time of day is generated by examining the current,
or accumulated, count or time for each counter and the timer.
• Counter C5:1 indicates the hour of the day in 24h military format, while
the current minutes are represented by the accumulated count value of
counter C5:0. The timer displays the seconds of a minute as its current or
accumulated time value. 192

96
9/24/2021

PLC – Counter instruction set

Counter – 24 hour clock

193
24 hour clock

97
10/14/2021

ICPC29 LOGIC AND DISTRIBUTED

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Unit - 3

Course Objectives

1. To introduce the importance of process automation techniques.

2. To impart knowledge in PLC based programming.
3. To introduce distributed control system and different
communication protocols.

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 2

1
10/14/2021

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition, overview of PLC systems,

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison instruction- Skip,

3
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

COURSE CONTENT

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU) architecture - Comparison of

LCU communication Facilities - Communication system requirements – Architectural

4
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

2
10/14/2021

Course Outcomes

On the completion of this course, the students will be familiar with,

1. familiar with process automation technologies.

5
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

TEXT BOOKS

1. John W. Webb and Ronald A Reis, Programmable Logic Controllers -

Principles and Applications, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey, 5th Edition, 2003.

2. Lukcas M.P Distributed Control Systems, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,

New York, 1986.

3. Frank D. Petruzella, Programmable Logic Controllers, McGraw Hill, New

York, 5th Edition, 2016.

6
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

3
10/14/2021

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Deshpande P.B and Ash R.H, Elements of Process Control

Applications, ISA Press, New York, 1995.

2. Curtis D. Johnson, Process Control Instrumentation

Technology, Pearson New International, 8th Edition, 2013.

3. Krishna Kant, Computer-based Industrial Control, Prentice

Hall, New Delhi, 2nd Edition, 2011.

7
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

instruction- Skip, Master Control Reset (MCR) and Zone
Control Last state (ZCL) instruction – PID and other important
instruction set. PLC Installation, troubleshooting and
maintenance. Design of alarm and interlocks, networking of
PLC – Case studies using above instruction sets.

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 8

4
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Data manipulation:

• Data manipulation instructions allow numerical data stored in the

controller’s memory to be operated on within the control program.

• It includes operations involving moving or transferring numeric

information stored in one memory word location to another word in
a different location, and carrying out simple operations such as
converting from one data format to another.

• Two basic classes of instructions to accomplish data manipulation:

instructions that operate on word data and those that operate on
file, or block, data, which involve multiple words.

• Words of data memory in singular form may be referred to either

as registers or as words, depending on the manufacturer.
9

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Data manipulation instruction

10
Petruzella, 2016

5
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Data files, words, and bits

11
Petruzella, 2016

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Data manipulation:

• MOV (Move)—Moves the source value to the destination.

• MVM (Masked Move)—Moves data from a source location to a selected
portion of the destination.
• AND (And)—Performs a bitwise AND operation.
• OR (Or)—Performs a bitwise OR operation.
• XOR (Exclusive Or)—Performs a bitwise XOR operation.
• NOT (Not)—Performs a bitwise NOT operation.
• CLR (Clear)—Sets all bits of a word to zero.

Move/Logical menu tab

6
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Data transfer:

• Data transfer instructions simply involve the transfer of the

contents from one word or register to another.
• After the data transfer has occurred register N7:20 now holds a
duplicate of the information that is in register N7:30. The previously
existing data stored in register N7:20 have been replaced with
those of N7:30. This process is referred to as writing over the
existing data.

13
Data transfer concept

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

MOV Instruction:

• MOV instruction is used to copy the value in one register or word

to another. This instruction copies data from a source register to a
destination register.
• When the rung is true, input switch A closed, the value stored at
the source address, N7:30, is copied into the destination address,
N7:20.
• When the rung goes false, input switch A opened, the destination
address will retain the value unless it is changed elsewhere in the
program.
• The source value remains unchanged and no data conversion
occurs. instruction may be programmed with input conditions
preceding it, or it may be programmed unconditionally.

7
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Masked Move (MVM) Instruction:
• It functions like a standard move (MOV) instruction, except that a masked
move allows data to be filtered out that is not required to be moved. The
mask parameter specified in the instruction block is what performs this
filtering process. mask parameter can be either a word address location
or a numerical constant.
• Mask may be entered as an address or in hexadecimal format, and its
value will be displayed in hexadecimal.
• The pattern of characters in the mask determines which source bits will
be passed through to the destination address.
• The bits in the mask that are set to zero (0) do not pass data.
• Only the bits in the mask that are set to one (1) will pass the source data
through to the destination.
• Bits in the destination are not affected when the corresponding bits in the
mask are zero.
• MVM instruction is used to copy the desired part of a 16-bit word by
masking the rest of the value.
15

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Block-formatted move instruction

16
Petruzella, 2016

8
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Masked Move (MVM) Instruction:
• It transfers data through the mask from the source address, B3:0, to the
destination address, B3:4.
• The mask may be entered as an address or in hexadecimal format,
and its value will be displayed in hexadecimal.

• Where there is a 1 in the mask, data will pass from the source to
the destination.
• Where there is a 0 in the mask, data in the destination will remain
in their last state.
• Status in bits 4–7 are unchanged due to zeroes in the mask
(remained in their last state). status in bits 0–3 and 8–15 were
copied from the source to destination when the MVM instruction
went true.
• The mask must be the same word size as the source and
destination.
17

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Masked move (MVM) instruction

18
Petruzella, 2016

9
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Move Instruction – Timer:
• (MOV) instruction can be used to create variable preset timer
values. A two-position selector switch is operated to select one of
two preset timer values.
• When the selector switch is in the open 10 s position, rung 2 has
logic continuity and rung 3 does not.
• As a result, the value 10 stored at the source address, N7:1, is
copied into the destination address, T4:1.PRE.
• Preset value of timer T4:1 will change from 0 to 10.
• When pushbutton PB1 is closed, there will be a 10 s delay period
before the pilot light is energized. When the selector switch is in
the closed 5 s position, rung 3 has logic continuity and rung 2 does
not.
• Value 5 stored at the source address, N7:2, is copied into the
destination address, T4:1. PRE. Closing pushbutton PB1 will now
result in a 5 s time-delay period before the pilot light is energized.
19

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Move instruction used to change the preset time of a timer

20
Petruzella, 2016

10
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Move Instruction - Counter:
• (MOV) instruction can be used to create variable preset counter
values.

• Limit switch LSI is programmed to the input of up-counter C5:1 and

counts the number of parts coming off a conveyor line onto a
storage rack.
• Three different types of products are run on this line. Storage rack
has room for only 300 boxes of product A or 175 boxes of product
B or 50 boxes of product C.
• Three momentary switches are used to select the desired preset
counter value depending on the product line (A, B, or C) being
manufactured.
• A reset button is provided to reset the accumulated count to 0.
• A pilot lamp is switched on to indicate when the storage rack is full.

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Move instruction used to change the preset count of a counter

22
Petruzella, 2016

11
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

File and File to File Shifts:
• A file is a group of related consecutive words in the data table that
have a defined start and end and are used to store information. For
example, a batch process program may contain several separate
recipes in different files that can be selected by an operator.

• Necessary to shift complete files from one location to another

within the programmable controller memory. Such data shifts are
termed file-to-file shifts.

• File-to-file shifts are used when the data in one file represent a
set of conditions that must interact with the programmable
controller program several times and, therefore, must remain intact
after each operation.

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Word and File Addressing:
• Address that defines the beginning of a file or group of words starts
with the pound sign #.

• The # prefix is omitted in a single word or element address.

• Address N7:30 is a word address that represents a single word:

word number 30 in integer file 7.

• Address #N7:30 represents the starting address of a group of

consecutive words in integer file 7. The length is eight words,
which is determined by the instruction where the file address is
used.

12
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Moving data using file instructions

Word and file address

25
Petruzella, 2016

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

File Arithmetic and logic (FAL):

• File arithmetic and logic (FAL) instruction is used to copy data from
one file to another and to do file math and file logic. This instruction
is available on Allen- Bradley PLC-5 and ControlLogix platforms.

• Basic operation of the FAL instruction is similar in all functions and

requires the following parameters and PLC-5 addresses to be
entered in the instruction.

File Arithmetic/Logical (FAL) instruction

13
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

File Arithmetic and logic (FAL):

Control - Is the first entry and the address of the control structure in
the control area (R) of processor memory.
• The processor uses this information to run the instruction.
• The default file for the control file is data file 6.

Length - Is the second entry and represents the file length.

• This entry will be in words, except for the floatingpoint file, for
which the length is in elements.

Position - Is the third entry and represents the current location in the
data block that the processor is accessing.
• It points to the word being operated on. The position starts with 0
and indexes to 1 less than the file length.
27

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

File Arithmetic and logic (FAL):

Mode - Is the fourth entry and represents the number of file

elements operated on per program scan. There are three
choices:
• All mode,
• numeric mode, and
• incremental mode.

All Mode - For this mode you enter the letter A. In the all mode, the
instruction will transfer the complete file of data in one scan.
Enable (EN) bit will go true when the instruction goes true and will
follow the rung condition. When all of the data have been
transferred, the done (DN) bit will go true. This change will occur
on the same scan during which the instruction goes true.
28

14
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

File Arithmetic and logic (FAL):

Numeric Mode - For this mode you enter a decimal number

(1–1000). In the numeric mode, the file operation is distributed
over a number of program scans. The value you enter sets the
number of elements to be transferred per scan.

Incremental mode - For this mode you enter the letter I. In the
incremental mode, one element of data is operated on for every
false-to-true transition of the instruction.

Destination - Is the fifth entry and is the address at which the

processor. Stores the result of the operation. The instruction
converts to the data type specified by the destination address.
29

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

File Arithmetic and logic (FAL):

Expression - Is the last entry and contains addresses, program

constants, and operators that specify the source of data and the
operations to be performed. The expression entered determines the
function of the FAL instruction.

• File-to-file copy function using the FAL instruction

• File-to-word copy function using the FAL instruction
• Word-to-file copy function using the FAL instruction

15
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

File-to-file function using the FAL instruction:
• When input A goes true, data from the expression file #N7:20 will be
copied into the destination file #N7:50.
• Length of the two files is set by the value entered in the control element
word R6:1.LEN. The DN bit will also come on in that scan unless an error
occurs in the transfer of data, in which case the ER bit will be set, the
instruction will stop operation at that position, and then the scan will
continue at the next instruction.

File-to-file copy function

31
Petruzella, 2016 using FAL

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

File-to-word function using the FAL instruction:

• With each false-to-true rung transition of input A, the processor reads one
word of integer file N29.
• The processor starts reading at word 0, and writes the image into word 5
of integer file N29.
• The instruction writes over any data in the destination.

File-to-word copy function

using FAL

Petruzella, 2016 32

16
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

Word-to-file function using the FAL instruction:
• It is similar to the fileto-word copy function except that the instruction
copies data from a word address into a file.
• Expression is a word address (N7:100) and the destination is a file
address (#N7:101). If we start with position 0, the data from N7:100 will be
copied into N7:101 on the first false-to-true transition of input A.
• The second false-to-true transition of input A will copy the data from
N7:100 into N7:102.

Word-to-file copy function

using FAL
33
Petruzella, 2016

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

File copy (COP) and Fill file (FLL) instruction:

• File copy (COP) instruction and the fill file (FLL) instruction are
high-speed instructions that operate more quickly than the same
operation with the FAL instruction.

File Copy (COP) :

• Both the source and destination are file addresses. When input A goes
true, the values in file N40 are copied to file N20. The instruction copies
the entire file length for each scan during which the instruction is true.

Fill File (FLL):

• It operates in a manner similar to the FAL instruction that performs the
word-to-file copy in the ALL mode. When input A goes true, the value in
N15:5 is copied into N20:1 through N20:6. the instruction transfers to the
end of the file, the file will be filled with the same data value in each word.

17
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

File copy (COP) instruction Fill File (FLL) instruction

35
Petruzella, 2016

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

(COP) instruction - PLC drink-manufacturing program :

• Three-position selector switch is used for drink selection.

• Each selector switch position is electrically isolated so that only
one input circuit can be energized at any one time.
• Each of the three selector switch inputs is wired to its
corresponding input module address.
• Each recipe uses 5 memory words. Depending on the type of drink
selected, the recipe is copied to the common working register
#N7:50.
• OSR instruction ensures that the copy instruction is executed only
once on a false-to-true transition of the selector switch.

18
10/14/2021

PLC – Data manipulation instruction

copy (COP) instruction used as part of a PLC

drink manufacturing 37
Petruzella, 2016

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 38

19
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Arithmetic instruction:
• PLC’s math functions capability allows it to perform arithmetic
functions on values stored in memory words or registers.

• Applications include combining parts counted, subtracting detected

defects, and calculating run rates.
• Depending on what type of processor is used, various math
instructions can be programmed. Basic four mathematical functions
performed by PLCs are:

• Addition - Capability to add one piece of data to another.

• Subtraction - Capability to subtract one piece of data from another.
• Multiplication- Capability to multiply one piece of data by another.
• Division - Capability to divide one piece of data by another.

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Arithmetic instruction:
• Math instructions use the contents of two words or registers and
perform the desired function.
• PLC instructions for data manipulation (data transfer and data
compare) are used with the math symbols to perform math
functions.
• Math instructions are all output instructions. It can be conditional or
unconditional.
• Conditional arithmetic instructions the input logic determines when
the instruction executes.
• Unconditional arithmetic instructions execute with each scan.

Compute/Math menu tab 40

Petruzella, 2016

20
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Math instructions

41
Petruzella, 2016

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Arithmetic instruction:
• Math instructions are ADD, SUB, MUL, and DIV. Each of these
instructions has three parameter fields such as Source A, Source B
and Destination fields.

• Source A and Source B fields can be an input rack location, file

address, instruction field, or a fixed value. Example:

• Destination fields can be an output location, file address, or an

instruction field. Example:

21
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Compute (CPT) :

• CPT instruction is executed, then copy, arithmetic, logical, or

conversion operation residing in the expression field of this
instruction is performed and the result is sent to the destination.

• Execution time of a CPT instruction is longer than that of a single

arithmetic operation and uses more instruction words.

• Advantage - It allows you to enter quite complex expressions in one

instruction.

43
Petruzella, 2016 SLC 500 CPT (compute) instruction

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Compute (CPT) :
• Example - To convert a Fahrenheit temperature to a Celsius
temperature using a single RSLogix 5000 compute instruction
• Arithmetic operation [°C = (°F − 32) × (5/9)] is defined in the
Expression. It is performed whenever the Temp_Convert input tag is
true.
• Example - temperature of 140°F is programmed into N7:5 of the
Expression and the computed value of 60°C appears in the Result

Compute instruction used to convert from 44

Petruzella, 2016 Fahrenheit to Celsius

22
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Addition (ADD) :
• ADD instruction performs the addition of two values stored in the
referenced memory locations. How these values are accessed
depends on the controller.
• When input switch SW is closed the rung will be true.
• Value stored at the source A address, N7:0 (25), is added to the
value stored at the source B address, N7:1 (50).
• Answer (75) is stored at the destination address N7:2.
• Source A and source B can be either values or addresses that
contain values, but A and B cannot both be constants.

45
Petruzella, 2016 SLC 500 ADD (addition) instruction

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Addition (ADD) instruction with counters :
• Pilot light to come on when the sum of the counts from the two
counters is equal to or greater than 350.
• Source A of the ADD instruction is addressed to the accumulated
value of counter C5:0.
• Source B of the ADD instruction is addressed to the accumulated
value of counter C5:1.
• The value at source A is added to the value at source B, and the
result (answer) is stored at destination address N7:1.
• Source A of the GEQ (greater than or equal) instruction is
addressed to the value of the destination address N7:1.
• Source B of the GEQ instruction contains the constant value of 350.
• The GEQ instruction and PL1 output will be true whenever the
accumulated sum of the values in the two counters is equal to or
greater than the constant value 350.
• A reset button is provided to reset the accumulated count of both
46
counters to zero.

23
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

47
Petruzella, 2016 Counter program that uses the ADD instruction

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Addition (ADD) instruction:
• After an instruction is executed, Arithmetic status bits in the status
file are updated.

• Carry (C) - Address S2:0/0, is set to 1 when there is a carry in the

ADD instruction or a borrow in the SUB instruction.

• Overflow (O) - Address S2:0/1, is set to 1 when the result is too

large to fit in the destination register.

• Zero Bit (Z) - Address S2:0/2, is set to 1 when the result of the
subtract instruction is zero.

• Sign Bit (S) - Address S2:0/3, is set to 1 when the result is a

negative number.
48

24
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Subtraction (SUB) :
• SUB (subtract) instruction is an output instruction that subtracts one
value from another and stores the result in the destination address.
When rung conditions are true, the subtract instruction subtracts
source B from source A and stores the result in the destination.
• When input switch SW is closed the rung will be true.
• Value stored at the source B address, N7:05 (322), is subtracted
from the value stored at the source A address, N7:10 (520).
• Answer (198) is stored at the destination address, N7:20.
• Source A and source B can be either values or addresses that
contain values, but A and B cannot both be constants.

49
Petruzella, 2016 SLC 500 SUB (subtract) instruction

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Subtraction (SUB) instruction : Example
• SUB function can be used to indicate a vessel overfill condition.
• Application requires an alarm to sound when a supply system leaks
5 lb or more of raw material into the vessel after a preset weight of
500 lb has been reached.
• When the start button is pressed, the fill solenoid (rung 1) and filling
indicating light (rung 2) are turned on and raw material is allowed to
flow into the vessel.
• Vessel has its weight monitored continuously by the PLC program
(rung 3) as it fills.
• When the weight reaches 500 lb, the fill solenoid is de-energized
and the flow is cut off.
• Filling pilot light indicator is turned off and the full pilot light indicator
(rung 3) is turned on.
• Should the fill solenoid leak 5 lb or more of raw material into the
vessel, the alarm (rung 5) will energize and stay energized until the
overflow level is reduced below the 5-lb overflow limit. 50

25
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

51
Petruzella, 2016 Vessel overfill alarm program (SUB)

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Multiplication (MUL) :
• Multiply (MUL) instruction is an output instruction that multiplies two
values and stores the result in the destination address.
• When input switch SW is closed the rung will be true.
• Data in source A (constant 20) will be multiplied by the data in
source B (accumulated value of counter C5:10).
• Resultant answer is placed in the destination N7:2.

52
Petruzella, 2016 SLC 500 MUL (multiply) instruction

26
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Multiplication (MUL) instruction : Example
• MUL instruction calculates the product of two sources.
• When input switch SW is closed the MUL instruction is executed.
• The value stored in source A, address N7:1 (123), is then multiplied
by the value stored in source B, address N7:2 (61).
• The product (7503) is placed into destination word N7:3.
• As a result, the equal instruction becomes true, turning output PL1
on.

