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Contents
Lesson 3
PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF SLABS
(YIELD LINE METHOD)  Plastic Behaviour of RC
D
A  Introduction to Plastic Methods of RC slab Analysis

 Plastic Analysis and EC2 (and Ductility)

2
 Basic Principles of Yield Line Analysis

 Upper Bound Analysis: Implications

1 4
 Common Uses of Yield Line Analysis
3
 Simple Examples of Yield Line Analysis (worked example)

 Johansen’s Stepped Yield Criterion

B C
 Tutorial Questions

Plastic Behaviour of RC Plastic Behaviour of RC (cont.)

Bending Bending
Moment Moment
D D
C C

Other hinges are established in other highly

At “C”, the ultimate moment capacity has been stressed parts of the structure with increasing
reached. load.
Beyond “C”, the structure continues to carry When sufficient hinges have been established
load as the steel deforms plastically. to form a mechanism, the structure collapses.
Large rotations are experienced – the concrete Plastic methods of analysis (e.g. yield line and
section behaves like a hinge, rotating about the strip analyses) are valid provided that it can
centre of the compression zone in the concrete. be demonstrated that there is sufficient
ductility for hinging action to occur and that
the concrete does not crush (as at “D”).

0 Zero Load 0 Zero Load

Curvature Curvature

Introduction to Plastic Methods Of Slab Analysis 1 Introduction to Plastic Methods Of Slab Analysis 2
 Two main methods of plastic analysis have been developed to a). Plastic methods of analysis are based on the behaviour of
determine the strength of reinforced concrete slabs, namely: reinforced concrete under collapse (or near collapse) conditions
and so are sometimes called “collapse analyses”.
 YIELD LINE ANALYSIS
b). As a result they can only be used to estimate the strength of a
Developed by K.W.Johansen at the Danish Technical School in
reinforced concrete member under assumed collapse conditions
1943.
(i.e. when the concrete is close to reaching the ultimate limit state
 STRIP METHOD OF ANALYSIS of collapse).
Developed by Arne Hillerborg at the University of Lund, c). Plastic methods of analysis cannot be used to predict (or estimate)
Sweden in 1956 (with further development throughout the deflections, stresses or strains.
1960s).
NOTE
 In this lesson, we will focus mainly on Johansen yield line method
If cracking is likely to be a major concern, a separate linear elastic
of analysis which is more versatile and more widely used than the
analysis (e.g. Finite Element analysis) should be carried out to identify
strip method which we will treat in Lesson 4.
when first cracking is likely to occur rather than relying on a method of
 The methods are independent of any codes of practice (as they are analysis that was developed for concrete at the ultimate limit state of
methods of analysis). Plastic methods are accepted methods of collapse!
analysis in most codes of practice throughout the World (including
BS 8110 and BS EN 1992)

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Introduction to Plastic Methods Of Slab Analysis 3 Introduction to Plastic Methods Of Slab Analysis 4

 Plastic methods of analysis require the designer to have an intuitive  For plastic methods of analysis to be valid for reinforced concrete
“feel” for the behaviour of the slab. In particular, the designer must structures it is essential for there to be ductility in the structural
be able to identify possible likely crack patterns at collapse. system and to avoid compressive failure of the concrete (i.e.
crushing failure)
 As a result some engineers use them as alternatives to more
complex computational models where it can be difficult to  IMPORTANT NOTE: use of plastic methods of analysis without
understand the behaviour of the slab. ensuring that they are valid can lead to collapse! YOU HAVE BEEN
WARNED!!
 Plastic methods of analysis are particularly useful when assessing
the strength of an existing slab rather than for routine design of new  Plastic methods of analysis are based on the theorems of plasticity
slabs. which you should be familiar with.

 Although developed for slabs, plastic methods of analysis can be  Johansen’s Yield Line Method is an upper bound (or kinematic)
used for any reinforced concrete section or structural element method of analysis while Hillerborg’s Strip Method is a lower bound
where plastic deformation and, in particular, plastic hinges or lines (or static) method
of plastic rotation (usually called “yield lines”) can occur.

Plastic Analysis and EC2 Plastic Analysis, EC2 & Ductility

An extract from EC2: Clause 5.6.2 of EC2 states that:

 The xu/d ratio is the ratio of the depth of the neutral axis to the
effective depth of the reinforcement
 Note that Hillerborg’s Strip Analysis (lower bound) and Johansen’s
 The limits quoted above will ensure that there is not excessive areas
Yield Line Method (upper bound) are both recognised and accepted
of steel reinforcement that would lead to premature crushing failure
in EC2.
of the concrete
 The term “P” in the Eurocodes means that the text describes a
 NOTE also the reference to medium (B) and high (C) ductility grades
“Principle” that must normally be adhered to by the designer.
of steel reinforcement.