53
Petruzella, 2016 MUL instruction used to calculate the product of two sources.

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Multiplication (MUL) instruction : Oven temperature control

• PLC calculates the upper and lower deadband, or off/on limits,

about the set-point.
• Upper and lower temperature limits are set automatically at ±1
percent regardless of the set-point value.
• Set-point temperature is adjusted by means of the thumbwheel
switch.
• Analog thermocouple interface module is used to monitor the
current temperature of the oven.
• Example - Set-point temperature is 400°F.
• Electric heaters will be turned on when the temperature of the oven
drops to less than 396°F.
• N7:1 represents the upper temperature limit, and the number stored
in word N7:2 represents the lower limit.
54

27
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

55
Petruzella, 2016 MUL instruction used as part of a temperature control

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Division (DIV) :
• Divide (DIV) instruction divides the value in source A by the value in
source B and stores the result in the destination and math register.
• When input switch SW is closed the rung will be true.
• Data in source A (the accumulated value of counter C5:10) is then
divided by the data in source B (the constant 2). Result is placed in
the destination N7:3.
• Remainder is 0.5 or greater, a roundup occurs in the integer
destination. Value stored in the math register consists of the
unrounded quotient (placed in the most significant word) and the
remainder (placed in the least significant word).

56
Petruzella, 2016 SLC 500 DIV (Divide) instruction

28
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Division (DIV) :
• DIV instruction calculates the integer value that results from dividing
source A by source B.
• When input switch SW is closed the DIV instruction is executed.
• Value stored in source A, address N7:0 (120), is then divided by the
value stored in source B, address N7:1 (4).
• Answer, 30, is placed in the destination address N7:5.
• As a result, the equal instruction becomes true, turning output PL1
on.

57
Petruzella, 2016 SLC 500 DIV (Divide) instruction

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Division (DIV) instruction : Convert Celsius temperature to
Fahrenheit.
• Thumbwheel switch connected to the input module indicates Celsius
temperature.
• Program is designed to convert the recorded Celsius temperature in
the data table to Fahrenheit values for display.
• Conversion formula forms the basis for the program-
• Current temperature reading of 60°C is assumed.
• PLC processor carries out its internal operations using binary
numbers and the FRD instruction is used to convert the 16-bit
integer values from the thumbwheel switch into BCD values.
• DIV instruction divides 5 into the 540 and stores the answer (108) in
address N7:1.
• ADD instruction adds 32 to the value of 108 and stores the sum (140) in
address B3:1.
• TOD instruction is used to convert BCD values into integers. to interface
with the LED display. 60°C is displayed as 140°F 58

29
10/14/2021

PLC – Arithmetic instruction

Program for converting Celsius temperature 59

Petruzella, 2016 to Fahrenheit

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 60

30
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Comparison instruction:
• Data transfer operations are all output instructions, whereas data
compare instructions are input instructions.

• Data compare instructions are used to compare numerical values. It

compare the data stored in two or more words (or registers) and
make decisions based on the program instructions.

• Numeric values in two words of memory can be compared for each

of the basic data compare instructions. It has been used with the
timer and counter instructions.

61
Basic PLC data compare instructions

PLC – Comparison instruction

Comparison instruction:
• An output was turned on or off when the accumulated value of the
timer or counter equaled its preset value. What actually occurred
was that the accumulated numeric data in one memory word was
compared to the preset value of another memory word on each
scan of the processor.
• When the processor saw that the accumulated value was equal to
the preset value, it switched the output on or off.
• Comparison instructions are used to test pairs of values to
determine if a rung is true.

Compare menu tab

62
Petruzella, 2016

31
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Compare instructions

63
Petruzella, 2016

PLC – Comparison instruction

Equal (EQU) instruction:
• It is an input instruction that compares source A to source B: When
source A is equal to source B, the instruction is logically true;
otherwise it is logically false.
• When the accumulated value of counter T4:0 stored in source A’s
address equals the value in source B’s address, N7:40, the
instruction is true and the output is energized.
• Source A and Source B may be a word address or a floating-point
address or a constant value.
• With the equal instruction, the floating-point data is not
recommended because of the exactness required.

64
Petruzella, 2016 EQU logic rung

32
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Not Equal (NEQ) instruction:
• It is an input instruction that compares source A to source B: when
source A is not equal to source B, the instruction is logically true;
otherwise it is logically false.
• When the value stored at source A’s address, N7:5, is not equal to
25, the output will be true; otherwise, the output will be false.
• The value stored at Source A is 30. The value stored at Source B is
25.
• Since the two values are not the same the output will be true or on.
• In all input-comparison instructions, Source A must be an address
and Source B can be an address or a constant.

65
Petruzella, 2016 NEQ logic rung

PLC – Comparison instruction

Greater Than (GRT) instruction:
• It is an input instruction that compares source A to source B: when
source A is greater than source B, the instruction is logically true;
otherwise it is logically false.

• Instruction is either true or false, depending on the values being

compared.
• When the accumulated value of timer T4:10, stored at the address
of source A, is greater than the constant 200 of source B, the output
will be on; otherwise the output will be off.

66
Petruzella, 2016 GRT logic rung

33
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Less Than (LES) instruction:
• It is an input instruction that compares source A to source B: when
source A is less than source B, the instruction is logically true;
otherwise it is logically false.

• Instruction is either true or false, depending on the values being

compared.
• When the accumulated value of counter C5:10, stored at the
address of source A, is less than the constant 350 of source B, the
output will be on; otherwise, it will be off.

67
Petruzella, 2016 LES logic rung

PLC – Comparison instruction

Greater Than or Equal (GEQ) instruction:
• It is an input instruction that compares source A to source B: when
source A is greater than or equal to source B, the instruction is
logically true; otherwise it is logically false.

• When the value stored at the address of source A, N7:55, is greater

than or equal to the value stored at the address of source B, N7:12,
the output will be true; otherwise, it will be false. Value stored at
source A is 100. Value stored at source B is 23. Output will be true
or on.

68
Petruzella, 2016 GEQ logic rung

34
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Less Than or Equal (LEQ) instruction:
• It is an input instruction that compares source A to source B: when
source A is less than or equal to source B, the instruction is logically
true; otherwise it is logically false.

• When the accumulated count of counter C5:1 is less than or equal

to 457, the pilot light will turn on. Accumulated value of the counter
is less than 457. Output will be false or off.

69
Petruzella, 2016 LEQ logic rung

PLC – Comparison instruction

Comparison instruction:
• Example - up-counter used in conjunction with the LES, EQU, and
GRT compare instructions to trigger outputs based on different
values of the counter’s accumulated count.

• A Less Than (LES) 10 comparison is made with the counter’s

accumulative value. As a result, the LESS Output will be energized
anytime the accumulated count is 9 or less.

• An Equal (EQU) to 20 comparison is made with the counter’s

accumulative value. As a result, the EQU Output will be energized
only when the accumulated count is 20.

• A Greater Than (GRT) 30 comparison is made with the counter’s

accumulative value. As a result, the GRT Output will be energized
anytime the accumulated count is 31 or more.
70

35
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Triggering outputs based on the accumulated 71

Petruzella, 2016 value of a counter

PLC – Comparison instruction

Lim test (LIM) instruction:
• It is used to test whether values are within or outside the specified
range. Applications in which the limit test instruction is used include
allowing a process to operate as long as the temperature is within or
outside a specified range.

• LIM instruction consists of entering three parameters: low limit, test,

and high limit.

• Instruction is true if - Lower limit is equal to or less than the higher

limit, and the test parameter value is equal to or inside the limits.
Otherwise the instruction is false.

• Instruction is true if - Lower limit has a value greater than the

higher limit, and the instruction is equal to or outside the limits.
Otherwise the instruction is false.
72

36
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Lim test (LIM) instruction:
• LIM instruction where the low limit value is less than the high limit
value.

• High limit has a value of 50, and the low limit has a value of 25.
• Instruction is true for values of the test from 25 through 50.
• Instruction is false for test values less than 25 or greater than 50.
• Instruction is true because the test value is 48.

LIM instruction where the low limit value is

73
Petruzella, 2016 less than the high limit value

PLC – Comparison instruction

Lim test (LIM) instruction:
• LIM instruction where the low limit value is greater than the high
limit value.

• High limit has a value of 50, and the low limit has a value of 100.
• Instruction is true for test values of 50 and less than 50 and for test
values of 100 and greater than 100.
• Instruction is false for test values greater than 50 and less than 100.
• Instruction is true because the test value is 125.

LIM instruction where the low limit value is

74
Petruzella, 2016 greater than the high limit value

37
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Lim test (LIM) instruction:
• LIM instruction will energize the Count_Within_Range output when
the counter is within the range of 6 to 12 counts.
• Range includes the values set as the low and high limits.

75
Petruzella, 2016 Control Logix program with the Limit Test (LIM)

PLC – Comparison instruction

masked comparison for equal (MEQ) instruction:
• Compares a value from a source address with data at a compare
address and allows portions of the data to be masked.

• It is to compare the correct position of up to 16 limit switches when

the source contains the limit switch address and the compare stores
their desired states. The mask can block out the switches you don’t
want to compare.

MEQ instruction - monitor the state of limit

76
Petruzella, 2016 switches

38
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

masked comparison for equal (MEQ) instruction:
• When the data at the source address match the data at the compare
address bit-by-bit (less masked bits), the instruction is true.
• Instruction goes false as soon as it detects a mismatch.
• Mask passes data when the mask bits are set (1); a mask blocks
data when the mask bits are reset (0).
• Mask must be the same element size (16 bits) as the source and
compare addresses.

Petruzella, 2016
Masked comparison for equal (MEQ) logic rung 77

PLC – Comparison instruction

Data manipulation and comparison instruction:
• Example - Consider the hardwired relay-operated, time-delay circuit. This
circuit uses three electromechanical time-delay relays to control four
solenoid valves.
• When the momentary start pushbutton is pressed solenoid A is energized
immediately.
• Solenoid B is energized 5 s later than solenoid A.
• Solenoid C is energized 10 s later than solenoid A.
• Solenoid D is energized 15 s later than solenoid A.

78
Petruzella, 2016 Three electromechanical time-delay

39
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Data comparison instruction:
• Programmed using only one internal timer along with data
compare instructions.

• Start button is pressed, SOL A output energizes immediately to switch on

solenoid A. SOL A examine-on contact becomes true to seal in output SOL
A and to start on-delay timer T4:1 timing.
• Timer preset time is set to 15 seconds.
• Output SOL B will energize after a total time delay of 5 seconds, when the
accumulated time becomes equal to and then greater than 5 seconds.
This, in turn, will energize solenoid B.
• Output SOL C will energize after a total time delay of 10 seconds, when the
accumulated time becomes equal to and then greater than 10 seconds.
This, in turn, will energize solenoid C.
• Output SOL D will energize (through the timer done bit T4:1/DN) after a
total time delay of 15 seconds to energize solenoid D.

PLC – Comparison instruction

Controlling multiple loads using one timer and 80

Petruzella, 2016 the GEQ instruction

40
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Data comparison instruction:
• Application of an on-delay timer program implemented using the
EQU instruction.

• When the switch (S1) is closed, timer T4:1 will begin timing.
• Both EQU instructions’ source As are addressed to get the accumulated
value from the timer while it is running.
• EQU instruction of rung 2 has the value of 5 stored in source B.
• When the accumulated value of the timer reaches 5, the EQU instruction of
rung 2 will become logic true for 1 second.
• Latch output will energize to switch the pilot light PL1 on. When the
accumulated value of the timer reaches 15, the EQU instruction of rung 3
will be true for 1 second.
• As a result, the unlatch output will energize to switch the pilot light PL1 off.
• When the switch is closed, the pilot light will come on after 5 seconds, stay
on for 10 seconds, and then turn off.

PLC – Comparison instruction

Timer program implemented using the EQU 82

Petruzella, 2016 instruction

41
10/14/2021

PLC – Comparison instruction

Data comparison instruction:
• Application of an up-counter program implemented using the LES
instruction.

• Up-counter C5:1 will increment by 1 for every falseto-true transition of the

proximity sensor switch.
• Source A of the LES instruction is addressed to the accumulated value of
the counter and source B has a constant value of 20.
• LES instruction will be true as the long as the value contained in source A
is less than that of source B.
• Solenoid SOL will be energized when the accumulated value of the counter
is between 0 and 19.
• When the counter’s accumulated value reaches 20, the LES instruction will
go false, de-energizing output solenoid SOL.
• When the counter’s accumulated value reaches its preset value of 50, the
counter reset will be energized through the counter done bit (C5:1/DN) to
reset the accumulated count to 0.
83

PLC – Comparison instruction

Counter program implemented using the LES 84

Petruzella, 2016 instruction

42
10/14/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 85

Program Control Instruction

Introduction:
• Program control instructions are used to enable or disable a block of logic
program or to move execution of a program from one place to another place.
• JMP (Jump to Label) - Jump forward/backward to a corresponding label
instruction.
• LBL (Label) - Specifies label location.
• JSR (Jump to Subroutine) - Jump to a designated subroutine instruction.
• RET (Return from Subroutine) - Exits current subroutine and returns to
previous condition.
• MCR (Master Control Reset) - Clears all set non-retentive output rungs
between the paired MCR instructions.

86
Petruzella, 2016 Program Control menu tab

43
10/14/2021

Program Control Instruction

Program Control instruction command
Command Name Description

JMP Jump to label Jump forward/backward to a corresponding label.

LBL Label Specifies label location.

JSR Jump to Subroutine Jumps to a designated subroutine instruction.

Exits current subroutine and returns to previous
RET Return from Subroutine
condition.

SBR Subroutine Identifies the subroutine program.

Makes a temporary end that halts the program
TND Temporary end
execution.

Clears all set outputs between the paired MCR

MCR Master Control Reset
instructions.

Identifies specific conditions for program

SUS Suspend
debugging and system troubleshooting.

87
Petruzella, 2016

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Introduction:
• Skip (SK) and Master Control Relay (MCR) functions are powerful
programming tools.

• SK function allows us to skip, or bypass, a chosen portion of. ladder

sequence. The coils and functions skipped remain in the state they
were in during the last scan before SK was enabled.

• SKIP enables us to effectively branch to a different portion of the

program. In some programming systems, SKIP is called ZCL (zone
control last state).

• It leaves the next specified number of ladder lines in their previous on

or off state. SKIP is active when enabled.

44
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Skip (SK):
• It allows a portion of a PLC program to be bypassed when its coil is
enabled.

• Enable line of the function is energized when the skip of one or more
subsequent lines is desired. In addition to programming a coil number
in the usual manner, the number of lines to be skipped is also
specified.

SKIP function

89
Webb & Resis, 2016

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Skip (SK) Function – PLC operation:

• SKIP function is included on the third line of the eight-line program.

When the SK function is off, the other seven functions operate in the
normal manner.

• When the seven lines corresponding to inputs are on, their outputs
are on, and when inputs are off, outputs are off. For this illustration,
the value for number of lines to be skipped will be set at 3.

• When the SKIP function (set at 3) is turned on. the first two lines will
function as usual. However, the next three lines, 4 through 6, will stay
on or off in their previous state. With SKIP on, changing the input on-
off status feeding the coils on lines 4 through 6 will have no effect on
output coils 4 through 6.

45
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

SKIP function PLC Operation 91

Webb & Resis, 2016

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Skip (SK) Function – Application Layout:

• Each of the eight stations is set up to operate or not, according to

• At the third station, an inspection takes place. If the part is good, it

continues down the operating line; if it is bad, it is shunted to a side
conveyor and repaired. After repair, the part re-enters at the
beginning of the conveyor.

• Sensor causes register contents to turn each of the eight setup switch
contacts (the BP/IR contacts) on or off.

46
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

93
Webb & Resis, 2016 SKIP function Application Layout

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Skip (SK) Function – Application Program:

• Setup functions are CRO041 through CRO048. As the part proceeds

down the conveyor each operation is performed (if set up) when the
part is detected by sensors at each station. Sensors are INO021
through INO028. The operations are CRO061 through CRO068.

• If a part is rejected at station 3, it is shunted to repair. Later, when the

repaired part re-enters the conveyor, the setups of stations I through
3 do not have to be reset. Retest is prevented by the two SK
functions, 001l and 0060. Two SK functions turned on by a sensor at
the repair re-entry point.

47
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

95
Webb & Resis, 2016 SKIP Application Program

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 96

48
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Introduction:
• Master Control Relay (MCR) is enabled on, the ladder diagram function
normally.

• When MCR is not enabled, a specified number of coils and functions are
frozen in the off position.

• Coils in the frozen section will then stay off even if their individual enable
lines are turned on. In some systems, MCR means Master Control Reset (no
Relay).

• MCR turns the next specified number of ladder lines to the off state.

• MCR is active when not enabled, which makes it fail-safe.

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Master Control Reset (MCR):
• Unless the master control relay coil is energized, there is no power flow to
the load side of the MCR contacts.

• Equivalent PLC instruction to a Master Control Relay is the Master Control

Reset (MCR) instruction.

• This instruction functions in a similar manner to the hardwired master control

relay; that is, when the instruction is true, the circuit functions normally, and
when the instruction is false, non-retentive outputs are switched off.

98
Petruzella, 2016 Hardwired master control relay

49
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Master Control Relay (MCR):
• When its enable line 1s energized, it turns on. When MCR is off, the number
of following ladder diagram lines specified turned off.

• In contrast to the SK operation, where lines were skipped, the MCR following
specified number of lines to the off state.

• In many PLCs, the MCR function turns off only the non-retentive outputs in
the zone. All retentive functions are unaffected.

MCR function
99
Webb & Resis, 2016

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Master Control Relay (MCR) Function – PLC Operation:

• There are eight lines. The third line is the MCR function. The other seven
lines are contact-coil functions.

• For fail-safe reasons, the MCR must be turned on to be inactive. If the

function goes off for some reason, it is active and turns the specified lines
off, also.

• When MCR is on, the other seven lines operate normally. When MCR is off,
the next three lines, 4 through 6, are turned off.

100

50
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

MCR function PLC Operation 101

Webb & Resis, 2016

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Master Control Relay (MCR) Function – Application:

• There are again eight production stations. Whether each station operates
for a given part number as the part goes past depends on the setup (not
shown) Each station's operation is initiated by proximity switches at each
station. Proximity switches are INOO8I through INOO88.

• Station 5 is an inspection station. Rejected parts are shunted to a repair

conveyor. After repair, the part re-enters the conveyor. When it re-enters, it
turns on INOOI 1, which turns on and seals an MCR relay, CR0021.

• First five steps are therefore not repeated for the part, because the first five
operations are prevented by the MCR. When the part gets to station 5, the
MCR is unsealed. The part then continues through stations 6, 7, and 8.
These last three steps were not performed the first time through, but are
now performed to complete the process.

102

51
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

103
Webb & Resis, 2016 MCR function Application Layout

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

104
Webb & Resis, 2016 MCR Application Program

52
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Master Control Reset (MCR) :
• It is an output coil instruction that functions like a master control relay. MCR
coil instructions are used in pairs and can be programmed to control an
entire circuit or to control only selected rungs of a circuit.

• Section or zone being controlled begins with the first MCR instruction and
ends with the second MCR.

• When the first MCR instruction is false, or disabled, all non-retentive rungs
below it, in this case, outputs M and PL1, will be de-energized even if the
programmed logic for each rung is true.

• All retentive rungs, in this case SOL, will remain in their last state. Assume
the motor M is running and the MCR instruction becomes disabled. The
motor will immediately become de-energized and stop operating. When the
MCR instruction then becomes enabled, the motor will not revert back to its
previous running state but will have to be restarted via the start pushbutton.
105

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Master Control Reset (MCR) instruction 106

Petruzella, 2016

53
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

MCR fenced zone with the zone true:

• The MCR zone is enclosed by a start fence, which is a rung with a

conditional MCR, and an end fence, which is a rung with an unconditional
MCR.

• Input A of the start rung is true so all outputs act according to their rung logic
as if the zone did not exist.

107

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

MCR fenced zone with the zone true 108

Petruzella, 2016

54
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

MCR fenced zone with the zone false:

• When the MCR in the start fence is false, all rungs within the zone are
treated as false. The scan ignores the inputs and de-energizes all
nonretentive outputs (that is, the output energize instruction, the on-delay
timer, and the off-delay timer).

• All retentive devices, such as latches, retentive timers, and counters,

remain in their last state. TOF timers will start timing when the MCR goes
false.

• Input A of the start rung is false so output A and T4:1 will be false and output
B will remain in its last state.

• The input conditions in each rung will have no effect on the output
conditions.

109

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

MCR fenced zone with the zone false 110

Petruzella, 2016

55
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Jump instruction:

• It is desirable to be able to jump over certain program instructions when

certain conditions exist.

• It is an output instruction used for this purpose. When the jump instruction is
used, the PLC will not execute the instructions of a rung that is jumped.

• Jump instruction is often used to jump over instructions not pertinent to the
machine’s operation at that instant.

• Sections of a program may be programmed to be jumped should a

production fault occur.

• Manufacturers provide a skip instruction, which is essentially the same as

the jump instruction.

111

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Types of Jump instruction:
• Non-return
• Return

Jump to subroutine
Jump operation
operation

112
Petruzella, 2016

56
10/14/2021

Skip (SK) and Master Control Reset (MCR)

Jump instruction:

• Addresses Q2:0 through Q2:255 are the addresses used for the jump (JMP)
instructions. The Q2 is internal and provided by the software as you
program the JMP instruction. The Q2 simply identifies this as ladder file 2. A
JMP instruction in ladder file 3 would be Q3.

113
Petruzella, 2016 Jump instruction

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 114

57
10/14/2021

PID instruction
PID instruction:
• Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control is the most
sophisticated and widely used type of process control.

• PID operations are more complex and are mathematically based.

PID controllers produce outputs that depend on the magnitude,
duration, and rate of change of the system error signal.

• Sudden system disturbances are met with an aggressive attempt to

correct the condition. A PID controller can reduce the system error to
0 faster than any other controller.

115
Petruzella, 2016 Typical PID control loop

PID instruction
PID instruction:
• It measures the process, compares it to a set-point, and then
manipulates the output in the direction which should move the
process toward the set-point.

• Operating information that the controller receives from the machine

is called the process variable (PV) or feedback.

• Input from the operator that tells the controller the desired operating
point is called the set-point (SP).

• When operating, the controller determines whether the machine

needs adjustment by comparing (by subtraction) the set-point and
the process variable to produce a difference (the difference is called
the error).

116

58
10/14/2021

PID instruction
PID instruction:
• Output from the loop is called the control variable (CV), which is
connected to the controlling part of the process.

• PID loop takes appropriate action to modify the process operating

point until the control variable and the set-point are very nearly
equal.

• Control Block is the file that stores the data required to operate the
instruction.

• Process Variable (PV) is an element address that stores the

process input value.

• Control Variable (CV) is an element address that stores the output

of the PID instruction. 117

PID instruction
PID instruction:
• Programmable controllers are either equipped with PID I/O modules
that produce PID control or have sufficient mathematical functions of
their own to allow PID control to be carried out.

• PID instruction normally controls a closed loop using inputs from an

analog input module and provides an output to an analog output
module.

118
Petruzella, 2016 SLC 500 PID instruction

59
10/14/2021

Other instruction
Set-point control:
• Set-point control in its simplest form compares an input value, such
as analog or thumbwheel inputs, to a set-point value. A discrete
output signal is provided if the input value is less than, equal to, or
greater than the set-point value.

• PLC is to provide for simple off/ on control of the electric heating

elements of an oven.

119

Other instruction

Set-point control 120

Petruzella, 2016

60
10/14/2021

Other instruction
BCD input :

• Data manipulation instructions can be used to access the data from

the input module allowing a person to change set points, timer, or
counter presets externally without modifying the control program.

• Thumb wheel switch (TWS): Four switches provides four binary

digits at its output that correspond to the decimal number selected
on the switch.

• Conversion from a single decimal digit to four binary digits is

performed by the TWS device.

• BCD input module allows the processor to accept the 4-bit digital
codes and input their data into specific register or word locations in
memory to be used by the control program.
121

Other instruction

BCD input interface module connected to a 122

Petruzella, 2016 thumbwheel switch

61
10/14/2021

Other instruction
BCD output:

• It displays a decimal number that corresponds to the BCD value it

receives at its input. Conversion of the four binary bits to a single
decimal digit on the display is performed by the LED display device.

• BCD output module is used to output data from a specific register or

word location in memory. This type of output module enables a PLC
to operate devices that require BCD coded signals.

123

Other instruction

BCD output interface module connected to 124

Petruzella, 2016 a seven-segment LED display board

62
10/14/2021

Other instruction
BCD input and BCD output:
• Uses a BCD input interface module connected to a thumbwheel
switch and a BCD output interface module connected to an LED
display board.

• LED display board monitors the decimal setting of the thumbwheel

switch.

• MOV instruction is used to move the data from the thumbwheel

switch input to the LED display output.

• Setting of the thumbwheel switch is compared to the reference

number 1208 stored in source B by the EQU instruction.

• Pilot light output PL is energized whenever the input switch S1 is true

(closed) and the value of the thumbwheel switch is equal to 1208. 125

Other instruction

Monitoring the setting of a thumbwheel switch 126

Petruzella, 2016

63
10/14/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 127

PLC - Installation
Installation:
• Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) require protection against
temperature extremes, humidity, dust, shock, and vibration or
corrosive environments. PLCs are generally mounted within a
machine or in a separate enclosure.

128
PLC control panel enclosure

64
10/14/2021

PLC - Installation
PLC installation:
• PLC installation will dissipate heat from its power supplies, local I/O
racks, and processor.

• This heat accumulates in the enclosure and must be dissipated from

it into the surrounding air.

• Excessive heat can cause erratic operation of the PLC or PLC

failure. For many applications, normal convection cooling will keep
the controller components within the specified temperature operating
range.

• Proper spacing of components that provides adequate room within

the enclosure is usually sufficient for heat dissipation.

129

PLC - Installation
PLC installation:
• Temperature inside the enclosure must not exceed the maximum
operating temperature of the controller (typically 60°C maximum).

• Additional cooling provisions, such as a fan or blower, may be

required where high internal or ambient temperatures are
encountered.

• PLCs are always mounted horizontally with the name of the

manufacturer facing out and right-side up. Vertical mounting is not
recommended due to thermal considerations.

130
PLC mounted horizontally

65
10/14/2021

PLC - Installation
PLC installation:

• Master control relay (MCR) is normally included as part of the

wiring for a PLC system.

• It provides a means of de-energizing the entire circuit that is not

dependent on software.

• Internally programmed MCR of a PLC is not sufficient to meet safety

requirements.

• Hardwired MCR is connected to interrupt power to the I/O rack in the

event of an emergency, but still allow power to be maintained at the
processor.

131

PLC - Installation
PLC installation - MCR:

• Power disconnect switch - when required, the PLC can be

serviced with the power off.
• Step-down transformer - isolation from the main power distribution
system and decreases the voltage to the 120 V required for the
controller power supplies and DC power supplies.
• Momentary start button - to energize the master control relay.
• Emergency-stop switches - de-energizes the master control relay
and thus de-energizes the I/O devices.
• Power to the processor of the PLC remains on so status LEDs can
continue to provide up-to-date information.
• Emergency stop buttons use normally closed contacts wired in
series for fail-safe operation.

132

66
10/14/2021

PLC - Installation

Typical wiring for an AC power distribution with 133

Petruzella, 2016 a master control relay.

PLC - Installation
Electrical Noise:
• Electrical noise, called electromagnetic interference, or EMI, is
unwanted electrical signals that produce undesirable effects and
disrupt the control system circuits. It may be either radiated or
conducted.
• Radiated noise originates from a source and travels through the air
while conducted noise travels on an actual conductor, such as a
power line.
• Noise suppression circuit - to suppress the high voltage spikes
generated when a motor starter coil is de-energized.

134
Motor starter noise suppression

67
10/14/2021

PLC - Installation
Electrical noise – Reduce the effect of electrical interference:

• Manufacturer design features

• Proper mounting of the controller within an enclosure
• Proper equipment grounding
• Proper routing of wiring
• Proper suppression added to noise-generating devices

135

PLC - Installation
Electrical noise – Guidelines for PLC wire routing:

• Use the shortest possible wire runs for I/O signals.

• Conductors that are run from the PLC enclosure to another location
should be in a metal conduit as the metal can serve as a shield
against EMI.
• Never run signal wiring and power wiring in the same conduit.
• Segregate I/O wiring by signal type. Route AC and DC I/O signal
wires in separate wireways.
• Low-level signal conductors such as thermocouples and serial
communications should be run as shielded twisted pair and routed
separately.
• Fiber optic system, which is totally immune to all kinds of electrical
interference, can also be used for signal wiring.

136

68
10/14/2021

PLC - Installation
Electrical noise – Labeling method:

• Wiring connectors for input/output modules usually include spaces

for labels used for identifying each I/O address and device
connected. Proper wire and terminal identification will simplify the
installation and aid in troubleshooting and maintenance.

137
Heat-shrinkable wire identification sleeves

PLC - Installation
Leaky inputs and outputs:
• Electronic devices - exhibit a small leakage current even when in the
off state that may need to be considered when they are connected to
PLC input modules.
• Bleeder resistor (10 to 20 kΩ) - additional lower resistance load,
which allows the leakage current to flow through the lower resistance
path.
• Leakage current may also occur with the solid-state switch used in
many output modules.

138
Bleeder resistor connection for input and output module

69
10/14/2021

PLC - Installation
Grounding:
• Proper grounding is an important safety measure in all electrical
installations.
• National Electrical Code (NEC) specifies the types of conductors,
color codes, and connections necessary for safe grounding of
electrical components.
• Manufacturers provide detailed information on the proper grounding
methods to use in an enclosure. It will provide a low impedance path
to earth ground.
• Central ground bus bar is provided as a single point of reference
inside the enclosure to which all chassis and power supply
equipment grounding conductors are connected. Ground bus is then
connected to the building’s earth ground.
• Connection - Star washer between the grounding wire and lug and
metal enclosure surface.

139

PLC - Installation

PLC grounding system

Ground connections using a 140

Petruzella, 2016 star washer

70
10/14/2021

PLC - Installation
Grounding:

• Ground loops can cause problems by adding or subtracting current

or voltage from input signal devices.

• Ground loop circuit can develop when each device’s ground is tied to
a different earth potential thereby allowing current to flow between
the grounds.

Ground loop
141

PLC - Installation
Voltage Variations and Surges:
• Voltage fluctuations exceed this range, then a system shutdown will
occur.
• Constant voltage (CV) transformer - to minimize shutdowns of the
PLC.
• Isolation transformers – to isolate the PLC from electrical
disturbances generated by other equipment connected to the
distribution system.
• Suppression device - to control devices such as relays, solenoids,
motor starters, or motors.

142
Suppress DC loads Suppress AC loads

71
10/14/2021

PLC - Installation
Program Editing and Commissioning:

• Editing is simply the ability to make changes to an existing program

through a variety of editing functions.

• Using the editing function, instructions and rungs can be added or

deleted; addresses, data, and bits can be changed. Editing format
varies with different manufacturers and PLC models.

• Commissioning - a series of tests to ensure that the PLC, the

ladder logic program, the I/O devices, and all associated wiring
operate according to specifications.

143

PLC - Installation
Programming and Monitoring:
• Offline programming - writing and storing the program in the
personal computer without its being connected to the PLC and later
downloading it to the PLC.
• Online programming - program can be modified, the modifications
can be tested, and finally they can be accepted or rejected while the
PLC is running.

144

72
10/14/2021

PLC - Installation
Data Monitoring:
• To monitor and/or modify specified program variables. Cross
reference function - to search each instance of a particular address.
• To display data from any place in the data table.
• View data within an instruction, store data or values for an instruction
prior to use
• Set or reset values and/or bits during a debug operation for control
purposes. Change the radix or data format.
• Data file folder – to determine status

145
Data file folder

PLC - Installation
Documentation for a PLC installation should include the
following:
• A description of the plant
• Specification of the control requirements
• Details of the programmable logic controller
• Electrical installation diagrams
• Lists of all input and output connections
• Application program with full commentary on what it is achieving
Software backups
• Operating manual, including details of all start up and shut down
procedures and alarms.

146

73
10/14/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 147

PLC - Troubleshooting
PLC Troubleshooting:

• Source of a problem - narrowed down to the processor module, I/O

hardware, wiring, machine inputs or outputs, or ladder logic program.

• Processor Module - It performs error checks during its operation

and sends status information to indicators that are normally located
on the front of the processor module.

• RUN (Green)
• FLT (Red)
• BATT (Red)

148

74
10/14/2021

PLC - Troubleshooting
PLC Troubleshooting:
• RUN (Green)
– On steady indicates that the process is in the RUN mode.
– Flashing during operation indicates that the process is transferring a
program from RAM to the memory module.
– Off indicates that processor is in a mode other than RUN.
• FLT (Red)
– Flashing at power-up indicates that the processor has not been
configured.
– It indicates a major error either in the processor, chassis, or memory.
– On steady indicates that a fatal error is present (no communications).
– Off indicates there are no errors.
• BATT (Red)
– On steady indicates the battery voltage has fallen below a threshold
level, or the battery is missing or not connected.
– Off indicates that the battery is functional.
149

PLC - Troubleshooting
Input malfunctions:
• Controller is operating in the RUN mode but output devices do not
operate as programmed, the faults could be associated with any of
the following:
• Input and output wiring between field devices and modules
• Field device or module power supplies
• Input sensing devices
• Output actuators
• PLC I/O modules
• PLC processor

150
input malfunctions

75
10/14/2021

PLC - Troubleshooting
Output malfunctions:
• If the blown fuse indicator is not illuminated (fuse OK), then check to
see if the output device is responding to the LED status indicator.
• When it is on, the status LED indicates that the module’s logic
circuitry has recognized a command from the processor to turn on.
• Check voltage at output; if incorrect, power supply, wiring, or output
device may be faulty.

151
Electronic output module

PLC - Troubleshooting

152
Petruzella, 2016

76
10/14/2021

PLC - Troubleshooting

153
Petruzella, 2016

PLC - Troubleshooting
Input troubleshooting guide

154
Petruzella, 2016

77
10/14/2021

PLC - Troubleshooting
output troubleshooting guide

155
Petruzella, 2016

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 156

78
10/14/2021

PLC - Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance:
Preventive measures that should be looked at regularly.
• Filters - should be cleaned or replaced to ensure that clear air
circulation is present inside the enclosure.

• Dust or dirt accumulated on PLC circuit boards should be cleaned.

• Connections to the I/O modules - checked for tightness to ensure

that all plugs, sockets, terminal strips, and module connections are
making connections and that the module is installed securely.

• Loose connections - improper function of the controller, damage to

the components of the system.

• Circuit boards dealing with process control analog should be

calibrated every 6 months. 157

PLC - Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance:
Preventive measures that should be looked at regularly.

• Care should be taken to ensure that heavy noise- or heat-generating

equipment is not moved too close to the PLC.

• Stock commonly needed spare parts.

• Check the condition of the battery that backs up the RAM memory in
the CPU.

• Input and output modules are the PLC components that fail most
often.

• Keep a master copy of operating programs used

158

79
10/14/2021

PLC - Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance:
Preventive measures that should be looked at regularly.

• Lockout and tagout procedures - make sure that equipment does

not operate while maintenance and repairs are conducted.

• A personnel protection tag is placed on the power source for the

equipment and the PLC, and it can be removed only by the person
who originally placed the tag.

• In addition to the tag, a lock is also attached so that equipment

cannot be energized.

159

PLC - Maintenance

CPU backup memory

battery
Lockout/tagout devices 160
Petruzella, 2016

80
10/14/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 161

PLC – Alarms and Interlocks

Alarms in PLC:

• Alarms are added to alert operator to monitor that machine/process

about to cross its limit values or already crossed the limit.

• Alarms are indicated to the operator by annunciator or horns, and

lights of different colors on the panel.

• Alarms, Faults, and Warning play a critical role within every PLC
Program.

• It allows the programmer to capture any abnormalities, alert the

operator of a failure, and prevent system damage.

162

81
10/14/2021

PLC – Alarms and Interlocks

Alarms in PLC:

163
Alarms in PLC

PLC – Alarms and Interlocks

Interlocks in PLC:

• Interlocking in general is called protocol action. It means defined

bunch action to be taken when certain conditions occur.

• PLC - Interlocking is an action that is defined in the PLC program to

control the process when certain conditions occur.

• Interlocking in PLC is the action that its has to take to control

process execution when abnormal conditions occur.

• Example - Temperature exceeding its limit, flow below requirement

or any parameter exceeding beyond its safe operating limits.

164

82
10/14/2021

PLC – Alarms and Interlocks

Interlocks in PLC:

• Example - Flow transmitter.

• Requirement is to maintain the flow in certain range.
• Now there is one valve in the pipe through which flow goes.
• Function of this valve is to adjust the flow by opening or closing,
when flow exceeds valve should shutoff.
• When flow is in the limit valve should open to allow flow.
• The valve is interlocked with flow value defined in PLC as interlock.

165

PLC – Alarms and Interlocks

Interlocks in PLC:

• I0.0 , I0.1 , I0.2 : Toggle switches of corresponding rooms 1, 2, 3.

• Q0.0 , Q0.1 , Q0.2 : Output coils (Bulbs) in room 1, 2 ,3.

166
Interlocks in PLC

83
10/14/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 167

PLC - Networking
Networking in PLC:
PLC networks provide you with a variety of networking options to meet
specific control and communications requirements.