Basic Principles of Yield Line Analysis 1 The slab shown here Basic Principles of Yield Line Analysis 2
is subjected to a
A D uniformly distributed
load applied to the General Rules:-
upper surface.
This slab is 1) Axes of rotation lie along supports (hogging) and pass
continuous along two
edges (AB and BC)
over columns
and simply supported
along the other two 2) Yield Lines are straight
edges (AD and CD)
B C
Crack Pattern (yield lines) viewed from above – hogging yield lines – occur 3) Yield Lines between adjacent rigid sections must pass
over the continuous supports AB & BC (the slab can freely rotate along AD and
CD as they are simply supported) through the point of intersection of the axes of
A D rotation of those regions
Crack Pattern (yield lines) viewed 2
from beneath the slab – sagging 4) Yield Lines must end at a slab boundary
yield lines – occur as shown. The 1 4
slab, in effect, is divided by the
cracks into 4 rigid plates which 3 5) Continuous supports repel Yield Lines; simple
rotate relative to each other. supports attract Yield Lines
B C

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Basic Principles of Yield Line Analysis 3 Basic Principles of Yield Line Analysis 4

Further explanation of Further explanation of

A D Hogging Yield Lines A D
Sagging Yield Lines on the
over the continuous underside of the slab - the
supports of the slab – 2 applied load is causing the
the applied load is slab to crack and the 4 rigid
1 4
causing the slab to plates of concrete rotate
rotate as shown over 3 relative to each other as a
the supports – hogging result of the sagging bending
bending moments are moments caused by the
B C created. B C applied load.
As a result, the upper As a result, the lower surface
surface of the slab is of the slab is subjected to
subjected to tension. tension. The concrete cracks
The concrete cracks and the bottom layer of steel
and the top layer of in the slab yields. The top
steel in the slab yields. face of the slab is in
The lower face of the compression.
slab is in compression.

Basic Principles of Yield Line Analysis 5 Basic Principles of Yield Line Analysis 6
Consider the sagging yield Remember that the upper bound (or kinematic) theorem of plasticity
A D lines of same slab as before. states that:
The assumed yield line pattern
2 “If for any assumed plastic failure mechanism, the external work
may give a maximum UDL that
1 4 the slab can carry of, say, 4.67 done by the applied loads is equal to the internal work done by the
kN/m2. plastic hinges, then the load is either equal to or greater than the
3 If, however, we vary the load at failure (or collapse)”
position of the yield lines to Hence, for any assumed arrangement of yield lines (you will have to make
that shown below, the analysis
B C such assumptions!), caused by an applied load, then:
may indicate that the slab could
carry a UDL of, say, 4.15 kN/m2. The External Work Done by the Applied Loads = the Internal energy dissipated
A D
There may be another by all of Yield Lines
arrangement of yield lines that
2 would give a maximum UDL of, Expended = Dissipated where:
say, 3.85 kN/m2 E = D N = load acting within a particular region
1 4 With yield line analysis it is δ = vertical displacement of the load, N
∑(Nxδ) = ∑ (m x l x θ)
important to determine the m = moment resistance of the slab per metre run
3 minimum UDL – this is then
l = length of yield line for that region
collapse load.
B C θ = rotation of the region about its axis

Yield Line Analysis: External Work Yield Line Analysis: Internal Work Done

 In general it is assumed that the yield line likely to deflect the most is  As the central yield line deflects by a unit amount, then:
assumed to deflect vertically by a unit amount. Then:
 The internal work done by the yield lines = the sum of the energy
 The external work done by the external applied loads = the sum of dissipated by each yield line as it rotates (this is for all the yield lines,
the external work done by the load applied to each loaded area or i.e. hogging and sagging yield lines)
zone of the slab (e.g. zones 1, 2, 3, 4 shown below)
 And …. the internal energy dissipated by each yield line = moment at
 And …. the external work done by each zone = the plan area of each each yield line x length of the yield line x rotation of each zone on
zone x applied load x the average distance moved by the zone either sides of the yield line.