• It can provide reliable and cost-effective communications between as

few as two or as many as several hundred PLCs, computers, and
other intelligent devices.

• It also include remote I/O, peer-to-peer, and host computer

communications, as well as LANs.

• PLCs need to communicate to a number of different devices.

• It communicate to server level PCs running various manufacturing

related applications.
168

84
10/14/2021

PLC - Networking

169
Communication Levels

PLC - Networking
Networking in PLC:

• PLC is like any other communication technology whereby a sender

modulates the data to be sent, injects it onto medium, and the
receiver de-modulates the data to read it.

• The major difference is that PLC does not need extra cabling, it re-
uses existing wiring.

• "master-and-slave" configuration, allows many distant digital and

analog points to be controlled by a single PLC.

• Typically, remote I/Os are connected to the CPU via twisted pair or
fiberoptic cables.

170

85
10/14/2021

PLC - Networking

PLC – Communication protocol 171

PLC - Networking
Communication Protocol:
• Types of communication protocols used for the automation of
processes in PLC.

• EtherNet/IP
• Profibus
• Modbus
• Interbus
• ProfiNet
• DeviceNet
• AS-i- Actuator Sensor Interface
• Recommended Standard (RS-232, RS- 422, and RS-485) Protocol
• HART- Highway Addressable Remote Transducer Protocol
• DH- Data Highway

172

86
10/14/2021

PLC - Networking

173
PLC - Communication

PLC - Networking

174
PLC - Communication

87
10/14/2021

PLC - Networking
Physical Topology
• Physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid
out physically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or
more links form a topology.

• It is the geometric representation of the relationship of all

the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another.
Classification of Topology
• There are five basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus,
ring and hybrid.

Behrouz Forouzan Classification of Topology 175

PLC - Networking

Bus Ring

Mesh 176
Star

88
10/14/2021

PLC - Networking
RS232 - Recommended Standard
• Standard for serial communications that define the pin outs,
cabling, signal levels, transmission baud rates.

• To transfer commands and data between a PC and a

microcontroller is the use of standard interface, like the one by
described protocols RS232 (older) or USB (newer)

• It is dedicated to communication confirming to RS 232

protocol, the hardware for such interface is provided on board.

177

PLC - Networking
RS-485
• In 1983, Electronics Industries Association (EIA), approved a
new balanced transmission called RS-485.

• Usage in medical, industrial and consumer applications.

• RS-485 – industry interface work.

• RS-485 – robust and reliable data transmission design in the

shortest time possible.

• Allows high data rate communications over long distance in

real world environments.

• RS-485, also known as TIA-485(-A), EIA-485. 178

89
10/14/2021

PLC - Networking
Actuator Sensor Interface
• AS-Interface (Actuator Sensor Interface, AS-i) is an industrial
networking solution (physical layer, data access method and
protocol) used in PLC, DCS and PC-based automation
systems.
• It is designed for connecting simple field I/O devices in
discrete manufacturing and process applications using a
single 2-conductor cable.
• (e.g. binary ON/OFF devices such as actuators, sensors,
rotary encoders, analog inputs and outputs, push buttons, and
valve position sensors)

179

PLC - Networking

Actuator – Sensor Interface

180

90
10/14/2021

PLC - Networking
Fieldbus
• Fieldbus is a generic term that describes a new digital
communications network that is being used in industry to
replace the existing 4-20 mA analog signal standard.

• The network is a digital, bi-directional, multi-drop, serial-

bus communication network used to link isolated field
devices, such as controllers, transducers, actuators and
sensors.
•
• Bi-directional means it is a duplex port; the data can be
transmitted in two directions at the same time.

18
1

PLC - Networking

Field bus architecture

182

91
10/14/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-3

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 183

PLC – Case study

Case study:

• Bottle filling system (Continues Process Control)

• Box filling system (Continues Process Control)
• Mixing system (Batch Process Control)

184

92
10/14/2021

PLC – Case study

Case study - Bottle filling system :

• Start push button is pushed, the outfeed motor (output 031) will turn
ON until the stop push button is pushed.

• Feed motor M1 will be energized once the system starts (M2 ON); it
will stop when the limit switch detects a correct bottle position.

• When the bottle is in position and 0.5 seconds have elapsed, the
solenoid (032) will open the filling valve and remain ON until the
photoeye (PE) detects a proper level.

• Bottle will remain in position for 0.7 seconds, then the energized
internal 1003 will start the feed motor. Feed motor will remain ON
until the limit switch detects another bottle.
185

PLC – Case study

186
Petruzella, 2016 Bottle filling system

93
10/14/2021

PLC – Case study

187
Petruzella, 2016 Ladder diagram for bottle filling system

PLC – Case study

Case study - Box filling system :

• Start the conveyor when the START button is momentarily pressed.

• Stop the conveyor when the STOP button is momentarily pressed;
• Energize the RUN status light when the process is operating;
• Energize the STANDBY status light when the process is stopped;
• Stop the conveyor and energize the STANDBY light when the right
edge of the box is first sensed by the photo sensor;
• With the box in position and the conveyor stopped open the solenoid
valve and allow the box to be fill;
• Filling should stop when the LEVEL sensor goes true;
• Energize FULL light when the box is full; the FULL should remain
energized until the box is moved clear of the photo sensor.

188

94
10/14/2021

PLC – Case study

189
Petruzella, 2016 Box filling system

PLC – Case study

190
Petruzella, 2016 Ladder diagram for box filling system

95
10/14/2021

PLC – Case study

Case study – Mixing system :

• When start button is pressed water is filled upto L2 and it ends as L2

is closed.
• First of all as start is pressed output O:0/15 turns ON and remains
ON until tank is emptied. Rung 2 closes normally open drain valve,
before timer T:4 activates.
• Rung 3 energises solenoid a until L2 doesn’t signal, once it signals
solenoid a gets de-energised.
• Then motor is turned ON and mix it for 3 mins. Similarly acid is filled
upto L3 by solenoid b, as level gets detected by L3 solenoid b de-
energises.
• Then mixer gets started and it runs for 3 minutes.
• After time delay of 3 mins solenoid c opens and the blend gets
drained out. Once the blend gets out completely, the process cycle
restarts.
191

PLC – Case study

192
Petruzella, 2016 Batch Mixing system

96
10/14/2021

PLC – Case study

193
Petruzella, 2016 Ladder diagram of Batch Mixing system

97
10/29/2021

ICPC29 LOGIC AND DISTRIBUTED

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Unit - 4

Course Objectives

1. To introduce the importance of process automation techniques.

2. To impart knowledge in PLC based programming.
3. To introduce distributed control system and different
communication protocols.

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 2

1
10/29/2021

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition, overview of PLC systems,

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison instruction- Skip,

3
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

COURSE CONTENT

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU) architecture - Comparison of

LCU communication Facilities - Communication system requirements – Architectural

4
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

2
10/29/2021

Course Outcomes

On the completion of this course, the students will be familiar with,

1. familiar with process automation technologies.

5
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

TEXT BOOKS

1. John W. Webb and Ronald A Reis, Programmable Logic Controllers -

Principles and Applications, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey, 5th Edition, 2003.

2. Lukcas M.P Distributed Control Systems, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,

New York, 1986.

3. Frank D. Petruzella, Programmable Logic Controllers, McGraw Hill, New

York, 5th Edition, 2016.

6
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

3
10/29/2021

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Deshpande P.B and Ash R.H, Elements of Process Control

Applications, ISA Press, New York, 1995.

2. Curtis D. Johnson, Process Control Instrumentation

Technology, Pearson New International, 8th Edition, 2013.

3. Krishna Kant, Computer-based Industrial Control, Prentice

Hall, New Delhi, 2nd Edition, 2011.

7
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

SYLLABUS

Unit-4

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU)

architecture - Comparison of different LCU architectures –
LCU Process Interfacing Issues: - Block diagram, Overview of
different LCU security design approaches, secure control
output design, Manual and redundant backup designs.

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 8

4
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Key Milestones in Control System Evolution :

• 1934 – Direct-connected pneumatic controls dominate market.

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Krishna Kant, 2011

Evolution of Industrial Control Technology 10

5
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Types of Control System:
• Open loop system
• Closed loop system
• Analog control system
• Digital control system Open loop system

Closed loop system 11

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Analog control system

6
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Analog control system

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Digital control system 14

7
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Digital control system 15

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Types of Digital Control System:

• Centralized control system

• Distributed control system

Computer control system 16

8
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Centralised control system:

• All system functions are implemented in high-performance computer

hardware in a central location.

• Operator interfacing for plant management functions is provided using

computer driven VDUs.

• Operator interfacing for first-level continuous and sequential closed-loop

control also may be implemented using VDUs.

• Computers can be interfaced to standard panel board instrumentation so

that the operator in charge of first-level control can use a more familiar set
of control and display hardware.

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Central Computer System 18

9
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Centralised Computer System 19

Krishna Kant, 2011

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Central Computer System 20

10
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Examples of Centralized Control System 21

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Drawbacks of DCS:

• Centralized Control System is a simple control system but has a few

disadvantages.

• If the CPU fails the entire plant gets affected.

• Redundancy concept is not available.

11
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Introduction:

• Centralized computer control architecture - central processing unit (CPU)

represents a single point process.

• Software required to implement all of the functions is extremely complex,

• It requires a priesthood of computer experts to develop the system.

• Hybrid system architecture - It is composed of many different subsystems.

Starting them up and making them work as an integrated whole is no less
difficult task.

• Its functionality limited compared to the central computer based system.

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Architecture:

• Limitation of centralized computer system and hybrid system introduced

distributed control system.

• The devices in this (DCS) architecture are grouped into three categories
that interface directly to the process to be controlled or monitored.

• It perform high-level human interfacing and computing functions, and those

that provide the means of communication between the other devices

12
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Generalized Distributed Control System 25

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Generalized Distributed Control System 26

13
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Devices:

• Local Control Unit (LCU)

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Basic components of DCS 28

14
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Architecture:

• Local Control Unit (LCU) : smallest collection of hardware in the system

that can do closed loop control. LCU interfaces directly to process.

• Low Level Human Interface (LLHI) : It allows the operator or instrument

engineer to interact with LCU (eg: to change set points, control modes,
control configurations, or tuning parameters) using a direct connection.

• It also interface directly to the process. Operator-oriented hardware at this

level is called Low Level Operator Interface (LLOI); instrument engineer–
oriented hardware is called a Low Level Engineering Interface (LLEI).

• Data Input / Output Unit (DI/OU) : interfaces to the process alone for the
purpose of acquiring or outputting data. It performs no control functions.

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Generalized Distributed Control System 30

15
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Architecture:

• High Level Human Interfaces (HLHI): A collection of hardware that

performs functions similar to the LLHI but with increased capability and
user friendliness.

• It interfaces to other devices only over the shared communication facilities.

Operated-oriented hardware at this level is called a High Level Operator
Interface (HLOI); instrument engineer-oriented hardware is called a High
Level Engineering Interface (HLEI).

• High Level Computing Device (HLCD): A collection of microprocessor

based hardware that performs plant management functions traditionally
performed by a plant computer.

• It interfaces to other devices only over the shared communication facilities.

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Distributed digital control system 32

Krishna Kant, 2011

16
10/29/2021

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Devices:

• Computer Interface Device (CID): A collection of hardware that allows an

external general purpose computer to interact with devices in DCS using
shared communication facilities.

• Shared Communication Facilities: One or more levels of

communication hardware and associated software that allow the sharing
of data among all devices in DCS.

• It do not include dedicated communication channels between hardware

elements within the device.

Distributed Control System (DCS)

Advantages of DCS:

• Control function is distributed among multiple CPUs (Field Control

17
10/29/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-4

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU)

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 35

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Introduction:
• LCU is the smallest collection of hardware in the DCS that
performs closed loop control.

• It takes inputs from process-measuring devices and commands

from operator and computes the control outputs needed to make the
process follow the command.

• It then sends control output to actuators, drives valves and other

mechanical devices that regulate the flows, temperatures,
pressures, and other variables to be controlled in the plant.

• An LCU malfunction can cause a condition that is hazardous to both

people and equipment. Its proper design is critical to the safe and
efficient operation of the plant.
36

18
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Elements of microprocessor-based controller:

• Microprocessor along with the associated clock comprises the

central processing unit (CPU) of the controller.

• ROM - permanent storage of controller programs.

• RAM - temporary storage of information. Depending upon the type

of microprocessor used, RAM and ROM can be located on the
microprocessor chip or on separate memory chip.

• I/O circuitry - communicate with the external world by reading in,

or receiving analog and digital data as well as sending similar
signals out.

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Basic Elements of a Local Control Unit 38

Lukas, 1986

19
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Elements of microprocessor-based controller:

• CPU - communicates with the other elements in the LCU over an

internal shared bus that transmits addressing, data control and
status information in addition to the data.

• Controller structure is to perform basic control functions.

• Control algorithms could be coded in assembly language and

loaded into ROM.

• After the controller was turned on, it would read inputs, execute the
control algorithms, and generate control inputs in a fixed cycle
indefinitely.

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Elements of microprocessor-based controller:

• Controller structure must be enhanced to include the following:

• Flexibility of changing the control configuration

• Ability to use the controller without being a computer expert
• Ability to bypass the controller in case if fails so that the process still
can be controlled manually
• Ability of the LCU to communicate with other LCU’s and other
elements in the system

20
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Flexibility of changing the control configuration:

• In industrial applications the same controller product usually is used

to implement a great variety of different control strategies.

• Even for a particular strategy, the user usually wants the flexibility of
changing the control system tuning parameters without changing the
controller hardware.

• Control configuration cannot be burned into ROM but must be

stored in a memory medium whose contents can be changed such
as RAM.

• RAM is usually implemented using semiconductor technology that is

volatile; that is, it loses its contents if the power is turned off.
41

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Ability to use the controller without being a computer expert:

• Typical user of an industrial control system is generally familiar with

the process to be controlled, knows the basics of control system
design and has worked with electric analog or pneumatic control
systems before.

21
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Ability to bypass the controller in case if fails so that the process
still can be controlled manually:

• Shutting down the process is very expensive and undesirable for the
control system, user.

• All control equipment has the potential of failing no matter how

carefully it has been designed, the system architecture must allow
an operator to “take over” the control loop and run it by hand until
the control hardware is repaired or replaced.

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Ability of the LCU to communicate with other LCU’s and other
elements in the system:

• Controllers in an industrial control system do not operate in isolation

but must work in conjunction with other controllers, data I/O devices
and human interface devices.

• A mechanism for allowing the LCU to perform this interaction must

be provided.

22
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Architectural Parameters:

• Size of controller
• Functionality of controller
• Performance of controller
• Communication channels out of controller
• Controller output security

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Architectural Parameters:

• Size of controller - Number of function blocks and or language

statements that can be executed by the controller as well as the
number of process I/O channels provided by the controller.

• Functionality of controller - Mix of functional blocks or language

statements provided by the controller. It also refers to the mix of
process inputs and outputs types provided by the controller.

• Performance of controller - rate at which the controller scans

inputs. Processes function block or language statements, and
generate outputs; it also includes the accuracy with which the
controller performs these operations.
46

23
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Architectural Parameters:

• Communication channels out of controller - Provide other

communication channels to operator interface devices and t other
controllers and devices in the system. The number, types and speed
of these channels are key controller design parameters.

• Controller output security - Mechanism must be provided to

ensure that the control output is maintained despite a controller
failure so that a process shutdown can be avoided.

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

Configurations of LCU Architecture:

Three configurations are

• Configuration A

• Configuration B

• Configuration C

24
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

LCU Architecture – Configuration A :

• Controller size is the minimum required to perform a single loop of

control or a single motor control function or other simple sequencing
function.

• Two digital outputs are provided to allow the controller to drive a

pulsed positioner or actuator. Twice as many inputs as outputs are
provided to permit implementation of algorithms such as cascade
control, temperature compensation of flows and interlocking of logic
inputs and continuous control loop.

• It has such a small number of inputs, function blocks and generate

outputs, the performance requirement can be met easily by a simple
and inexpensive set of microprocessor-based hardware. All outputs
in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 seconds maximum.
49

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

LCU Architecture - Configuration A 50

Lukas, 1986

25
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

LCU Architecture – Configuration A :

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

LCU Architecture – Configuration B :
• It differs significantly from configuration A.

• Two different types of LCU’s are used to provide the full range of
required controller functionality. In general, increasing the number of
types of controllers in the system has both positive and negative
effects.

• On the positive side, the specialized design of each controller allows

it to match the functional needs of the corresponding application
more closely than would a single general-purpose approach.

• With respect to controller size, the configuration B is medium in

scale. The continuous control portion has the form of an eight-loop
controller, and logic control portion can be viewed as a small
programmable logic controller (PLC) or equivalent.
52

26
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

LCU Architecture – Configuration B 53

Lukas, 1986

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

LCU Architecture – Configuration B :

• Class of controller usually is implemented using a high performance

eight-bit or an average performance 16-bit microprocessor and
matching memory components.

• In the area of communication channels required, configuration B

calls for a well-designed interface between the two controller types.
Since in many systems both controllers must operate in close
coordination to integrate continuous and logic functions.

27
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

LCU Architecture – Configuration B:

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

LCU Architecture – Configuration C :

• It is designed to be a multi loop controller in which all functions are

performed by one CPU in conjunction with its associated memory
and I/O board.

• It places stringent requirements on the performance of the hardware

since all of the control algorithms in the LCU must be executed
within 0.5 seconds of less.

• Implemented with one or more 16 bit microprocessors or a 32 bit

microprocessor in conjunction with support hardware such as
arithmetic coprocessors to attain the required speed.

28
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

57
Lukas, 1986 LCU Architecture - Configuration C

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

LCU Architecture – Configuration C :

• Objective - to implement a large number of functions in one

controller, usually both continuous and logic functions blocks are
provided.

• Because of the power of the microprocessor supplied in this

configuration, it also becomes feasible to include a high-level
language in addition to or instead of function blocks.

29
10/29/2021

Local control unit (LCU) - Architecture

LCU Architecture – Configuration C:

SYLLABUS

Unit-4

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU)

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 60

30
10/29/2021

Comparison of LCU Architectures

ARCHITECTURE CONFIGURATION A CONFIGURATION B CONFIGURATION C
Parameters (Single Loop) (2 LCU Types) (Multi-Loop)

1. Controller size Single PID loop or motor 8 control loops Small DDC system
controller Small logic controller

2. Controller Both continuous and Split between controllers Can support high-level
functionality logic blocks languages
3.Controller Small to large systems Both even in small systems Not very small systems
scalability
4. Controller Simple & Inexpensive Requirements not High performance to execute
performance microprocessor based excessive large no. of functions
hardware

5. Communication Need inter module Close interface between Large- human interface,
channels communications for controller types min- bet controllers
control; min. need for
human interface
6. Controller output Controller has single loop Lack of single loop Requires redundancy in all
security integrity; Only manual integrity; requires application
backup redundancy in critical
application
61

Comparison of LCU Architectures

LCU Architecture - Configurations 62

Lukas, 1986

31
10/29/2021

Comparison of LCU Architectures

Case I - is a control application that requires only continuous function
blocks and analog I/O.

63
Lukas, 1986 Cost-per-loop Relationships (Continuous Functions only)

Comparison of LCU Architectures

Case I - is a control application that requires only continuous function
blocks and analog I/O.

64
Lukas, 1986 Cost-per-function Relationships (Continuous Functions only)

32
10/29/2021

Comparison of LCU Architectures

Case II - is a control application that requires complete mix of
continuous and logic function blocks and both analog and digital
I/O.

65
Lukas, 1986 Cost-per-loop Relationships (Mixed Functions)

Comparison of LCU Architectures

Case II - is a control application that requires complete mix of
continuous and logic function blocks and both analog and digital
I/O.

66
Lukas, 1986 Cost-per-function Relationships (Mixed Functions)

33
10/29/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-4

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU)

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 67

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Introduction:

• Basic LCU elements through the addition of interfaces to external

communication facilities and to a low-level human interface device.

• List of process interfacing issues to be considered is:

• Security Design Issues for LCU

• Secure Control Output Design
• Redundant Controller Designs
• Process Input / Output Design Issues

34
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Interfacing issues:

• Communication interfaces permit the LCU to interact with the rest of

the distributed system to accomplish several functions:

• To allow several LCUs to implement control strategies that is larger

in scope than possible with a single LCU.
• To allow transmission of process data to higher-level elements.
• To allow these Higher-level elements to transmit information
requests and control commands to the LCUs.
• To allow two or more LCUs to act together as redundant controllers
to perform the same control or computational functions.
• To augment I/O capability of LCUs with that of data input/output
units in system.

LCU – Process interfacing issues

70
Lukas, 1986 LCU Interfaces to Distributed System Elements

35
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Interfacing issues:

• LLHI device and its associated interface hardware allow several

important human interfacing functions to be accomplished through
hardware that is connected directly to the LCU rather than over the
shared communication facilities. It functions include:

• Allowing the plant operator to select control set points and controller
modes.

• Allowing the plant operator to override automatic equipment and

control the process manually in case of a controller hardware failure
of other system malfunction.

• Allowing the plant instrumentation engineer to Configure control

system logic and later tune control system parameters. 71

LCU – Process interfacing issues

List of process interfacing issues :

• Security Design Issues for LCU

• Secure Control Output Design
• Redundant Controller Designs
• Process Input / Output Design Issues

36
10/29/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-4

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU)

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 73

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Security Requirements:

• First priority of the user of any process control system is to keep the
process running under safe operating conditions.

• One way of designing a highly reliable control system is to

manufacture it using only the highest quality of components,
conduct extensive burn-in testing of the hardware, and implement
other quality control measures in the production process.

• Security objectives necessary in designing a DCS in the following

hierarchy:

37
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Security Requirements:
• Security objectives necessary in designing a DCS in the following
hierarchy:

• Maximize availability of automatic control functions of the system.

• Failure of a single control system element does not shut all

automatic control functions.

• Automatic control to manual control, if a portion of the control

system failure happens.

• If critical (both automatic and manual function) failure, operator can

shut down the process in an orderly and safe manner.

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Security Design Issues for LCU:

• Three basic categories of security approaches currently in use.

– Manual backup only

– Hot standby redundant controller
– Multiple active controller

38
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Manual backup only:
• LCU is designed to implement only one or two control loops, and the
operator take over manual control in case of a failure of the LCU.

• Control output is fed back to the manual backup station and to the
computation section of the controller so that inactive element can
synchronize its output with the active element.

• It ensures that the out to the process will not be bumped when a
switchover from the active to the inactive device occurs.

77
Lukas, 1986 Manual Backup Approach

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Redundant controller :
• LCU is backed up by another LCU that takes over if the primary
controller fails. In this way, full automatic control is maintained even
under failure conditions.

• Control output is fed back to both controllers to allow bump less

transfer to be accomplished.

78
Lukas, 1986 Standby Redundancy Approach

39
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Multiple active controller:
• LCUs are active at the same time in reading process inputs,
calculating control algorithms, and producing control outputs to the
process. Only one output can be used at a time, voting circuitry
selects the valid outputs. Failure of controllers - not affect the
automatic control function.
• Control output is fed back so that each controller can compare its
own output with the output generated by the voting device.

79
Lukas, 1986 Multiple active redundant controller

LCU – Process interfacing issues

On-line diagnosis - Once a diagnostic test has detected a failure, the
LCU must be able to act on this information in one or more of the
following ways:

• LCU should be able to alarm or report the failure to both the low-
level human interface and to the higher-level interface and
computing elements. If possible, both the existence and the type of
failure should be reported.
• LCU should be able to switch contact output to provide an external
hardware indication of failure.If the failure affects only a portion of
the LCU, the internal application logic of the LCU should be able to
drive a failure indicator. The LCU’s logic then can trigger the
appropriate process trip sequence or cause the control logic to back
off to a simpler level of control.
• LCU should be able to shut itself down in an orderly way, if
necessary.
80

40
10/29/2021

SYLLABUS

Unit-4

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU)

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 81

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Secure Control Output Design :

• Techniques to improve security of the control output circuitry:

– Minimum output in D/A converters.

– Safe level when LCU fails (both analog and digital).
– Independent power supply for control output and rest of LCU.
– Actual value of output to be read back by rest of the LCUs.
– Minimum number of components and electrical connections
between control output hardware and field terminating point.

41
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Secure Control Output Configuration:

• D/A converter is dedicated to generating a single control output.

Also provision is made to allow the processor to “read back” the
value of the control output.

• Processor uses this capability to verify that the control output has
been generated correctly. In some systems, a known reference
voltage is switched into the A/D converter and the processor checks
the output value of the converter.

• Processor can then take into account and correct any errors that
occur in the process of reading the A/D converter output and
generating the control output values to the D/A converter.

LCU – Process interfacing issues

84
Lukas, 1986 Secure Control Output Configuration

42
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Secure Digital Output Configuration:

• An output read back capability also can be added to this

configuration if desired.

• The fail safe output selection section is much simpler in the digital
output case than in analog one.

• In the digital case, there are only two states (0 or 1) and selecting
and generating the safe state is a relatively straight forward process.

LCU – Process interfacing issues

86
Lukas, 1986 Secure Digital Output Configuration

43
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Pulsed Control Output Configuration:

• LCU processor is directly involved in the output generation process

by generating raise and lower command to an up/down counter in
the output channel.

• This counter responds the commands by incrementing or

decrementing a digital value in memory. This value is fed to the D/A
converter, which generates a control output through the current
driver.

• Processor keeps track of the output through the current-to-voltage

converter and A/D converter circuitry shown and manipulates the
raise and lower commands until the output reaches the desired
value.

LCU – Process interfacing issues

88
Lukas, 1986 Pulsed Control Output Configuration

44
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Multiplexed Control Output Configuration:

• Single D/A converter is used to produce several control outputs by

including an analog multiplexer in the circuitry.

• To generate each output, the microprocessor writes the proper

values to the output register and the D/A converter generates a
corresponding analog voltage.

• At effectively the same time, the processor instructs the

multiplexer to switch the output of the D/A converter to the
proper hold circuit.

LCU – Process interfacing issues

90
Lukas, 1986 Multiplexed Control Output Configuration

45
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Multiplexed Control Output Configuration:

• Hold circuit is an analog memory that stores the output value and
causes the current driver to generate the appropriate output current,
usually in the 4-20 mA range.

• Processor writes the next output value into the register and directs
the D/A converter output to the next hold circuit through the MUX.

• Process occurs on a cyclic basis at least several times per second.

SYLLABUS

Unit-4

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU)

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 92

46
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Manual backup Design:

• Configuration 1

• Configuration 2

• Configuration 3

LCU – Process interfacing issues

94
Lukas, 1986 Manual Backup - Configuration 1

47
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

95
Lukas, 1986 Manual Backup - Configuration 2

LCU – Process interfacing issues

96
Lukas, 1986 Manual Backup – Configuration 3

48
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Redundant Controller Designs:
Guidelines to follow designing redundant control system.

• Redundant architecture should be simple as possible. At some point

more hardware reduces system reliability.
• It must minimize potential single points of failure. Hardware
elements must be as independent.
• Redundant nature of the controller configuration should be
transparent to the user.
• The process should not be bumped when failure occurs.
• After a control element has failed, the system should not rely on
control element till replacement.
• Hot spare replacement; replace failed elements without shut down.

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Redundant Controller Designs:

Several approaches to designing a redundant LCU architecture

• CPU redundancy
• One-on-one redundancy
• One-on-many redundancy
• Multiple active redundancy

49
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

CPU Redundancy :

• CPU is redundant because its failure affects all of the control

outputs. Only one of the CPUs is active in reading inputs,
performing control computations, and generating control outputs at
any one time.

• User designates the primary CPU through the priority arbitrator

circuitry, using a switch setting or other mechanism.

• Arbitrator - monitors the operation of the primary CPU, if it detects

a failure in the primary, the arbitrator transfers priority to the backup.

• Backup CPU periodically updates its internal memory by reading the

state of the primary CPU through the arbitrator.
99

LCU – Process interfacing issues

100
Lukas, 1986 CPU redundancy configuration

50
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

CPU Redundancy:

• Main operator and engineering interface in this system is the high-

level human interface.

• CRT-based video display unit - interfaces with the LCU as if it

were non-redundant. Only the primary CPU will accept control
commands or configuration and tuning changes transmitted by the
VDU.

101

LCU – Process interfacing issues

One-on-one Redundancy:

• It do not provide a low-level operator interface for manual backup

purposes. It provides a total backup LCU to the primary LCU.

• Control output circuitry is duplicated in this case; an output switching

block must be included to transfer the outputs when the controller
fails.

• As in the first redundant configuration, a priority arbitrator

designates the primary and backup LCUs and activates the backup
if a failure in the primary is detected.

• Arbitrator - Sending a command to the output switching circuitry,

if the primary LCU fails, causing the backup LCU to generate the
control outputs. 102

51
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

103
Lukas, 1986 One-on-one redundancy

LCU – Process interfacing issues

One-on-one Redundancy:

• Communication with the high-level human interface are handled

in the same way as in the CPU redundant configuration.

• Advantages

– No manual backup is needed.

– It eliminates any questions that may arise with a partial
redundancy approach.

104

52
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

One-on-many Redundancy :

• It is more cost effective approach to redundancy.

• Single LCU is used as a hot standby to back up any one of several

primary LCUs.

• Arbitrator - to monitor the status of the primaries and switch in the

backup when a failure occurs.

• Switching matrix - to transfer the I/O from the failed controller to

the backup.

• It is loaded into the backup LCU from the primary LCU only after the
primary has failed. When an LCU failure occurs, the arbitrator could
then load the proper configuration into the backup LCU. 105

LCU – Process interfacing issues

106
Lukas, 1986 One-on-many redundancy

53
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Multiple active Redundancy :

• Three or more redundant LCUs are used to perform the same

control functions performed by one in the non-redundant
configuration.

• All of the redundant controllers are active at the same time in

reading process inputs, computing the control calculation, and
generating control outputs to the process.

• Each LCU has access to all of the process inputs needed to

implement the control configuration.

107

LCU – Process interfacing issues

108
Lukas, 1986 Multiple active redundancy

54
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Multiple active Redundancy:

• An output voting device selects one of the valid control outputs from
the controllers and transmits it to the control process.

• When a controller fails, it is designed to generate an output outside

the normal range. Output voting device will then discard this output
as an invalid one.

• It is designed to select the signal generated by at least two out of

the three controllers.

Advantage

• Output voting device is designed for high reliability, it significantly

increases the reliability of the control system. 109

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Process Input / Output design:

• Dimension is simply the large variety of input/output signals that the

control system must handle in order to interface with sensors,
analyzers, transmitters, control actuators and other field
mounted equipment.

• Providing cost effective I/O hardware is the wide range of input and
output performance specifications that are imposed to facilitate
interfacing with various types of field equipment.

• Common and normal mode voltage rejection.

• Voltage isolation between terminal and system elements.
• Input impedance requirements.
• Ability to drive loads.
110

55
10/29/2021

LCU – Process interfacing issues

Process Input / Output design:

• I/O problem is the varying degree of I/O “hardening” required in

different applications.

– No hardening is required- application requires low-cost hardware.

– Application is in hazardous environment- I/O hardware must be
designed to be explosion proof.
– Field mounted equipment is subject to lightening strikes or large
induced voltage spikes- I/O hardware must be designed to withstand
high level voltage surges.
– Field mounted equipment is subject to Radio frequency Interference
(RFI)- I/O hardware must be shielded, filtered or isolated from RFI
environment to minimize or eliminate errors due to this type of noise.

111

56
11/18/2021

ICPC29 LOGIC AND DISTRIBUTED

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Unit - 5

Course Objectives

1. To introduce the importance of process automation techniques.

2. To impart knowledge in PLC based programming.
3. To introduce distributed control system and different
communication protocols.

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 2

1
11/18/2021

Programmable logic controller (PLC) basics: Definition, overview of PLC systems,

PLC Data manipulation instruction - Arithmetic and comparison instruction- Skip,

3
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

COURSE CONTENT

Distributed Control system: Local Control Unit (LCU) architecture - Comparison of

LCU communication Facilities - Communication system requirements – Architectural

4
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

2
11/18/2021

Course Outcomes

On the completion of this course, the students will be familiar with,

1. familiar with process automation technologies.

5
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

TEXT BOOKS

1. John W. Webb and Ronald A Reis, Programmable Logic Controllers -

Principles and Applications, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey, 5th Edition, 2003.

2. Lukcas M.P Distributed Control Systems, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,

New York, 1986.

3. Frank D. Petruzella, Programmable Logic Controllers, McGraw Hill, New

York, 5th Edition, 2016.

6
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

3
11/18/2021

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Deshpande P.B and Ash R.H, Elements of Process Control

Applications, ISA Press, New York, 1995.

2. Curtis D. Johnson, Process Control Instrumentation

Technology, Pearson New International, 8th Edition, 2013.

3. Krishna Kant, Computer-based Industrial Control, Prentice

Hall, New Delhi, 2nd Edition, 2011.

7
ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems

SYLLABUS

Unit - 5
LCU communication Facilities - Communication system
requirements – Architectural Issues – Operator Interfaces –
Engineering Interfaces. Development of Field Control Unit
(FCU) diagram for simple control applications. Introduction to
HART and Field bus protocol. Interfacing Smart field devices
(wired and wireless) with DCS controller. Introduction to Object
Linking and Embedding (OLE) for Process Control, Automation
in the cloud with case studies.

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 8

4
11/18/2021

LCU – Communication facilities

Communication facilities

• Conventional Point-to-Point Wiring

• Communication Facility as a “Black Box”

LCU – Communication facilities

Conventional Point-to-Point Wiring :

• It allow communication between the various system elements.

• Consists of a combination of continues controllers, sequential

controllers, data acquisition hardware, panel board instrumentation,
and a computer system.

• Controllers communicate with each other by means of point- to-point

wiring. This approach to interconnecting system elements has
proven to be expensive to design and check out, difficult to change,
burdensome to document, and subject to errors.

5
11/18/2021

LCU – Communication facilities

11
Lukas, 1986 Conventional Point-to-Point Wiring

LCU – Communication facilities

Conventional Point-to-Point Wiring :
• Cost of plant wiring is reduced significantly, since thousands of
wired are replaced by the few cables or buses used to implement
the shared communication system.

• Flexibility of making changes increases, since it is the software or

firmware configuration in the system elements that define the data
interconnection paths and not hard wiring.

• It takes less time to implement a large system, since the wiring labor
is nearly eliminated configuration errors are reduced and less time is
required to check out the interconnections.

• Control system is more reliable due to the significant reduction in

physical connections in the system.
12

6
11/18/2021

LCU – Communication facilities

Communication Facility as a “Black Box”:

• When DCS were introduced in the late 1970s; the use of digital
communications was extended to control-oriented systems as well.

• Communication system began to be viewed as a facility that the

various elements and devices in the distributed network share as
“black box”, replace the point to point wiring and cabling.

LCU – Communication facilities

14
Lukas, 1986 Communication Facility as a “Black Box”

7
11/18/2021

LCU – Communication facilities

Communication Facility as a “Black Box”:

Advantage:
• Cost of plant wiring is reduced because 1000 of wires are replaced
by the few cables or buses used to implement shared
communication system.

• Flexibility of marking changes increases because of it is software

configuration.

• Less time to implement large system since the wiring labor is nearly
eliminated, Configuration error reduced.

• Control is more reliable due to reduction in physical connection. So

failure is easily identified.
15

LCU – Communication facilities

Communication Facility as a “Black Box”:

Disadvantage:

• Delay occurs between communication systems.

8
11/18/2021

SYLLABUS

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 17

Communication system requirements

Communication System Requirements:

• Transmission of control variables between local control units in the

system. This is a requirement for all applications in which the control
strategy requires multiple interfacing controllers. To minimize the
delays and maximize the security of transmissions, the LCU’s
should be able to communicate directly with one another and not
through an intermediary.

• Transmission of process variables, control variables, and alarm

status information from the LCU’s to the high-level human interfaces
and to the low-level human interfaces in the system.

• Communication of set-point commands, operating modes and

control variables from the high-level computing devices and human
interface devices to the LCU’s for the purpose of supervisory
18
control.

9
11/18/2021

Communication system requirements

Communication System Requirements:

• Downloading of control system configuration, tuning parameters and

user programs from the high-level human interfaces to the LCU’s.

• Transmission of information from the data input/output units to the

high-level computing devices for purposes of data acquisition or
transfer.

• Transfer of large blocks of data programs, or control configuration

from one high-level computing devices or human interface to
another.

• Synchronization of real time among all of the elements in the

distributed control system.
19

Communication system performance requirements

Communication System Performance Requirements:

• Maximum size of the system – Distance; number of devices.

• Maximum delay time through the system.
• Interaction between LCU architecture and communication facility.
• Rate of undetected errors occurring in the system.
• Sensitivity to traffic loading.
• System scalability.
• System fault tolerance.

10
11/18/2021

Communication system performance requirements

Maximum size of the system:

• It includes two parameters: the geographical distances that the

communication system must cover and the maximum number of the
devices allowed within the system.

• In some communication systems, a third parameter, the maximum

distance between devices, is also important.

• Commercially available systems often extend over several miles of

plant area and can handle several hundred devices.

Communication system performance requirements

Maximum delay time through the system:

• Delay time across a hard-wired connection is essentially zero on the

time scale at which industrial processes operate, since the signals
travel at the speed of light.