2 Simply supported Zone 2 Zone 3 2 Zone 2 Zone 3

Continuous Simply Continuous
edge
edge supported edge edge
1 4 1 4
Unit 3 Unit
3 deflection of deflection of
the middle the middle
yield line yield line

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Upper Bound Analysis: Implications? Common Uses of Yield Line Analysis

1. If a slab is analysed using a method of analysis that is based on the Note that Yield Line Analysis can be used:
upper bound (or kinematic) theorem of plasticity and found to
collapse at a load of P kN (or a UDL of q kN/m2), the value of P or q Either in:
may not be the lowest value and so could be inherently unsafe! Assessment Situation: To find the load carrying capacity of a slab if the
steel reinforcing details are known. The reinforcing details, concrete
2. Hence, it is essential to consider a number of different failure
compressive strength and thickness of the slab can be used to calculate
patterns to find out which gives the lowest value of P (or q, in the
the ultimate moment capacity. For a selected arrangement of yield lines,
case of a UDL).
the only unknown is the maximum load that can be applied to the slab to
3. The aim is to consider alternative plastic failure mechanisms (or cause the assumed pattern of yield lines. The process can be repeated
yield line patterns) to converge on the lowest value of P or q. The to find the lowest value of load carrying capacity: this is the actual
lowest value is then the collapse load. strength of the slab.

4. By using an iterative approach, very economical designs can be Or in:

achieved (or in the case of assessment of an existing structure, a Design Situation: If the load is known, the required moment capacity (in
more realistic assessment of the load carrying capacity of the slab orthogonal directions) can be determined – the area of steel
can be determined compared with a lower bound analysis. reinforcement needed to provide the moment capacity can then be
5. It is usual to apply a partial factor of safety of 1.1 to the collapse load determined.
determined using this method. (Uplift effects at the corners of slabs
can also lead to inaccuracies that can be covered by the 1.1 factor)

Example Johansen’s Stepped Yield Criterion

Assume that the slab
shown in plan is
simply supported on
two edges and free on
the other two edges.
B

L
Yield lines usually are not parallel to the reinforcing steel (as shown above left).
If a UDL = w (kN/m2) is applied to the To account for this Johansen proposed that each yield line could be considered
slab, calculate the maximum bending as a series of steps (perpendicular to the direction of each layer of steel) as
moment in the slab using Yield Line shown in the middle diagram.
Analysis The moment across each stepped section of the yield line is then taken as the
vector equivalent resolved parallel to each step (as shown in the end diagram). In
effect this means that for a diagonal yield line, the projections of the yield
moments and lines parallel to the horizontal (x) and vertical (y) axes can be used.

Tutorial Questions on Yield Line Analysis of Slab Tutorial Questions on Yield Line Analysis of Slab

Q1 . 3.75m 1.5m 3.75m Q2 . 7.5m

A D A D
5 6
3.75m 7
m1 (top bars)
6.0m m2
7.5m 1 P Q 2 (bottom bars)

m4
3.75m 8 (bottom bars)

3 4 m3 (top bars)
B C B C
For the above slab, AB and BC are continuously supported. AD and CD are simply
supported. The slab carries a design ultimate UDL of 20 kN/m2. Assume that the slab is m1 = 130kNm per m length, m2 = 100kNm per m length
reinforced with the same area of steel in both directions (top and bottom) such that the
m3 = 90kNm per m length, m4 = 60kNm per m length
moment capacity in each direction is “m”.
For the assumed pattern of yield lines shown above (sagging = solid line; hogging =
dashed line) calculate “m”. Also calculate the value of m for two additional yield line Figure Q2
patterns and state the value of m you would use in practice giving reasons for your
choice.

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Tutorial Questions on Yield Line Analysis of Slab

The 175mm thick reinforced concrete slab shown in Figure Q2 was
constructed in 1986. It is continuous in sides AB and BC, simply Q3 . 8.0m
supported on CD and unsupported on AD. A recent inspection shows B
A
the slab is in very good condition with no sign of any significant
deterioration of either the steel reinforcement or the concrete. It
carries a characteristic uniformly distributed permanent load of
5.0kN/m2. This consist of the slab self weight and finishes. 5.0m w = 19.35 Kn/m2
a) Assume a realistic yield line pattern, calculate the additional
uniformly distributed imposed (variable) load that the slab can
carry assuming partial safety factor of 1.35 and 1.5 for
permanent and variable loads respectively. C D

b) Repeat part a) above for 2 additional realistic yield lines patterns

using the same partial safety factors. Figure Q3
c) State which of the 3 values of additional uniformly distributed
variable loads you would use in practice, giving reasons for your
choice.

For the slab shown in Figure Q3, side AB is continuous,

BD and AC are simply supported while side BD is
unsupported. The slab is carrying a design load of 19.35
kN/m2. Assuming the reinforcement provided across the
shorter span has a moment capacity “m” and that
provided across the longer span has a moment capacity =
0.7m;

a) Select what you consider to be a realistic yield line

pattern and calculate the value of m.

b) Repeat the process for 2 additional realistic yield lines

patterns and using a safety factor of 1.1, determine the
value of m you would use to design the slab
reinforcement.