• Some message delays due to a combination of factors: it takes time

to get access to the shared network, to propagate the message and
to the process the message at the both the sending and receiving
ends.

• Maximum acceptable delay time depends on both the

communication function and the particular industrial process.

11
11/18/2021

Communication system performance requirements

Interactions between LCU architecture & the communication
facility:

• Interaction between the architecture of the LCU’s and the shared

communications facility in terms of the latter’s required
performance.

System scalability:
• Communication facilities should be designed to be cost-effective for
a small monitoring or control application but also expandable to
larger applications without repairing a major restructuring.

System fault tolerance:

• It is clear that the shared communications facility is the “spinal cord”
of a distributed control system.
23

LCU – Communication facilities

Interaction between LCU and

24
Lukas, 1986 Communication Facility

12
11/18/2021

Communication system performance requirements

Rate of undetected errors occurring in the system:

• Every communication link, including a direct hard-wired connection,

is subject to errors due to electrical noise in the environment.

• Advantage - it can detect these errors at the receiving end and

either correct them or request a retransmission of the message. The
number of raw errors in a communication systems is a function of
the noise level and the rate of message transmissions.

Communication system performance requirements

Sensitivity of traffic loading:

• Designed to operate satisfactorily under light loading conditions.

• Critical test of a shared net work is how it behaves under heavy

traffic conditions, such as during a major plant upset, when many
critical variables are changing rapidly.

• The message delay time and undetected error rate of the network
must not degrade in any significant way during these conditions.

13
11/18/2021

LCU – Communication facilities

Conceptual Time Delay Experiment

27
Lukas, 1986

Interfacing requirements
Interfacing requirements

• Ease of application and maintenance.

• Environment specification.

14
11/18/2021

Interfacing requirements
Ease of application and maintenance:
• To maximize - the communication facility should be designed in
such a way that the user can view it as a simple “black box” to which
elements of the distributed control system can be connected.

• Any operations for setting up, or restarting the communications

facility should be simple, automatic or eliminated.

• Application tools that assist the user in configuring the system and
automatically checking for potential overloading conditions.

Environmental specifications:

• It is much more stringent for the communication facility than for the
other elements of the distributed control system, since the former is
the least likely to be enclosed in a protective physical environment. 29

SYLLABUS

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 30

15
11/18/2021

Architectural Issues
Architectural Issues:

• Channel Structure
• Levels of Sub networks
– Local sub-network
– Plant level sub-network
• Network topology

Architectural Issues
Channel structure:

• First decision to make in evaluating or designing a communications

facility is

• Serial
• Parallel

16
11/18/2021

Architectural Issues
Channel structure:
• Serial - Uses only a single coaxial cable, fibre optic link, or pair of
wires.
Advantages:
• Cable cost is less.
• Long distance.
• Use baseband signal.

• Parallel - Multiple conductors or wire to carry a combination of data

and handshaking signal. It provides a higher message throughput
rate than does the serial approach.
Disadvantages:
• More cost.
• Arrive data at different time if distance between nodes become large
(IEEE 488 BUS).
33

Architectural Issues
Level of subnetworks:

• Sub network is defined to be a self-contained communication

system. It has own address structure.

• Allows communications among elements connected to it using a

specific protocol.

• Allows communication between elements directly connected to it

and elements in other sub networks through an interface device that
“translates” the message addresses and protocols of the two
subnetworks.

17
11/18/2021

Architectural Issues
Level of subnetworks:

• Decision to use sub-networks and if so, how to structure them for a

particular application depends on a number of factors. including.

• The number and types of system elements to be connected.

• The geographical distribution of the elements.
• The communication traffic patterns generated by the elements.

Architectural Issues
Communication Partitioning:

• Local bus or subnetwork in each cabinet allows the individual

controllers to intercommunicate without interfering with
message traffic in other cabinets

• Local subnetwork in the central control room area allows the high
level devices to intercommunicate.

• A plantwide communication system interconnects-the control room

elements with the distributed elements in the process areas

18
11/18/2021

Architectural Issues

37
Lukas, 1986 Communication system partitioning

Architectural Issues
Communication Partitioning:

• A local subnetwork that allows the controllers in a given

process area to intercommunicate.

• A plantwide communication system that connects the high-level

elements with the local subnetworks.

• A "back door" subnetwork that allows rapid data transfers between

high-level elements to take place without interfering with the
process area traffic.

19
11/18/2021

Architectural Issues

39
Lukas, 1986 Communication system partitioning

Architectural Issues
Level of sub-networks:

• Local sub-network – Located in central control room. Allow

high level devices to intercommunicate.

• Plant level sub-network – Interconnect the control room elements

with the distributed elements in process.

20
11/18/2021

Architectural Issues
Topology:

• It refers to the structure of tie physical connections among the

elements in a subnetwork.

• Star
• Ring or loop
• Mesh
• Bus

Architectural Issues

42
Lukas, 1986 Communication sub-network topologies

21
11/18/2021

Architectural Issues
Protocol:

• The rules or conventions that govern the transmission of data in the

system are usually referred to as protocols.

• International Standards Organization (ISO) has developed a

reference model for protocols used in communication networks.
formally named the Reference Model for Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI).

Architectural Issues
ISO Protocol:

• Physical layer – defines the electrical and mechanical

characteristics of the interface between the physical communication
medium and-the driver and receiver electronics.

• Data link layer – to determine which element has control-of the

hardware at any given time. To structure the transmission of
messages from one element-to another at the bit level.

• Network layer – handles the routing of messages from one clement

to another.

• Transport layer – ensuring that end to end message transmission

has been accomplished properly.
44

22
11/18/2021

Architectural Issues

45
Lukas, 1986 ISO Protocol

Architectural Issues
ISO Protocol:

• Session layer layer – defines schedules the starting and stopping

of communication activity between two elements in the system.

• Presentation layer – to translates the message formats in the

communication system into the information formats required by the
next higher layer (Application layer).

• Application layer – it is the part of the application software or

firmware that calls up the communication services at the lower layer.

23
11/18/2021

Architectural Issues

47
Lukas, 1986 Network Access Protocol

SYLLABUS

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 48

24
11/18/2021

Operator Interfaces
Introduction:

• Automated equipment to be used in a safe and effective

manner, however, it is absolutely necessary to have a well-
engineered human interface system to permit error-free interactions
between the humans and the automated system.

• Two distinct groups of plant personnel interact with the control

system on a regular basic:

• Instrumentation and control engineers

• Plant operators

Operator Interfaces
Levels:

• Low Level Human Interface (LLHI)

• High Level Human Interface (HLHI)

25
11/18/2021

Operator Interfaces
Low Level Human Interface (LLHI) :

• LLHI connected directly to local control unit (LCU) or data input

output unit (DI/DO) via dedicated cabling.

• It is used in DCS usually resembles the panel board instrumentation

(stations, indicators, and recorders), and tuning devices used in
conventional electric analog control systems.

• It is located geographically close to (within 100-200 feet of) the LCU

or DI/DO to which it is connected.

Operator Interfaces
High Level Human Interface (HLHI) :

• HLHI connected to LCU or DI/DO via shared communication facility.

• It makes maximum use of the latest display technology (e.g., CRTs

or flat- panel displays) and peripheral devices (e.g., printers and
magnetic storage) that are available on the market

26
11/18/2021

Operator Interfaces
Examples

• Typical installations and their corresponding equipment

configurations are

• Stand-Alone Control Configuration

• Geographically Centralized Control Configuration
• Geographically Distributed Control Configuration

Operator Interfaces
Stand-Alone Control Configuration:

• Single LCU located in the plant equipment room performs all of the
required control functions.

• Low-level human interface units located in the equipment room and

the plant control room, provide the complete operator and
instrument engineer interface for the control system.

• Used for a small process or of a small digital control system

installed in a plant controlled primarily with conventional electrical
analog or pneumatic equipment.

27
11/18/2021

Operator Interfaces

55
Lukas, 1986 Stand-Alone Control Configuration

Operator Interfaces
Geographically Centralized Control Configuration:

• Several LCUs are used to implement the functions required in

controlling the process; therefore, the control is functionally
distributed.

• LCUs are all located in a central equipment room area, and so it is

not a geographically distributed control system.

• Both high-level and low-level human interface devices are located in

the control room area for operational purposes.

• Operator control functions are performed using the high-level

interface; the low-level interface is included in the configuration
primarily to serve as a backup in case the high-level interface fails.
56

28
11/18/2021

Operator Interfaces

Geographically Centralized Control 57

Lukas, 1986 Configuration

Operator Interfaces
Geographically Distributed Control Configuration:

• Each LCU is located in the plant area closest to the portion of the
process that it controls.

• Associated low-level human interface equipment is also located in

this area.

• Control room and instrument engineering areas contain high-level

human interface units, which are used to perform all of the primary
operational and engineering functions.

• Low-level units are used only as manual backup controls in case the
high-level equipment fails or needs maintenance.

29
11/18/2021

Operator Interfaces

Geographically Distributed Control 59

Lukas, 1986 Configuration

Operator Interfaces
Geographically Distributed Control Configuration:

Advantages:

• Reduction in control room size (by eliminating panel board

equipment),
• Reduction in field wiring costs (by placing LCUs near the process).

Applications:

• Large as well as small systems.

• Centralized equipment configuration as well as distributed.
• Variety of human interface philosophies, ranging from accepting
CRT only operation to requiring panel board instrumentation in at
least a backup role.
60

30
11/18/2021

Operator Interfaces
Operator interface requirements

• It allow the operator to perform tasks in the following traditional

areas of responsibility:

• Process monitoring,
• Alarming
• Trend in time
• Process control,
• Process diagnostics and
• Process record keeping

Operator Interfaces
Operator interface Requirements:

• Process Monitoring - A basic function of the operator interface

system is to allow the operator (whether one or more) to observe
and monitor the current state of the process. Some functions are

• Current values of all process variables of interest in the system must

be available for the operator to view at any time.
• Each process variable rather than being identified by a hardware
address only must be identifiable by a "tag”.
• Value of the process variable must be in engineering units that are
meaningful to the operator.

31
11/18/2021

Operator Interfaces
Operator interface Requirements:

• Process Control - provide the necessary information for the

operator's primary function process control. Some requirements are

• Must allow the operator to have rapid access to all of the continuous
control loops and logic sequences in the process control system

• Interface must allow the operator to perform all of the normal control
functions: changing control modes.

• Interface must allow the operator to perform such logic control

operations as starting and stopping pumps or opening and
closing valves.

Operator Interfaces
Operator interface Requirements:

• Process Diagnostics - interface system must provide enough

information during these unusual conditions to allow the operator to
identify the equipment causing the problem, take measures to
correct it, and move the process back to its normal operating state.

• Ongoing tests and reasonableness checks on the sensors and

analyzers that measure the process variables of interest.

• Ongoing self-tests on the components and modules within the

distributed control system itself.

32
11/18/2021

Operator Interfaces
Operator interface Requirements:

• Process Record Keeping - was one of the first functions to be

automated using conventional computer systems. It can be
implemented in the operator interface system without the use of
separate computer.

• Recording of short-term trending information

• Manual input of process data
• Recording of alarms
• Periodic information of process variable information
• Long-term-storage and retrieval of information
• Recording of operator control actions

SYLLABUS

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 66

33
11/18/2021

Engineering Interfaces
Introduction:

• It allow the plant operator to monitor and control the process,

an engineering interface that is totally independent of the operator
interface.

• Case of operating interface - normally provide the user a choice

between two levels of engineering interface hardware;

• Low-level, minimum-function devices that is inexpensive and

justifiable for small systems.

• High-level, full-function devices that are more powerful, but which

are needed and justifiable for medium, and large sized DCSs.

Engineering Interfaces
Engineering Interface Requirements:

• Engineering interface hardware must perform functions in the

following categories

• System Configuration
• Operator Interface Configuration
• System Documentation
• System Failure Diagnosis

34
11/18/2021

Engineering Interfaces
Engineering Interface Requirements:

• System Configuration – Define hardware configuration and

interconnections, as well as control logic and computational
algorithms.

• Operator Interface Configuration – Define equipment that the

operator needs to perform his or her functions in the system, and
define the relationship of this equipment with the control system
itself.

Engineering Interfaces
Engineering Interface Requirements:

• System Documentation – Provide a mechanism for documenting

the system and the operator interface configuration and for making
changes quickly and easily.

• System Failure Diagnosis – Provide a mechanism to allow the

instrument engineering to determine the existence and location of
failures in the system in order to make repairs quickly and efficiently.

35
11/18/2021

Engineering Interfaces
Low level Engineering Interface (LLEI):

• It is designed to be a minimum function, inexpensive device whose

cost is justifiable for small distributed control systems.

• It also can be used as a local maintenance and diagnostic tool in

larger systems.

Example of LLEI 71

Engineering Interfaces
Low level Engineering Interface (LLEI):

• LLEI is usually a microprocessor based device designed either as

an electronic module that mounts in a rack or as a hand held
portable device.

• Device usually is designed with a minimal keyboard and

alphanumeric display so that the instrument engineer can read data
from and enter data into the device.

• LLEI must connect directly to and communicate with only one local
control unit or data input / output unit at a time. It can be
connected or disconnected while the LCU or DI/OU is powered and
in operation; it is not necessary to shut down the process.

36
11/18/2021

Engineering Interfaces
High level Engineering Interface (HLEI):

• It allows a user to reap the full benefits of the flexibility and control
capabilities of a DCS while minimizing the system engineering costs
associated with such a system.

• More expensive than the low-level version, this device is extremely

cost effective when used in conjunction with medium to large scale
systems because of the significant engineering cost savings it can
provide.

• It is implemented in the form of a CRT based console or VDU,

similar to the high level operator interface unit.

Engineering Interfaces
High level Engineering Interface (HLEI):

• HLEI – major role in automating process

• Control structures, computational algorithm stored in HLEI
– Definition of any H/W selected on each module
– Number, type and location of H/W in LCU
– Number, type and location of all operator and engineering consoles in
the system

• Some manually others automatic using broadcast messages

• Control and computational information
– Tags, descriptors, definitions, addresses
– Logic state descriptors for digital system
– Signal conditioning in DI/O
– Communication linkages
74

37
11/18/2021

Engineering Interfaces
Interface Configuration:

• HLHI – device allows the engineer to change the layout of the series
of displays that make up the "panel board" used to control plant
operations. Specifying following information:

• Number of areas in the plant and their identifying tag. names and
descriptors.
• Number of groups in each area and the tag names and descriptors
for each area.
• Assignment of control Ioop and inputs points to a group or to
multiple group.
• Types of displays to be used at each level.
• Linkages between displays in the hierarchy.

Engineering Interfaces
Interface Configuration:

• Operator interface keyboard contains user defined keys the

engineer must also define the functions of these keys and link them.
• In laying out each display, the engineer must enter the following
information as a minimum.

• Graphic Symbols
• Static background elements
• Dynamic graphics elements
• Dynamic alphanumeric elements
• Control stations
• Poke Points

38
11/18/2021

Engineering Interfaces
Interface Configuration:

• Physical hardware the vendor supplies. It is extremely important that

the mechanism provided of defining and editing the graphics display
be well documented and simple for the engineer to use:

• Special symbol definition

• Graphics drawing and editing
• Symbol modification
• Macro symbol operations
• Display transportability
• Expanded display definition

SYLLABUS

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 78

39
11/18/2021

HART for field controller

• Simultaneously analog and digital signaling by converting
transmitters traditional analog measurement output into a
control output.

• Analog signal from the controller (Smart transmitter) – to

manipulate the field device.

• It also carries the HART digital signal, used for monitoring

the process measurement, making set point changes &
tuning the controller

HART for field controller

SMART transmitter with PID

Steve et al. 2004 80

40
11/18/2021

HART for field controller

• Communication rate – 2-3 updates per second

• Analog output is updated at a rate that is much faster than in

conventional control system.

• HART digital communication rate remains sufficient for

monitoring the control variable and changing set point values.

HART in control system

• Microprocessor based smart instrumentation enables control
algorithms to be calculated in the field devices close to
process

• HART transmitters and actuators support control functionality

in the device, eliminates the need for a separate controller
and reduce hardware installation and start-up costs.

• Control algorithm uses analog signal, HART communication –

to monitor the loop and change control set point and
parameters

• Measurement and accuracy is maintained because there is no

need to transmit the data to a separate controller.
82

41
11/18/2021

HART in control system

Transmitter with PID

Steve et al. 2004 83

SYLLABUS

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 84

42
11/18/2021

INTRODUCTION-HART
• Smart (or intelligent) instrumentation protocols are designed
for applications where actual data is collected from
instruments, sensors, and actuators by digital communication
techniques.

• These components are linked directly to programmable logic

controllers (PLCs) and computers.

• Introduced in 1989, this protocol has proven successful in

industrial applications

• Enables bidirectional communication even in hazardous

environments

INTRODUCTION-HART
• Field networks are not only the solution when plant operators
want to use the advantages of smart field devices.

• All these task require field devices based on microprocessor

technology.

• These devices are frequently called smart devices.

• It enables the field devices to be parameterized and started

up in a flexible manner to read, measured and stored data
(records).

43
11/18/2021

HART

Steve et al. 2004 87

HART
• HART - Highway Addressable Remote Transducer

• HART protocol - is a typical smart instrumentation fieldbus

that can operate in a hybrid 4–20 mA digital. It is a hybrid
analog+digital industrial automation protocol.

• It can communicate over legacy 4-20 mA analog

instrumentation current loops, sharing the pair of wires used
by the analog only host systems.

• It was developed by Rosemount Inc., built off the Bell

202 early communications standard in the mid-1980s.

44
11/18/2021

HART

Steve et al. 2004 89

HART
• It is a proprietary digital communication protocol for their
smart field instruments.

• Communicates at 1200 bps without interrupting the 4-20 mA

signal and allows a host application (master) to get two or
more digital updates per second

• It allows the use of up to two masters: the engineering

console in control room and a second device for operation for
site Ex: PC or laptop or a handheld terminal

• HART communicator – to make field operations as uniform as

possible

• Version of HART 7.2. 7 – major revision, 2 – minor version 90

45
11/18/2021

HART

Steve et al. 2004 91

HART - SIGNAL
• HART is a hybrid analog and digital protocol, as opposed to
most fieldbus systems, which are purely digital.

• The HART protocol uses the frequency shift keying (FSK)

technique based on the Bell 202 communications standard.

• Two individual frequencies of 1200 and 2200 Hz, representing

digits 1 and 0 respectively, are used.

• The average value of the sine wave (at the 1200 and 2200 Hz
frequencies), which is superimposed on the 4–20 mA signal,
is zero.

• Hence, the 4–20 mA analog information is not affected.

46
11/18/2021

HART - SIGNAL

HART
93

HART - SIGNAL

HART
94

47
11/18/2021

HART - SIGNAL

FREQUENCY ALLOCATION OF HART PROTOCOL

Steve et al. 2004 95

HART - SIGNAL

HART SIGNAL SUPERIMPOSED ON A ANALOG SIGNAL

Steve et al. 2004 96

48
11/18/2021

HART COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL

• It is a master/slave protocol means smart field device only
speaks when spoken by master

• Master devices include handheld terminals as well as PC-

based work places e.g in the control room.

• HART slave devices on the other hand include sensor,

transmitter and actuators

• It can be used in various modes such as point-to-point or

multi-drop

• For communicating information to/from smart field instruments

and central control or monitoring systems
97

HART COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL

HART DIGITAL COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL

Steve et al. 2004 98

49
11/18/2021

HART COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL

• HART communication occurs between two HART enabled
devices such as smart field device and a control or monitoring
system

• Communication occurs using standard instrumentation grade

wire and using standard wiring and termination practices

• HART protocol provides two simultaneous communication

channels

• 4-20 mA analog signal and a digital signal

• 4-20 mA communicates the primary measured value (field

measurement) using the 4-20 mA current loop
99

HART COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL

• Additional device information is communicated using a digital
signal that is superimposed on the analog signal

• Digital signal contains information from one device including

device status, diagnostics, additional measured value or
calculated values etc.

• Together the two communication channels provide a low-cost

and very robust complete field communication solution which
is easy to configure

• HART protocol provides upto two masters (primary and

secondary). Handheld communicators to be used without
interfering with communications to/from the primary master.

100

50
11/18/2021

HART COMMUNICATION MODES

• Communication mode is used for the normal data exchange.

• Used to send a broadcast message to all devices to check the

system configuration.

• Two types of modes

• Master Slave mode

• Burst Mode

101

HART COMMUNICATION
Master Slave mode
• It is master-slave communication protocol, which means that
during normal operation, each slave (field device)
communication is initiated by a master communication device.

• Two masters can connect to each HART loop.

• Primary master is generally distributed control system (DCS),

programmable logic controller (PLC) or PC.

• Secondary master – hand held terminal,

• Slave devices – transmitters, actuators & controllers that

respond to commands from the primary or secondary master.
102

51
11/18/2021

HART COMMUNICATION

Master / Slave mode

103

HART COMMUNICATION
Burst mode
• It enables faster communication (3-4 data updates per
second).

• The master instructs the slave device to continuously

broadcast a standard HART reply message (Eg: the value of
process variable)

• Master receives the message at the higher rate until it

instructs the slave to stop bursting

• Use burst mode to enable more than one passive HART

device to listen to communications on the HART loop.

104

52
11/18/2021

HART COMMUNICATION

Scanning Electron Microscope

105

HART COMMUNICATION

Hand held terminal

Scanning Electron Microscope

106

53
11/18/2021

HART COMMUNICATION

Hand held terminal

Scanning Electron Microscope

107

HART COMMUNICATION

Micromachining
108

54
11/18/2021

HART NETWORKS
• It can operate in one of two network configurations.

• Permits all digital communication with field devices in

• Point to Point Mode

• Multi-drop

• Multiplexer mode

109

HART – POINT TO POINT MODE

• HART master device is connected to exactly one HART field
device

• 4-20 mA signal is used to communicate one process variable,

• Additional process variables, configuration parameters and

other device data are transferred digitally using the HART
protocol

• 4-20 mA signal (analog transmission), while measurement,

adjustment and data is transferred digitally.

• Digital signal give access to secondary variables and other

data can be used for operations, commissioning,
maintainence and diagnostic purposes. 110

55
11/18/2021

HART – POINT TO POINT MODE

• The basic communication of the HART protocol is the 4–20
mA current system.

• This analog system is used by the sensor to transmit an

analog value to the HART PLC or HART card in a PC.

• In a 4–20 mA system, the sensor outputs a current value

somewhere between 4 and 20 mA that represents the analog
value of the sensor.

111

HART – POINT TO POINT MODE

• For example, a water tank that is half full – say 3400 kilolitres
– would put out 12 mA.

• The receiver would interpret this 12 mA as 3400 kilolitres. This

communication is always point-to-point, i.e. from one device
to another.

• In point-to-point mode, field device has address 0, setting the

current output to 4-20 mA.

112

56
11/18/2021

HART – POINT TO POINT MODE

Point to Point mode of operation

Balraj 2015 113

HART – POINT TO POINT MODE

Point to Point mode of operation

Steve et al. 2004 114

57
11/18/2021

HART – POINT TO POINT MODE

Point to Point mode of operation

Balraj 2015 115

HART – MULTI-POINT OR MULTI-DROP MODE

• For multidrop communications, the HART protocol uses a
digital/analog modulation technique known as frequency
shift keying (FSK).

• This technique is based on the Bell 202 communication

standard.

• Data transfer rate is 1200 baud with a digital ‘0’ frequency

(2200 Hz) and a digital ‘1’ frequency (1200 Hz).

• Devices can be powered by the bus or individually.

• If the bus powers the devices, only 15 devices can be

connected.
116

58
11/18/2021

HART – MULTI-POINT OR MULTI-DROP MODE

• As the average DC current of an AC frequency is zero, it is
possible to place a 1200 Hz or 2200 Hz tone on top of a 4–20
mA signal.

• The HART protocol does this to allow simultaneous

communications on a multidrop system.

• It requires only a single pair of wires and safety barriers and

an auxiliary power supply for upto 15 field devices.

• All process values are transmitted digitally.

• Control valves can’t be used conjunction with multi-drop

mode.
117

HART – MULTI-POINT OR MULTI-DROP MODE

• Control signals for valves are transmitted as 4 to 20 mA
standardized current signals

• It is useful for supervising installation that are widely spaced,

such as pipelines, feeding stations and tank farms.

• In multi-drop mode, all device addresses are greater than

zero and each device sets its output current to 4 mA.

• For this mode of operation, controllers and indicators must

equipped with a HART modem.

118

59
11/18/2021

HART – MULTI-POINT OR MULTI-DROP MODE

Multi-drop or Multi-point mode of operation

Steve et al. 2004 119

HART – MULTI-POINT OR MULTI-DROP MODE

Multi-drop or Multi-point mode of operation

Balraj 2015 120

60
11/18/2021

HART – MULTI-POINT OR MULTI-DROP MODE

Multi-drop or Multi-point mode of operation

Steve et al. 2004 121

HART – MULTIPLEXER MODE

• Enables large no. of HART devices to be connected in a
network.

• User selects a particular current loop for communication via

the operating system

• As long as the communication takes place, the multiplexer

connects the current loop to the host.

• Due to the cascaded multiplexer structure, host can

communicate with many devices (>1000) devices, all with the
address zero.

122

61
11/18/2021

HART – MULTIPLEXER MODE

Multiplexer Mode

Balraj 2015 123

HIGHER LEVEL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

• Gateways – to connect a HART communication system with
other communication system

• Convert the respective protocol of the networks to be coupled

• HART enables communication over long distances

• HART signals can be transmitted over telephone lines using

HART/CCITT converters

• Field devices directly connected to lines owned by the

company – communicate with the centralized host located
many miles away.

124

62
11/18/2021

HART APPLICATIONS

• HART for field controller

• HART in control system
• HART in SCADA applications
• HART in instrument management
• HART in valve diagnostics
• HART in tank farm management

125

HART in SCADA Applications

• It focus on acquiring real time data.

• HART communication is very complementation to objectives

of SCADA systems

• Some of SCADA applications using HART communication

• Pipeline monitoring
• Custody transfer
• Inventory and tank farm management
• Automated meter reading
• Monitoring of remote petroleum production platforms

126

63
11/18/2021

HART in SCADA Applications

Successful use of HART in SCADA

• Digital process values supported in all HART applications

• Status information provided via HART – perform maintenance

• HART communication can be transmitted directly over

telephone lines

• Power consumption can be reduced, minimizing battery and

solar panel sizes

• Multi-drop approach - process values can be read once every

4s, which is faster than required for SCADA applications
127

HART in Instrument Management

• Database allows instrument configurations to be tracked,
maintenance activities planned and recorded.

• Combined with documenting process calibration, instrument

calibrators, histories can be automatically captured.

• HART communication allows devices needing maintenance to

be identified and allows any changes to device configurations
to be detected.

• Range values and device status can be continuously

monitored by the management system.

• Automatic many activities, simplify record keeping and

reduces manual data entry. 128

64
11/18/2021

HART in Valve Diagnostics

• Valve diagnostic software packages – specialized tools using
HART two way communication to support intelligent valves
and actuators

• HART able to access some basic valve information;

• Provides basic information about the operation of valve

• Device needs maintenance, valve in manual are the status.

129

HART in Valve Diagnostics

• In addition to device-specific, small valve capabilities can be
accessed remotely using HART.

• Tracking of valve position

• characterization of valve
• linearization of flow characteristics of the valve
• manually stroking the valve
• manually controlling the valve position

130

65
11/18/2021

HART in Inventory and tank management

• Tank and inventory management – an ideal application for a
HART multi-drop network

• HART network digital update rate for two PVs per second is
sufficient for many tank-level applications

• Multi-drop network provides significant installation

• It reduces the amount of wiring from field to control room as

well as no. of I/O channels required.

• Many inexpensive process-monitoring applications are

commercially available for further costs.

131

HART in Inventory and tank management

HART communication with underground petroleum storage

Steve et al. 2004 132

66
11/18/2021

HART in Inventory and tank management

• Underground oil caverns used for crude oil storage

• Customer Pumps oil from barges into storage caverns.

• Ultrasonic flow meter records the total flow

• To get the oil out of the caverns, a brine solution is pumped

into the cavern through a magnetic flow meter.

• Brine and crude oil flowing in both directions are measured

and reported to the DCS using the HART communication
protocol
• DCS tracks the total flow rate and total quantity to maintain a
certain pressure inside the caverns.
133

HART in Inventory and tank management

HART communication in oil caverns

Steve et al. 2004 134

67
11/18/2021

HART in Inventory and tank management

oil caverns
Steve et al. 2004 135

HART in Inventory and tank management

oil caverns
Steve et al. 2004 136

68
11/18/2021

BENEFITS OF HART

• Simple design, easy to maintain and operate

• Simultaneous analog and digital communications
• Allows other analog devices on the highway
• Allows multiple masters to control same smart instrument
• Multiple smart devices on the same highway
• Long distance communications over telephone lines
• Two alternative transmission modes
• Flexible messaging structure for new features
• Up to 256 process variables in any smart field device
• Option of point-to-point or multi-drop operation
• Sufficient response time of approx. 500 ms

137

SYLLABUS

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 138

69
11/18/2021

NEED FOR FIELD BUS

• 50 years ago – plants used 3-15 psi to control the process.

• Signals were transmitted in the range (3-15) psi.

• Difficult to maintain large tables and transmit

• 4-20 mA current signal – transmit the plant data.

• Transactions in the plant is in the form of current signal

• Both 3-15 psi and 4-20 mA signals standard are analog

139

NEED FOR FIELD BUS

• Two way communication become necessary – led to

development of HART

• HART uses both analog and digital communications

• Process variables are transmitted as (4-20) mA signal

• Information to smart devices are transmitted as digital signal.

• Next development is field bus – no analog signal and all

transaction is digital signal

140

70
11/18/2021

FIELD BUS
• Is technological evolution to digital communication in
instrumentation and process control

• Allows migration of control functions to field devices

• Expands the amount of process and non-process information

flowing both from and to field devices

• Consists of two terms - Field and Bus

• Field – industrial word, abstraction of plants

• Bus – comp sci word, set of common line that electrically

connects various units – to transfer data among them
141

FIELD BUS
• Fieldbus is a generic term that describes a new digital
communications network that is being used in industry to
replace the existing 4-20 mA analog signal standard.

• The network is a digital, bi-directional, multi-drop, serial-

142

71
11/18/2021

FIELD BUS
• Multi-drop is also referred to as multi-access and it can be
interpreted as a single bus with many nodes connected to it.

• Serial-bus means the data is transmitted serially according to

RS232 or RS485 protocol.

• Profibus uses RS485 protocol.

• Fieldbus works on network structures such as daisy-chain,

star, ring, branch, and tree network topologies.

143

FIELD BUS
• To resolve process control applications instead of just transfer
data in digital mode.

• Foundation Field bus – digital, serial, two-way communication

• Interconnects field equipment such as sensors, actuators and

controllers

• It is LAN for instruments used in both process and

manufacturing automation

• To distribute the control application across the network

144

72
11/18/2021

FIELD BUS

Field bus network

145

FIELD BUS

Field bus network

146

73
11/18/2021

FIELD BUS

Field bus network

147

USE OF FIELD BUS IN INDUSTRIAL PLANT

Three levels in field bus

• Device level
• Cell level
• Plant level

148

74
11/18/2021

USE OF FIELD BUS IN INDUSTRIAL PLANT

Device level

• Field buses – used to connect device controllers and

sensors/actuators

• Used for cyclic exchange of data with sensors/actuators

perform at high speed

• Can be interrupted by alarms from the field

149

USE OF FIELD BUS IN INDUSTRIAL PLANT

Advantages of using field bus at device level

• Allows for replacement of point-to-point (analog or digital)

links between the device controller and actuators/sensors

• Substantial decrease in cabling with cost reduction and

system complexity

• Increase of signal to noise ratio deriving from digital

transmission techniques

• Possibility of adding or removing stations without additional

cabling

150

75
11/18/2021

USE OF FIELD BUS IN INDUSTRIAL PLANT

Cell level

• Operations of device controllers are co-ordinate and

monitored

• Implies the transfer of quantities of data for configuration,

calibration, trending, etc

• Using suitable protocols either LAN or field buses.

• Used to realize the connection between device controllers and

cell controllers

151

USE OF FIELD BUS IN INDUSTRIAL PLANT

Plant level

• Over all production strategies are planned.

• Necessity of interconnecting different entities such as

enterprise resource planning (ERP), resource allocation,
management etc

• Most widely used networks is LANs or intranets

152

76
11/18/2021

FUNCTIONS OF FIELD BUS

• Cyclic data exchange
• Asynchronous traffic
• Messaging system

153

FUNCTIONS OF FIELD BUS

Cyclic data exchange

• Device controller able to perform the polling of

sensors/actuators connected to field bus

• Sends the output signals to the actuators and reads the input
signals from the sensors

• Takes place at the desired level

Two possible techniques to implement cyclic data exchange

• Message passed

• Producer/consumer based
154

77
11/18/2021

FUNCTIONS OF FIELD BUS

Asynchronous traffic

• Device level function is used to handle non deterministic

events such as alarms.

• Sensor detecting a critical situation such uses the function

• Notify the event to the device controller – turn will undertake

the appropriate actions

• To indicate the different levels of priority for the events.

155

FUNCTIONS OF FIELD BUS

Messaging system

• Function is used at the cell level and allows for handling of

operation of device controllers

• Transferring amount of data for e.g. configuration files,

regions of memory, excitable programs

• Read/write of complex variables, domain upload/download

and remote start/stop of program invocations

• Implementation of function based on manufacturing message

specification

156

78
11/18/2021

MAIN FEATURES OF FIELD BUS

• Digital
• Bidirectional (Half-duplex)
• Serial
• Multi-drop
• 25 x faster communication speed compared to HART
• Increased capabilities (due to full digital communication).
• Reduced wiring and terminations (multiple devices on one
wire).
• Increased selection of suppliers (due to interoperability)
• Reduced control room loading (control on wire)
• Connection to HSE backbone

157

COMPONENTS OF FIELD BUS

Host level
• Field bus controller
• Engineering tools

Linking devices (H1)

• Linker (coupler)
• Bridge

Field level
• Sensors
• Actuators
• Valves
• Transmitter
158

79
11/18/2021

FIELD BUS

Field bus extends view to field instrument

159

FIELD BUS

Field bus components

160

80
11/18/2021

FIELD BUS

Field bus components

161

FIELD BUS

Field bus architecture

162

81
11/18/2021

COMPONENTS OF FIELD BUS

Trunk
• Carries both digital signal and DC power
• Connects up to 32 field devices to DCS
• Interface at DCS is called H1 card for FF
• Wiring and power requirement
– Minimum device operating voltage : 9V
– Maximum bus voltage : 32V
– Maximum cable length (trunk + spur) : 1900m

• Maximum distance
– 9500m with 4 repeaters

163

COMPONENTS OF FIELD BUS

Power Supply
– Isolation
– Power conditioning
– Current limiting

Field bus power supply

164

82
11/18/2021

COMPONENTS OF FIELD BUS

Terminator
• Two terminators are required on
each segment

• One at the control room end of

cable

• Other is in the junction box in the

field

• An extra terminator cause 300 mV

drop in signal level
Terminator

165

COMPONENTS OF FIELD BUS

• Field bus allows control, totalization, signal processing in the
field

• Separate controller or other signal conditioning is not

necessary

• Host may be simple – PC, DCS

• Multidropping of several devices on a single wire may reduce

the amount of cable needed.

• A device can be a kilometer from the control room. Every loop

needs at least two pairs of wires (actuator and transmitter)

166

83
11/18/2021

COMPONENTS OF FIELD BUS

• Prices of field bus may initially high.

• Reduction in the no. of devices and wiring, cable trays and

boxes will yield a less expensive system

• Field bus has software function blocks provides tremendous

flexibility without having to rewire or change any hardware

• Function blocks – can be removed and added

• Execute a virtually unlimited no. of function blocks

• System needs to improved, need for additional hardware is

minimized, devices executes more blocks.
167

COMPONENTS OF FIELD BUS

• High Speed Ethernet (HSE) and H1 Bus in Field bus

• Used in control room for connecting switch and DCS

• H1 used for connecting the plant with HSE through linking

devices

• H1 segment – moderate speed, existing wires, bus powered,

can be intrinsically safe

• H2 segment – High speed, Link multiple H1 segments, I/O

system bus, new wiring

168

84
11/18/2021

COMPONENTS OF FIELD BUS

• Fieldbus allows multiple variables from each device to be
brought into the control system

• For archiving, trend analysis, process optimization, and

reporting, predictive maintenance and for asset management.

• Enables improved control capability which can improve

product yields.

• H1 (31.25 Kbit/s) interconnects “field” equipment such as

sensors, actuators and I/O.

• HSE (100 Mbit/s) (High Speed Ethernet) provides integration

of high speed controllers (such as PLCs), H1 subsystems (via
a linking device), data servers and workstations. 169

FIELD BUS

High Speed Ethernet and H1 connections

170

85
11/18/2021

ADVANATGES OF FIELD BUS

• Faster completion of cable laying work
• Less number of terminators
• Faster completion of loop checking and validation
• Faster uptime of instruments
• Less number of cabinets required
• Less space required for control room
• Performance diagnostics like actuator/tubing leakage, air
supply availability, calibration, shift, etc.
• Reduction in cable cost

171

ADVANATGES OF FIELD BUS

• Capital expenditure (CAPEX) savings associated with cable
elimination;

• Multiple devices share wire-pairs in order to communicate

over the bus network and savings are also available through
speedier commissioning

• Ongoing maintenance and process control system

performance are significantly enhanced through fieldbus
systems, which results in operations expense savings
(OPEX).

172

86
11/18/2021

DISADVANATGES OF FIELD BUS

• Complex, so more training needed
• The price of fieldbus components is higher
• Fieldbus test devices are more complex
• Device manufacturers have to offer different versions of
devices due to different fieldbus standards.
• This can add to the cost of the devices and increases the
difficultly of device selection.
• Standards may predominate or become obsolete, increasing
the investment risk.

173

SYLLABUS

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 174

87
11/18/2021

Wireless HART and ISA100

• Main purpose of the ISA (International Society of

Automation) 100 committee is to provide a family of
standards for industrial wireless networks.

• It will address the needs of the whole plant, such as process

control, personnel and asset tracking and identification
convergence of net.

• ISA – 100.11a is the first standard of the family.

• Describes a mesh network designed to provide secure

wireless communication to process control.

175

Wireless HART and ISA100

• Presents routing and non – routing field devices,

backbone routers, a system manager, a security
manager, a gateway.

• Regarding the field devices, the non – routing ones are the
I/O devices (sensor and actuators), while routing devices,
besides the routing capability.

• Also act as I/O devices.

• Routing devices perform an important role in mesh networks.

• In this topology, data is transmitted from source to the

destination through several hops. 176

88
11/18/2021

Wireless HART and ISA100

• Routers are responsible to make sure that the data arrives

at the right destination.

• Even use alternative paths to improve reliability.

• Backbone router is responsible to route the data packets

from one subnet over the backbone network to its
destination.

• It can be another subnet or gateway.

• Gateway acts as an interface between the field network and

the plant network(control host appln.).
177

Wireless HART and ISA100

• System manager is the administrator of the network and it

is responsible for communication configuration for the
device management and network run – time control.

• Security manager is in charge of policy security

management of the standard.

178

89
11/18/2021

Wireless HART and ISA100

ISA 100 Network

Steve et al. 2004 179

Wireless HART and ISA100

• The ISA 100 protocol stack compared with the OSI

reference model and the TCP/IP.

• ISA 100 protocol stack is built with widely accepted and

proven standards. Ex: the mesh network is integrated to
IPv6.

• This will allow the ISA 100 to provide highly scalable

solutions.

• The application layer is very flexible and is capable of

performing tunneling. (is a communications protocol that
allows for the movement of data from one network to
another.)
180

90
11/18/2021

Wireless HART and ISA100

• Allows users to maintain the compatibility with legacy

protocols that are currently in their plants.

• Wireless HART was the first standard developed for

wireless communication for process control.

• It adds wireless communication capability to the HART

protocol.

• It is compatible with existing HART devices.

• In Wireless HART, each field device may act as a router of

other device’s data packets.
181

Wireless HART and ISA100

• A field device does not have to communicate directly with

the gateway.

• Only needs a neighbor device to transmit its data.

• It will be responsible for sending the data to another field

device until it arrives at the gateway.

• The mechanism extends the network range and also creates

redundant communication paths, which increases the network
reliability.

182

91
11/18/2021

Wireless HART and ISA100

Balraj 2015 ISA 100 protocol stack 183

Wireless HART and ISA100

Components of Wireless HART network

• Field devices – can measure process variables and also

retransmit data packets received from other devices.

• Adapters – connect a wired HART device to a wireless

HART network.

• Gateway – connects the field network to the plant network. It

allows the control host applications to access the data from
the field network.

184

92
11/18/2021

Wireless HART and ISA100

• Handheld – portable computer used to configure

(provisioning). Perform diagnostics and calibration of field
devices.

• Network manager – responsible for network configuration,

management of the network device communication (graph
route tables) and monitoring the state of the field devices. It
can be implemented in the gateway.

• Security manager - implemented with the gateway and is

responsible for generation, storage, management and
distribution of the keys used in the device authentication
and data cryptography.

185

Wireless HART and ISA100

Wireless HART Network

Steve et al. 2004 186

93
11/18/2021

Wireless HART and ISA100

HART protocol stack

Balraj 2015 187

Wireless HART and ISA100

• The wireless HART protocol stack can be seen the new

layers were included in order to make the HART protocol
work in a wireless network.

188

94
11/18/2021

SYLLABUS

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 189

Open Platform Communications (OPC)

• OPC stands for Open Platform Communications

• Series of standards and specifications for

industrial telecommunication

• Provides high level communication between software

modules.

• Software interface standard that allows Windows programs to

communicate with industrial hardware devices.

190

95
11/18/2021

Open Platform Communications

191

Open Platform Communications (OPC)

• OPC is implemented in server/client pairs.

• The OPC server is a software program that converts the

hardware communication protocol used by a PLC into the
OPC protocol.

• The OPC client software is any program that needs to

connect to the hardware, such as an HMI .

• The OPC client uses the OPC server to get data from or send
commands to the hardware.

192

96
11/18/2021

Open Platform Communications (OPC)

• Users can choose any OPC client software they need, resting
assured that it will communicate seamlessly with their OPC-
enabled hardware, and vice-versa.

• OPC servers comply with specific software, interfaces, which

encapsulate the underlying details of hardware and
communications supported by the server.

• It allows OPC clients to connect to any compliment OPC

server to create whole system

193

Open Platform Communications (OPC)

• Typical OPC connection scenario is a single server-client
connection on a single computer

– Connect an OPC client to several OPC servers. This is

called OPC aggregation.
– Connect an OPC client to an OPC server over a network. This
can be done with OPC tunnelling.
– Connect an OPC server to another OPC server to share data.
This is known as OPC bridging.

• OPC DataHub can connect any OPC server or client to other

applications as well, such as Excel, a web browser, or
any ODBC database. used to get OPC data into Linux or QNX

194

97
11/18/2021

OLE FOR PROCESS CONTROL

• OLE stands for operation linking and embedding for

process control.

• OLE is based on the Windows COM (Component Object

Model) standard

• Implementation to include other data transportation

technologies including Microsoft's .NET Framework, XML.

• There are also standards for alarms & events, historical data,
batch data, and XML.

195

OLE FOR PROCESS CONTROL

• OPC servers exist that support HART.

• Human-Machine Interface (HMI): a graphical interface that

allows a person to interact with a control system. It may
contain trends, alarm summaries, pictures, or animation.

• Eg: allows standard HMI and historical trending packages to

access HART data.

• OPC servers support direct connection to HART networks and

communications via intermediate I/O systems

196

98
11/18/2021

OLE FOR PROCESS CONTROL

• HART supports two hosts, OPC allows many clients to access
data via Microsoft Window network and share connections to
field devices.

• HART OPC servers broaden and simplify access to HART

data.

• OPC allows clients to access ‘named data items’ . It is defined

by an OPC-compatible servers. Data items can be grouped
and the group turned off and on by the client.

197

THREE FLAVOURS OF OPC

• OPC data access server communicates with hardware and it
is designed to handle communication protocol and other
specific characteristics of hardware

• Users need not know the intracies of how e.g. field bus
communication works

• Need to do is to specify the information needed and the OPC

server will obtain it and OPC client will display it

• Historians in systems have been using proprietary interfaces,

making it difficult or impossible to access data live from DCS
without transfers and conversions

198

99
11/18/2021

THREE FLAVOURS OF OPC

OPC 199

THREE FLAVOURS OF OPC

• Historical database engines store the raw data, typically in
SQL server database

• An OPC HAD system server is used for client applications to

retrieve data from the hierarchical archive to display process
variable trends

200

100
11/18/2021

ADVANTAGES OF OPC
• Simpler integration and increased information

• Plug and play and therefore extremely easy and convenient to

use.

• Interoperability of OPC makes it possible to select any

software and any hardware from thousands and applications

• Used for design integration of process information with

business environment

• Much faster than manual data collection and entry has many
few errors

201

ADVANTAGES OF OPC
• Up to date information can be used in production planning

• Makes information from the field available to for

• supervisory control
• historical trending
• advanced control
• auto-tuning as well as inferential sensing
• modeling
• advanced control
• optimization and historians

202

101
11/18/2021

SYLLABUS

ICPC29 Logic and Distributed Control Systems 203

CLOUD AUTOMATION

204

102
11/18/2021

CLOUD AUTOMATION

205

CLOUD AUTOMATION

206

103
11/18/2021

CLOUD AUTOMATION

207

CLOUD AUTOMATION

208

104

Data Driven System Engineering: Automotive ECU Development
From Everand
Data Driven System Engineering: Automotive ECU Development
James Wen
No ratings yet
Industrial Automation
83% (6)
Industrial Automation
28 pages
SCADA_DCS_PLC
No ratings yet
SCADA_DCS_PLC
15 pages
PLCs and Automation
No ratings yet
PLCs and Automation
2 pages
EI8651 - LDCS Syllabus - R2017
No ratings yet
EI8651 - LDCS Syllabus - R2017
2 pages
LDCS Syllabus
No ratings yet
LDCS Syllabus
1 page
Mt8602 Industrial Automation Syllabus
No ratings yet
Mt8602 Industrial Automation Syllabus
1 page
PLC Syllabus
No ratings yet
PLC Syllabus
15 pages
Idc & DCS
No ratings yet
Idc & DCS
4 pages
Tide Pod Mems Are Censer
No ratings yet
Tide Pod Mems Are Censer
1 page
WEEK 9 PPT
No ratings yet
WEEK 9 PPT
66 pages
PCS vs dcs
No ratings yet
PCS vs dcs
9 pages
U17MCI5202 - Programmable Logic Controllers
No ratings yet
U17MCI5202 - Programmable Logic Controllers
2 pages
Industrial Control Systems
No ratings yet
Industrial Control Systems
52 pages
2008-09 Sem-II Paper-1 Distributed Control System
No ratings yet
2008-09 Sem-II Paper-1 Distributed Control System
2 pages
7.syllabus-Dcs Scada 2171709
No ratings yet
7.syllabus-Dcs Scada 2171709
4 pages
Automatic Journey ?
No ratings yet
Automatic Journey ?
46 pages
Course Specification: Se425 Distributed Control System
No ratings yet
Course Specification: Se425 Distributed Control System
10 pages
EC1603A INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION-QB(24-25 EVEN
No ratings yet
EC1603A INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION-QB(24-25 EVEN
5 pages
SIC1405
No ratings yet
SIC1405
173 pages
Aiet 383 Plcs 02
No ratings yet
Aiet 383 Plcs 02
25 pages
PLC_6THCHAP
No ratings yet
PLC_6THCHAP
7 pages
FE Technologies: PLC Basis
No ratings yet
FE Technologies: PLC Basis
49 pages
Computer Control System.
No ratings yet
Computer Control System.
22 pages
Mahendra Engineering College
No ratings yet
Mahendra Engineering College
2 pages
Unit1 2
No ratings yet
Unit1 2
30 pages
OEI354-IIA Syllabus
No ratings yet
OEI354-IIA Syllabus
2 pages
FE Technologies PLC
No ratings yet
FE Technologies PLC
33 pages
DCS Course
No ratings yet
DCS Course
141 pages
Lecture 3 Distributed Control Systems PDF
No ratings yet
Lecture 3 Distributed Control Systems PDF
17 pages
Module 4
No ratings yet
Module 4
67 pages
Cit Eee Ecs DDC DCS
No ratings yet
Cit Eee Ecs DDC DCS
19 pages
Programmable Logic Controller
No ratings yet
Programmable Logic Controller
121 pages
PLC Based Instrumentation and Control
No ratings yet
PLC Based Instrumentation and Control
38 pages
Networked Control System: Fundamentals and Applications
From Everand
Networked Control System: Fundamentals and Applications
Fouad Sabry
No ratings yet
Eng4009-Computer Based Control Systems
No ratings yet
Eng4009-Computer Based Control Systems
4 pages
VGT1212
No ratings yet
VGT1212
11 pages
What Is A Programmable Controller?
No ratings yet
What Is A Programmable Controller?
11 pages
Syllabus
No ratings yet
Syllabus
2 pages
Lect. 05 Che 185 - Dcs and PLC Fundaments
No ratings yet
Lect. 05 Che 185 - Dcs and PLC Fundaments
27 pages
Omron
No ratings yet
Omron
48 pages
1 - P L C - General
100% (1)
1 - P L C - General
37 pages
Unit II Course Material
No ratings yet
Unit II Course Material
11 pages
Intro To Industrial Process Control Systems
100% (1)
Intro To Industrial Process Control Systems
24 pages
PLC and DCS Interview Question
No ratings yet
PLC and DCS Interview Question
4 pages
Integrated Control System: Prepared By: Guided By: Rajyaguru Maulik M. D.M. Patel (General Manage, Inst)
No ratings yet
Integrated Control System: Prepared By: Guided By: Rajyaguru Maulik M. D.M. Patel (General Manage, Inst)
31 pages
Introduction To PLC
No ratings yet
Introduction To PLC
59 pages
PLC 2
No ratings yet
PLC 2
18 pages
PLC, PCC, and DCS
No ratings yet
PLC, PCC, and DCS
6 pages
Application of Computer in Process Control
No ratings yet
Application of Computer in Process Control
39 pages
Lec2 PLC
No ratings yet
Lec2 PLC
32 pages
Be Electrical Engg 2008 Syllabus
No ratings yet
Be Electrical Engg 2008 Syllabus
40 pages
Embedded Systems Programming with C: Writing Code for Microcontrollers
From Everand
Embedded Systems Programming with C: Writing Code for Microcontrollers
Larry Jones
No ratings yet
Mastering Siemens S7: A Comprehensive Guide to PLC Programming
From Everand
Mastering Siemens S7: A Comprehensive Guide to PLC Programming
Kameron Hussain
No ratings yet
Mastering Embedded C: The Ultimate Guide to Building Efficient Systems
From Everand
Mastering Embedded C: The Ultimate Guide to Building Efficient Systems
Robert Johnson
No ratings yet
Major Solution Components of Industrial Automation: Industrial Automation, #2
From Everand
Major Solution Components of Industrial Automation: Industrial Automation, #2
The Digital Allchemist
No ratings yet
Embedded Systems Programming with C++: Real-World Techniques
From Everand
Embedded Systems Programming with C++: Real-World Techniques
Robert Johnson
No ratings yet
PLC: Programmable Logic Controller – Arktika.: EXPERIMENTAL PRODUCT BASED ON CPLD.
From Everand
PLC: Programmable Logic Controller – Arktika.: EXPERIMENTAL PRODUCT BASED ON CPLD.
Franco Mario
No ratings yet
Next-Generation switching OS configuration and management: Troubleshooting NX-OS in Enterprise Environments
From Everand
Next-Generation switching OS configuration and management: Troubleshooting NX-OS in Enterprise Environments
Mamta Devi
No ratings yet
Mastering System Programming with C: Files, Processes, and IPC
From Everand
Mastering System Programming with C: Files, Processes, and IPC
Larry Jones
No ratings yet
Teori Dasar Seismik
No ratings yet
Teori Dasar Seismik
8 pages
The Design and Construction of A DDS Based Waveform Generator
No ratings yet
The Design and Construction of A DDS Based Waveform Generator
12 pages
Digital Signal Processing Notes-1 PDF
100% (2)
Digital Signal Processing Notes-1 PDF
445 pages
Chapter 7
No ratings yet
Chapter 7
8 pages
Ch7 FourierTransform Continuous-Time Signal Analysis
No ratings yet
Ch7 FourierTransform Continuous-Time Signal Analysis
43 pages
Dewe 43, Manual Intruction, Dewesoft, DAQ
No ratings yet
Dewe 43, Manual Intruction, Dewesoft, DAQ
36 pages
21ec401 Unit V
No ratings yet
21ec401 Unit V
67 pages
Unit 4 - Analog and Digital Communication - WWW - Rgpvnotes.in
No ratings yet
Unit 4 - Analog and Digital Communication - WWW - Rgpvnotes.in
23 pages
MAuto Dynamic Eq
No ratings yet
MAuto Dynamic Eq
135 pages
16 Sampling: Solutions To Recommended Problems
No ratings yet
16 Sampling: Solutions To Recommended Problems
12 pages
2-Mark Questions Anna University Signals and Systems
100% (2)
2-Mark Questions Anna University Signals and Systems
11 pages
DSP Lab Assignments
No ratings yet
DSP Lab Assignments
112 pages
Lec 1
No ratings yet
Lec 1
14 pages
EC 2301 Digital Communication Unit I and II Question Bank
No ratings yet
EC 2301 Digital Communication Unit I and II Question Bank
63 pages
Ad9851 Cmos 180 MHZ Dds/Dac Synthesizer
No ratings yet
Ad9851 Cmos 180 MHZ Dds/Dac Synthesizer
24 pages
Vibration Analyzers
100% (1)
Vibration Analyzers
16 pages
MATLAB For Audio Signal Processing: P. Professorson UT Arlington Night School
No ratings yet
MATLAB For Audio Signal Processing: P. Professorson UT Arlington Night School
27 pages
Knobology Guide Toshiba Adjusted
No ratings yet
Knobology Guide Toshiba Adjusted
15 pages
MSP - Lecture - 2 and 3 PDF
No ratings yet
MSP - Lecture - 2 and 3 PDF
51 pages
Materi 01
No ratings yet
Materi 01
32 pages
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Kakinada Kakinada - 533 001, Andhra Pradesh
No ratings yet
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Kakinada Kakinada - 533 001, Andhra Pradesh
69 pages
Chapter Two Sampling and Reconstruction: Lecture #4
No ratings yet
Chapter Two Sampling and Reconstruction: Lecture #4
22 pages
Buy ebook Practical Signals Theory with MATLAB Applications 1st Edition Edition Richard J. Tervo cheap price
100% (4)
Buy ebook Practical Signals Theory with MATLAB Applications 1st Edition Edition Richard J. Tervo cheap price
51 pages
Power & Energy Signals Questions and Answers - Sanfoundry
No ratings yet
Power & Energy Signals Questions and Answers - Sanfoundry
11 pages
The_Ultimate_Audio_Plugin_Developer_Checklist
No ratings yet
The_Ultimate_Audio_Plugin_Developer_Checklist
15 pages
Shafer A Digital Signal Processing Approach To Interpolation IEEE Proc 1973
No ratings yet
Shafer A Digital Signal Processing Approach To Interpolation IEEE Proc 1973
11 pages
Week 3 Chapter 2
No ratings yet
Week 3 Chapter 2
35 pages
DSP Proakis Solution Manual PDF Free
No ratings yet
DSP Proakis Solution Manual PDF Free
400 pages
SDR Paper 1
No ratings yet
SDR Paper 1
6 pages
An Introduction To Digital Image Processing With Matlab
100% (3)
An Introduction To Digital Image Processing With Matlab
233 pages